Ecology Presentation 3

4
CHAPTER
The Terrestrial
Environment
© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Elements of ECOLOGY Lecture Presentation by

NINTH EDITION, GLOBAL EDITION
Carla Ann Hass
Penn State University
Thomas M. Smith • Robert Leo Smith
Chapter 4 The Terrestrial Environment
§ What are the physical and chemical conditions that

are important for terrestrial life?
§ What constraints are imposed by the terrestrial
environment when compared to life in the water?

Section 4.1 Life on Land Imposes Unique
Constraints
§ Different lineages of organisms have colonized
terrestrial environments
§ What constraints did organisms face when moving
from aquatic to terrestrial environments?

Constraints
§ Dessication – loss of water to the environment
§ Water readily evaporates from the surface of cells
through diffusion unless the air is saturated
§ Water balance – difference in water concentration
between the organism and its environments
§ Hydration – replacing water that has been lost to the
air
§ How do organisms stay hydrated?

Constraints
§ What are ways that animals acquire water?
§ What are ways that plants acquire water?

Constraints
§ What are ways that animals acquire water?
§ drinking
§ eating
§ What are ways that plants acquire water?

§ diffusion
§ roots/vascular tissue

Constraints
§ How do plants reduce water loss?

Constraints
§ Plants reduce water loss through
§ having a waxy cuticle covering the above ground
parts of the plant
§ however, this waxy surface prevents gas exchange
§ stomata (pores on the surface of the plant) that allow
oxygen to leave and carbon dioxide to enter the leaf
§ What about water vapor?

Constraints
§ Air is less dense than water
§ results in lower drag on movement of organisms
§ increases the effect of gravity
§ in water, buoyancy from the displacement of water
provides some support
§ terrestrial organisms must make their own support
§ What types of support structures are seen?

Constraints
§ Animals
§ internal skeletons
§ external skeletons
§ Fungi
§ cell walls of chitin
§ Plants
§ cell walls of cellulose

Constraints
§ Terrestrial environments are highly variable
§ through both time and space
§ What are some examples of this variation?

Constraints
§ Terrestrial environments are highly variable both
daily and seasonally
§ What are some examples of this variation?
§ temperature variation
§ precipitation variation
§ These fluctuations have
§ short-term effects on metabolic processes
§ long-term effects on distribution and evolution of
organisms

Section 4.2 Plant Cover Influences the
Vertical Distribution of Light
§ What happens to light when it strikes vegetation?
§ How does leaf area affect the light at different levels
(depths) in the canopy?

§ Light striking vegetation can be
§ reflected
§ absorbed
§ A forest absorbs more light than a meadow

Figure 4.2
10% reflected by
top of canopy 20% reflected by
top of canopy
100%
100%
5%
79%
36%
7%
2% 34%
(a) 2% (b)
5%

§ Leaves vary in size and shape so the number of
leaves is not the best measure of the effect leaves
have on light levels below
§ Foliage density expressed as leaf area
§ leaves are flat
§ leaf area measured on one or both sides
§ Leaf Area Index (LAI)
§ area of leaves per unit ground area =
(m2 leaf area / m2 ground area)

Figure 4.3
26 26
24 24
22 22
20 20
18 18
16 16
Height (m)
Height (m)
14 14
12 12
10 10
8 8
6 6
Total leaf area = 315 m2
4 4
2 2
0 0
25 50 75 100 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.00
(b) Leaf area (m2) (c) Leaf area index
10 m
total leaf area Leaf area index
= (LAI)
projected ground area
(d)
Ground area = pr 2 = 78.5 m2

(a)
§ What happens to the LAI as you move from the top
of the tree canopy to the ground?
§ cumulative leaf area and LAI increase
§ light decreases
§ Beer’s Law quantifies the relationship between
available light and LAI

Quantifying Ecology Box Figure 1
1.0
24 – 26 m
0.8 (Top of canopy)
Available light (ALi)
0.6 22 – 24 m
0.4
20 – 22 m Ground level
0.2 18 – 20 m
12 – 14 m
0 1 2 3 4
Leaf area index (LAIi)

§ The spectral composition (quality of light) varies in
the plant canopy
§ There are different types of radiation that plants can
detect
§ PAR – photosynthetically active radiation –
wavelengths used by plants for photosynthesis
(400–700 nm)
§ FR – Far red radiation (730 nm)
§ R – Red radiation (660 nm)
§ How can this influence plant growth?

§ Can influence plant growth because transmittance of
light varies
§ transmittance of PAR < about 10%
§ transmittance of FR much higher
§ R/FR ratio decreases through the canopy
§ Affects phytochrome production
§ pigment that allows plant to detect shading by other
plants
§ Can change growth and resource use patterns

§ Leaf orientation also affects the change in light
quality (attenuation) through the canopy
§ Leaf perpendicular to the sun
§ absorbs 1.0 unit of light energy per leaf unit area/time
§ Leaf at a 60° angle to the sun
§ absorbs 0.5 unit of light energy
§ Why?

§ Leaf at a 60° angle to the sun has only half of the
surface area exposed, so receives 50% less light
energy

Figure 4.4
Length Length
0 0.5 1.0 0 0.5 1.0
Sunlight Sunlight
Shade Shade
(a) Perpendicular (b) 60° angle

§ Variation is seen because the angle of the sun
varies geographically and seasonally
§ In high-latitude environments, angle of the sun is low
§ leaves at an angle absorb light more effectively
§ In hot and dry environments, water demand is
highest at midday
§ leaves at an angle reduce light absorption during
midday

§ Some sunlight does reach the ground as sunflecks
§ Can account for 70 to 80% of the sunlight energy
reaching the ground in forests

§ Seasonal changes may strongly influence leaf area
§ deciduous trees shed their leaves during winter
months or the dry season

Figure 4.6
30 Jan Jul
Feb Aug
25 Mar Sep
Apr Oct
Height above ground (m)
May Nov
20 Jun Dec
15
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Proportion of available light (PAR) at top of canopy
Section 4.3 Soil Is the Foundation upon
which All Terrestrial Life Depends
§ Soil is the basis of terrestrial ecosystems
§ What is soil composed of?
§ Why is it so important for terrestrial life?

§ Soil is:
§ the medium for plant growth
§ the initial recipient of water, controlling its fate
§ a recycling system
§ a habitat

§ Soil is difficult to define.
§ It is both abiotic and biotic – a living system
§ It is three-dimensional; has depth, length and width
§ Base is hard, unweathered rock
§ Regolith – the layer of unconsolidated debris from
crumbled rock that overlays this base

Section 4.4 Formation of Soil Begins with
Weathering
§ What are the two types of weathering?
§ What does weathered rock contribute to soil?

Weathering
§ Mechanical weathering results from the interaction
of
§ water – seeps into crevices
§ temperature – if water freezes and expands, it can
break the rock into smaller pieces
§ wind – scours the surface with dust and sand
§ organisms – plant roots can split rocks
§ Breaks rocks and minerals into smaller particles but
does not change them chemically

Weathering
§ Chemical weathering chemically alters and breaks
down rock and minerals
§ soil organisms – activities produce water, oxygen and
acids
§ organic material – from dead organisms or shed
tissues
§ Water is important for this process
§ Chemically transforms the original rocks and
minerals

Section 4.5 Soil Formation Involves Five
Interrelated Factors
§ How is soil formed?
§ What role does each of the five factors play in this
process?

§ The five interrelated factors are:
§ parent material
§ biotic factors
§ climate
§ topography
§ time

§ Parent material is the material from which soil
develops
§ its physical character and chemical composition are
important in determining soil properties
§ Where does parent material originate?

§ Parent material is the material from which soil
develops
§ its physical character and chemical composition are
important in determining soil properties
§ Can originate from:
§ underlying bedrock
§ glacial deposits (till)
§ windborne sand/silt (eolian)
§ gravity moving material down slope (colluvium)
§ sediments carried by flowing water (fluvial)

§ Biotic factors contribute to soil formation
§ What roles do these organisms play?
§ plants
§ animals
§ fungi and bacteria

§ Biotic factors contribute to soil formation
§ Plants – transfer light energy to the soil as organic
carbon
§ Roots – break up parent material, stabilize soil
surface, reduce erosion, bring nutrients to the surface
§ Animals – burrow and dig into the soil
§ Fungi and bacteria – decompose the remains of
organisms, increasing organic material in the soil

§ Climate influences soil development directly and
indirectly
§ Abiotic factors influence the physical and chemical
reactions that break down parent material
§ temperature – controls the rate of biochemical
reactions
§ precipitation – water is required for chemical
weathering and leaching
§ winds

§ Abiotic climatic factors interact
§ Weathering, leaching, and plant growth
§ maximized under warm temperatures and abundant
water
§ much less influence under cold, dry conditions
§ Topography can affect the influence of climate
§ Compare steep slopes to more level land
§ Which will have more water run off?
§ Which will have more erosion/soil creep?

§ Time is important in soil formation
§ All of the factors discussed work over long periods
of time
§ The formation of well-developed soil may take 2000
to 20,000 years.

Section 4.6 Soils Have Certain
Distinguishing Physical Characteristics
§ How are different types of soils distinguished?
§ What are the three components that determine soil
texture?

§ Soils are distinguished by physical and chemical
properties, including:
§ color
§ texture
§ structure
§ moisture
§ depth
§ These properties can be highly variable in different
soils

§ Color is more easily defined and soils can be
classified using color charts
§ has little direct influence on soil function, but can be
used to determine chemical and physical properties
§ Dark soil – organic matter
§ Other colors indicate the parent material rocks and
minerals
§ Blotchy soil (yellow-brown/gray) – water saturated
soils

§ Soil texture – the proportion of different-sized soil
particles
§ partly a result of parent material and partly the soil-
forming process
§ Soils classification is based on proportions of:
§ sand – 0.0 to 2.0 mm, easy to see
§ silt – 0.002 to 0.05 mm, difficult to see with naked eye
§ clay – less than 0.002 mm, microscopic

§ Clay controls the most important properties
§ cater-holding capacity
§ exchange of ions between particles and solution

§ Soil texture is the percentage (by weight) of sand,
silt, and clay
§ Total must always sum to 100%
§ Can be divided into texture classes

Figure 4.7
100
90 10
80 20
70 30
Clay
Pe
60 40
y
rc
cla
en
t
en
50 50
t
Silty
sil
rc
t
Sandy clay
Pe
40 clay 60
Silty clay
Clay loam
30 Sandy loam 70
clay loam
20 Loam 80
Sandy loam Silt loam
10 90
Loamy Silt
Sand sand 100
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
Percent sand
You are a soil scientist working with the home owner
who is establishing a new flower garden. A soil
analysis shows that the soil in the garden is 30% sand,
30% silt, and 40% clay. The soil scientist recommends
plants that grow best in:
A. clay
B. clay loam
C. sandy clay
D. silty clay
E. Both A and B would be appropriate
recommendations.

Figure 4.7
100
90 10
80 20
70 30
Clay
Pe
60 40
y
rc
cla
en
t
en
50 50
t
Silty
sil
rc
t
Sandy clay
Pe
40 clay 60
Silty clay
Clay loam
30 Sandy loam 70
clay loam
20 Loam 80
Sandy loam Silt loam
10 90
Loamy Silt
Sand sand 100
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
Percent sand
You are a soil scientist working with the home owner
who is establishing a new flower garden. A soil
analysis shows that the soil in the garden is 30% sand,
30% silt, and 40% clay. The soil scientist recommends
plants that grow best in:
A. clay
B. clay loam
C. sandy clay
D. silty clay
E. Both A and B would be appropriate
recommendations.

§ Soil texture affects pore space in the soil
§ Important for the movement of air and water in the
soil, root penetration
§ Ideal soil – 50% soil particles, 50% pore space
§ Pore space includes spaces within and between soil
particles
§ old root channels
§ animal burrows

§ Coarse soils – large pore spaces, rapid water
infiltration, percolation, drainage
§ As texture becomes finer (pores smaller) there is
more surface area for water adhesion and chemical
activity
§ Very fine soils – easily compacted, smaller pore
spaces, poor aeration, difficult for root penetration

§ Soil depth depends on many factors
§ Slope – deeper in valleys, more shallow on ridges
§ Weathering
§ Parent Material
§ Vegetation
§ Grasslands – deep soils – grasses have deep roots,
add organic material to soil
§ Forests – shallow soils – falling leaves are major
source of organic material

Section 4.7 The Soil Body has Horizontal
Layers or Horizons
§ What are the different horizons in a soil profile?
§ How does these horizons form?

Layers or Horizons
§ Soil profile – a sequence of horizontal layers visible
in the soil
§ These layers are called horizons (O, A, B, C)
§ Horizons have different physical, chemical, and
biological characteristics
§ What are differences among the layers in this
image?

Figure 4.8

Layers or Horizons
§ O horizon
§ What does the O stand for?
§ What materials contribute to this layer?

Layers or Horizons
§ O horizon
§ Organic layer
§ Partially decomposed organic material
§ Can be subdivided
§ Oi – surface – undecomposed leaves and twigs
§ Oe – middle – partly decomposed
§ Oa – bottom – dark humus layer
§ In temperate zones, thickness varies seasonally
§ thickest in the fall, thinnest in the summer. Why?

Layers or Horizons
§ A horizon
§ Topsoil
§ A mixture of mineral soil from parent material and
humus from the O horizon
§ Darker than lower soil layers
§ Water flows down through this layer, leaching
minerals and fine soil particles to lower layers. Can
lead to an:
§ E horizon (eluviation) – common in forest soils, rare in
grasslands (lower precipitation)

Layers or Horizons
§ B horizon
§ Subsoil
§ Contains less organic matter
§ Accumulation of soil and mineral particles – clays
and salts leached from the A horizon
§ Usually more dense than the A horizon
§ More difficult for plant roots to penetrate

Layers or Horizons
§ C horizon
§ Unconsolidated material
§ Mainly composed of the parent material from which
the soil developed
§ Relatively little alteration by soil-forming processes
§ very little biological activity
§ very little weathering
§ Bedrock is below the C horizon

Figure 4.9
Organic layer: dominated by

organic material, consisting of
undecomposed or partially
decomposed plant materials, O
such as dead leaves
A
Topsoil: largely mineral soil
developed from parent material;
organic matter leached from
above gives this horizon a
distinctive dark color B
Subsoil: accumulation of
mineral particles, such as clay
and salts leached from topsoil;
distinguished based on color,
structure, and kind of material
accumulated from leaching
C
Unconsolidated material
derived from the original
parent material from which the
soil developed
Section 4.8 Moisture-Holding Capacity Is an
Essential Feature of Soils
§ How do soils gain and lose moisture?
§ Why is the available water capacity of the soil an
important value?
§ What effect does topography have on water
availability in the soil?

§ Soils gain moisture through precipitation
§ Water infiltrates the soil
§ Flows as a result of gravity into the open pore
spaces in the soil
§ What is the relationship between infiltration rate and
pore size in the soil?

§ Soils gain moisture through precipitation
§ Water infiltrates the soil
§ Flows as a result of gravity into the open pore
spaces in the soil
§ The larger the pore size, the faster the infiltration
rate
§ coarse soils have a higher infiltration rate than fine
soils
§ Saturated soil – there is more water than the pore
space can hold; excess drains away

§ Field capacity – water fills all of the pore spaces
and is held within the soil by internal capillary forces
§ Given as the percentage of the soil (weight or
volume) occupied by water when saturated
compared to the oven-dried weight of that soil
§ Varies with texture
§ lower in coarse soils; higher in fine soils

§ Soils lose moisture (capillary water) through
evaporation and extraction by plants
§ Wilting point – soil moisture level below which
plants can no longer extract water
§ water remains in the soil but is held too tightly by the
soil for the plant to take up
§ Available water capacity (AWC) = field capacity -
wilting point

§ Field capacity and wilting point are influenced by soil
texture/particle size

Figure 4.10
50
Field capacity
45
40
Water content (g/cm3)
35 Wilting point
Available
30
water
25 capacity
20
15
10
5
Sand Loam Clay
Soil texture
Coarse Fine
§ Topography affects water movement on and in the
soil
§ drains downhill
§ Ridgetops and high slopes – drier
§ Moisture increases as you move from the ridgetop
down the slope to valleys and streams

Using the information in this figure, the available water
capacity is
A. higher in clay soils than in loamy soils.

B. lower in loamy soils and higher in sandy and clay
soils.
C. lowest in sandy soils.
D. The AWC is about the same in all soil types

Figure 4.10
50
Field capacity
45
40
Water content (g/cm3)
35 Wilting point
Available
30
water
25 capacity
20
15
10
5
Sand Loam Clay
Soil texture
Coarse Fine
Using the information in this figure, the available water
capacity is
A. higher in clay soils than in loamy soils.

B. lower in loamy soils and higher in sandy and clay
soils.
C. lowest in sandy soils.
D. The AWC is about the same in all soil types

Section 4.9 Ion Exchange Capacity Is
Important to Soil Fertility
§ Chemistry review – what are cations and anions?
§ How do ions interact with soil particles?
§ Why is ion exchange important to plants?

§ Exchangeable nutrients – chemicals within the soil
dissolved in soil water
§ Available for uptake and use by plants
§ How are these nutrients held in the soil?

§ Cations – positively charged ions
§ Ca2+, Mg2+, NH4+
§ Anions – negatively charged ions
§ NO3-, SO42-
§ Soil particles have charged sites on their surface
§ Ion Exchange Capacity – the total number of
charged sites on soil particles within a volume of soil

§ Colloids – negatively charged particles
§ prevalent in temperate zone soils, cation exchange
predominates
§ Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) = total number
of negatively charged sites
§ located on leading edges of clay particles and in soil
organic matter
§ Fewer positively charged particles means that
anions are not retained in soils but leach away
quickly if not taken up by plants

§ Cations on soil particles are in dynamic equilibrium
with cations in soil solution
§ Continuously being exchanged
§ Abundance on exchange sites determined by affinity
for sites and their concentration in soil solution
§ In general, smaller ions and/or those with a greater
positive charge are more tightly held

Figure 4.11 Step 1 Slide 1
Air space
Water available
to plant
Root hair
Soil particle
surrounded
by film of water
(a) Water film around soil particles

Figure 4.11 Step 2 Slide 2
− K+
Soil particle
− Ca2+
−
− − −
− −
−
Mg2+
Air space K+ Ca2+
K+ H+
Water available
to plant H2O + CO2 H2CO HCO3 H+
−
3
Root hair
Soil particle
surrounded Root hair
by film of water
Cell wall
(a) Water film around soil particles (b) Cation exchange in soil

§ Hydrogen ions are added by precipitation, organic
acids, metabolic acids
§ Increased concentration of H+ in soil solution will
displace other cations such as Ca2+
§ Soils becomes more acidic

§ Soil pH is highly variable – ranges from pH 3 to pH 9
§ pH less than 5.6 – acidic
§ pH more than 7 – basic
§ As pH decreases, the proportion of exchangeable
aluminum (Al3+) increases
§ aluminum is toxic to plants at high concentrations
§ damages the root system and reduces nutrient uptake

Section 4.10 Basic Soil Formation
Processes Produce Different Soils
§ Regional differences in geology, climate and
vegetation give rise to characteristically different
soils
§ What is the broadest level of soil classification?
§ What are the main soil-forming processes that
produce these different soils?

§ The broadest level of soil classification is the order
§ There are 12 majors soil orders worldwide (see
Figure 4.12 in text)
§ Some are associated with specific geographic areas
§ oxisols – tropics and sub tropics
§ gelisols – permafrost or below 0°C subsurface
temperatures
§ histosols – bogs and areas with poor drainage

Figure 4.13
Alfisols Histosols Oxisols Vertisols Rocky soil
Aridisols Inceptisols Spodosols Gelisols Icefields/glaciers
Entisols Mollisols Ultisols Andisols Shifting sands

§ There are five main soil forming processes that give
rise to the diversity of soils
§ laterization
§ calcification
§ salinization
§ podzolization
§ gleization
§ Produced by the integration of climate and edaphic
factors on the formation of soil
§ Leads to the geographic diversity of soils

§ Laterization – a result of hot and rainy conditions
that cause rapid weathering of rocks/minerals
§ Large amounts of water cause heavy leaching in the
soils
§ Compounds and nutrients made available by
weathering are transported out if not taken up by
plants
§ exceptions are iron and aluminum
§ Soils are acidic due to loss of cations except H+

§ Calcification – a result of evaporation and water
uptake by plants exceeding input by precipitation
§ Dissolved alkaline salts such as CaCO3 move up
from the groundwater
§ Some downward transport of these salts by surface
water
§ Leads to an accumulation of salts in the B horizon
§ can form a hard layer – caliche

§ Salinization – similar to calcification but in drier
climates
§ Leads to an accumulation of salts at or near the soil
surface.
§ common in deserts, coastal regions (sea spray)

Figure 4.14

§ Podzolization – occurs in cool, moist climates
where conifers dominate
§ Organic material from conifers creates strongly
acidic conditions
§ Acidic soil solution enhances leaching
§ Cations, iron, and aluminum compounds removed
from the A horizon

§ Gleization – occurs in areas with high rainfall or
poor drainage (low-lying)
§ Constantly wet conditions slow decomposition of
organic material
§ Organic material accumulates and releases organic
acids
§ Organic acids react with iron in the soil

Ecological Issues & Applications: Soil Erosion
Is a Threat to Agricultural Sustainability
§ In a twenty year period (1909–1929), farmers tilled
about 32 million acres of land in the Great Plains
§ What type of vegetation had been on that land?
§ How did its removal affect that area?

§ Tilling the land removed the sod
§ grass-covered surface soil
§ mat of fibrous grass roots holding the soil together
§ In the 1930s, there were years of severe drought
and high winds
§ The topsoil was dry and easily eroded by the wind
§ Resulted in dust storms
§ region became known as the Dust Bowl

Figure 4.15a
Wash.
Montana North
Dakota
Oregon
South
Idaho
Wyoming Dakota
Nevada Nebraska
Utah Colorado
Calif. Kansas
Arizona New Okla.

Mexico
Texas
0 400 miles
The Dust Bowl 1930–1939

Most affected area
Other affected area
(a)
§ It is estimated that by 1935, wind erosion had
damaged 162 million acres
§ What were the effects of these storms?

§ These storms:
§ buried homes and farm equipment
§ killed livestock
§ were a serious human health risk
§ left millions of acres of farmland useless
§ left about 500,000 Americans homeless
§ led to mass migration
§ 2.5 million people are estimated to have left the Great
Plains and moved to other areas of the United States

Figure 4.15b
(b)

Figure 4.15c
(c)

§ This disaster led to the establishment of the Soil
Erosion Service (now the Natural Resources
Conservation Service)
§ Also led to the Prairie States Forestry Project
§ 220 million trees planted; created 18,000 miles of
windbreaks
§ Is soil erosion on agricultural lands still an issue
today?
§ How much land is used for agricultural purposes?

§ Fifty percent of Earth’s land surface is used for
agriculture. Of this:
§ one-third is used for crops
§ two-thirds are used for grazing
§ Which of these uses leaves the land more
susceptible to erosion?

§ Crop land is more susceptible to erosion
§ usually, vegetation is removed and soil is plowed
before planting crops, destabilizing the soil surface
§ crop land is often left without vegetation between
plantings – bare soil
§ Currently, about 80 percent of agricultural land has
moderate or severe soil erosion
§ can reduce productivity or land may be abandoned
§ What factors influence the rates of soil erosion?
§ What strategies can reduce erosion?

§ Rates of erosion are influenced by
§ topography
§ rainfall patterns
§ wind patterns
§ soil structure
§ soils with medium to fine texture and low organic
material are more easily eroded
§ amount of plant cover

§ Soil can be conserved by
§ Crop rotation – a series of different crops planted in
the same area over sequential growing seasons
§ No-till techniques – plant crops directly in the soil
without plowing
§ Contour planting – planting crops on a contour rather
than up or down a hill
§ These steps can help counter the degradation of
agricultural lands that are needed to feed a growing
human population

Figure 4.16
(a)
(b) (c)

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4

Elements of ECOLOGY Lecture Presentation by

§ What are the physical and chemical conditions that

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§ What are ways that plants acquire water?

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§ What are ways that plants acquire water?

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Ground area = pr 2 = 78.5 m2

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(a) Perpendicular (b) 60° angle

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§ Where does parent material originate?

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