Chapter 4 Psychological Testing 99

think you'll be finished taking tests

when you graduate from
college, think
in. You
be e
will expected
to take tests for
many more years. How well you per-
rm on them can delermine the path of your career, and even your life. Do iou
plan to continu. your education in graduate school to get a master's degree in
paloov? Perhaps a law degree or an MBA? Graduate and
cchools all have admissions and certification tests. professíonal
Do vou expect to find a full-time job right aftet graduation? Few
ans will be interested in hiring you until
organiza-
they see how you score on their tests
far iob applicants. Once you're hired, you'll be asked to test for
training pro-
orams and possible promotions. Even NFL football teams administer
cal tests to prospective players. One uses personality tests to detect psychologi-
whether a
nlayer might tend to be overly aggressive and likely tò cause trouble on or off the
field.
Psychological testing is big business in today's workplaces. 1-0 psychologists
are responsible lor
designing, standatdizing. and scoring the tests that will play
an important part in your future.

For general information abaut tests, log on to the American

Psychological Association's FAQ site at www.apa.org/science/
test.html. Just for fun, try www.davideck.com for.online
tests
of personality, intelligence, health, and career
interests. This
site has some surprises, too.

PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

Carefully developed and researched
psychological tests have several characteris-
tics that them apart from the tests
set
published in the Sunday newspaper or on a
self-help Web site, the ones that ask "Are You a
Good Spouse?" or "What Is Your
Sex Quotient?" A good test involyes more than a list of questions thát
be relevant to the variable appear to
being measured. A proper psychological test is stan-
dardized, objective, based on sound norms, reliable, and valid.
Standardization
Standardization refers
to the
coñsistenicy
proceduresfor administering a
or uniformity
of the conditions and
sStandardization The consis
performance of several job
psychological test. If we
expect to compare the tency or uniformity of the
conditions and procedures for
that test under applicants on the same test, then
they must all take administering a psychological
identical circumstances. This means that every student or job ap- test.

plicant takjng the test reads or listens to the same set of instructions. is allowed
ne same amount of time in which to respond, and is situated in a similar
cal environment. physi-
Any change in testing procedure
produce system
change in
in theindividual
may a
test
perlormance. For example, if the air conditioning testing room
Dreaks down
as well as
during a summer day, the people taking. the test
may not pertorm
people who took the test under more comfortable
conditions. lf an
 Human Resources
100 Part Two The Development of
instructions
fails to read the complete
to.
or careless tester the test under thu
inexperienced are not taking
then those applicants
ofjob applicants,
conditions as other applicants
same
by its devel.
into a test
procedures can be designed
Appropriate testing is the responsibility
of the perS
standardized conditions d
but maintaining administrators in prona
Therefore, the training of test
ministering the rendered useless by an untrain Po
test.

vital. An excellent test c a n be ined

cedures is
inattentive tester.
is helping to maintain
standardized conditions ofbf .

Computer technology- computer-assisted tecs

a r e increasingly using
administration. Organizations instructions in the
test receives the same
ensure that everyone taking the same
format.

Objectivity test results. For a test to h

Objective tests Tes1s for
which the scoring pro-
cess is free of personal
judgmeni or bias.
Tests that
Subjective tests
contain iems such as essay
questions. The scoring process
can be influenced by the prfr
sonal characieristics and atti
Ludes of the scorer.
to the scoring of the
Objectivity refers primarily test obiain the sam
that everyone scoring the
scored objectively, it is necessary or biases on the
must be free of subjectivejudgments the
results. The scoring process
part of the scorer.
have taken both objective and subjective exami.
In your college career you
as those containing multiple-choice and
nations. With objective teats (such no special training
mechanical process that requires
true-false items) scoring is a
department, an under
o r knowledge. A
clerk in a company's human resources
or a computer program can score
graduate grader in the psychology department,
as a
as long key with the correct answers has
scoring
an objective test accurately
been provided. is more
Scoring subjective tests (such as those containing essay questions)
be iníluenced by the scorer's personal characteris
difficult, the results can
and
who took the test. For a fair and eq-
tics, including a like or dislike for the person desirable.
a n objective test is more
uitable assessment of a job applicant, then,

Test Norms
a frame of reference o r point ot
To interpret the results of a psychological test,
the performance of one person can De
comparison múst be established so that ot tne
others. This is accomplished by means
compared with the performance of similar in nature
of people
test norms, the distribution of scores of a large group
Test n o m s The distribution standard
of this group, called the
of test scores of a large group o the job applicants being tested. The scores
of peopie similar in nature to
the job applicants being tested.
ization sample, serve as the point of comparison in determining.the relau
Standardization sample Standing of the applicants on the ability being tested.
The group ol subjects used
a high school graduate applies for a job that requires
mechani
Lo establish test norms. Thec skillsSuppose
ánd achieves a score of 82 on a test of mechanical ability. This score, ao
scores of ihe standardization thal
sample serve as the poini of tells us nothing about the level of the applicant's skill, but if we compare
comparison for determining the test
the relative standing of the score of 82 with the iest norms-the distribution of scores on the
persons being iesied. can ascribe some meaning
large group of high school graduates-then we

individual score: -we-

f the mean of ihe test norms is 80 and the standard deviation is d
m o a

know imnmediately that an applicant who scores 82 has only an average o ve

are

erate amount of mechanical ability. With this comparative information, ing

in a better position to evaluate objectively the applicant's chances of suce
on the job relative to the other applicants tested.
 Chapter 4 Psychological Testing 101
used
The most widely
for different aage group%,
sychological tests
have sets of norms
for for men and
w o m e n ,
various raclal and
cation. The adequacy of a test's ethnic groups, and for
levels
selection program. norms can determine its usefulness
in any cmployeo
Reliability
. l t v rrefers
Rellabllity to the consistency or
eagnitive ability test one weck andstability
of
response
achíeves a mean
on a wst
If a group Reliability The consistency
takC test a week later añd catns a mean score
score of 100, and re or stability of a respon on a
peats of 72,
would describe the tést aswould have to con
clude that somethi is wrong. We we piychological test.

t ields inconsistent rements. It is common to find a unreliable because

scores whe. when a test is
retaken at a later date, but if the slight variation in test
amiss with the test or the fluctuation is great, some
thing is scoring method.
Three ways to determine reliability are the test-retest
.
method, and the split-halves method. The test-retest method, the equivalent
administeringa test twice to the same method involves Test-retest method A
group of people and correlating the two to determine test
way
e of
sets scores..
The closer the correlation coefficient reliability
that involves adminísterdng a
(called, in this case, the relia-
hility coefficient) approaches perlect positive correlation of +1.00, the
a new testtwice
to the same
ing theoftwo
liahie the test is considered to be. In choosing a test for more re. goup subjects
e1s ofand corelat-
scotes.
employee selection, the
reliabikty coefficient ideally should exceed +.80, although in practice a value of
approximatelyis +.70 is
considered acceptable. This method has several limitations
however. It uneconomical to ask
employees to take time from their jobs to
take the test twice. Alßo, the effects of learning
(remembering the test questions)
and the influence of other experiences between the two
cause the group to score higher the second time.
testing sessions may -
The equivalent-forms method for
determining reliability also uses a
approach, but instead of using the same test a second time, a similar Equlvalent-forms
method
test-retest
Away to dete mineadminisier
test relia
form of the test is administered. The disadvantage of the bility that involves
equivalent-forms ing similar forms of new test
method is that it is difficult and costly to develop two separate and equivalent
a
to the same group of subjects
tests. and correlating the two sets of
SCores
In the split-halves method, the te_t is taken once, the items are
divided split-halves method A
in half, and the two sets of scores are correlated. This method is way to detemine test reliabil-
less' time- ity that involves administering
consuming than the other methods because only one administration of the test anew test to a group of
sub-
5 required. There is no opportunity for learning or recáll to influence the sec- iecns dividinginhait the totul
ond score. number of items, and correlat
ing the two sets ol scores.

Validity
Validity is the most important requirement for a psychological test or any other valldity The determination
cdon device; that is, the test or selection device must be shown to measure owhether apychological
test or other selection device
i n t e n d e d to measure. I-0 psychologists consider several difierent kinds measures what it is iniended
of validity. to measure.

tuion-Related Validity. Suppose that an 1-0 psychologist working for the

e orce develops a test to meàsure the proficiency of radar operators. The
b e considered valid if it measures those skills needed for competent per-
dnce on the job. One way to determine this is to correlate test scores with
Some me If who score
or criterion, of subsequent job performance. persons
high ure,radar the job, and if
those SCore operator proficiency test also perform.well on
low on the test perform poorly on the job, then the validity

Part Two The Development of Human
102
Criterlon-related validity
ALype olvalidiryconcemed
the relationshlp between
with
test scores and subseqvent job
performance performance.
Predictive valldity An ap
proach to cstablishing crite
rion-related validity in which
a new test is administered to
all job applicants, and all ap-
plicantsare hired. regardless
of scores Later. wheri
test
measurc ofjob performance
can be obtained, test scores
are correlaied with job perior
mance to see how well the
test prediced job success.
Concurrent validity A way
to establish criterion-related
validity thal involves adminis-
employees
test to on
1ering a
the job and correlating their
scores with job performance
data.
Rational validity The type
of validity that relates 1o the the kind of validity
nature properties, and
content ofa jest, indepen-
dent of its relationship to job ment situations it is
perfomance measures.
Content valldity A type of
validity that assesses test items
to ensure that they adequajely
sample the skills the test is de
signed to measure.
Resources
coefficient between test scores and job performance will be high. We will .
that the test truly measures the skills needed to be a good radar operator and
success. Validity coefficients of
+.30 to +.40 are consid.d
validpredictor job
of
acceptable for employee selection tests. is called criterion
This approach to defining and establishing
validity ion-
the nature or properties of the test it
related validity. It is not concerned with
test scores and later measures of iak
self but rather with the relationship between
validity are predictive valid.
Two approaches to establishing criterion-related
involves administering the new
and concurrent validity. Predictive validity
ity
test to all job applicants for a specified
period and hiring them all, regardless of
measure of job performance, such as
their test scores.At a later date, when some the
can be obtained on each worker,
figures or supervisor ratings,
production to determine how well
criteria are correlated
test scores and the job performance however, top management
a
In most organizations,
the test predicted lob success. some of the people hired wil
because obviously
to use this approach
is unwilling
be poor workers. is
turn out to
more pòpular
with management than predictive
Concurrent validity is on the job and correlat
involves giving the test to
employees already
validity. It this method is that
data. The disadvantage of
with job performance the better
ing the scores
the validation sample
contains mo[tly
current workrs,
by testing only have quit or been fired, de.
Poorer workers will probably already
employees. establish by the concurrent va.
transferred. Therefore, it is difficult to
moted, or the test is truly distinguishing
between god and poor
whether
lidity method
workers. for a job and
with concurrent validity is that applicants
Another problem motivations and are likely to per.
on the job have different
employees already tests. Applicants may
be more highly motivated
form differently on psychological
wórkers, who may feel more
employment tests than current
to perform well on
situation.
secure in their work used in the establishment of
criterion most often
The job performance
criterion-related validity is ratings assigned
by a supervisor to an employee's pre
as part of the em
Such ratings are made routinely
sent level of job performance. of jobs. (We discuss
appraisal process for all types
ployee performance
in Chapter 5.)
performance appraisal
I1-0 psychologists arealso interested in rational validity,
Rational Validity. a test
nature, properties, and content of
that relates to the
to measures job of performance. In sóme employ
independent of its relationship criterion-related validity, perhaps
not feasible to establish
and time-consuming
small to support the expensive
because the company is too
has no precedent. In the
initial selection o
validatian process or because the job had taken
for example, before any space flights
the original U.S. astronauts, correlated wn
there were no measures of job
performance that could be
place,
rational validity ofa test arecontentva
test scores.
Two approaches toestablishing the items are assesst
In content validity, the test
lidity and construct validity. test is design
adequately sample the knowledge or skills the
ensure that they conducting a job anayo
This assessment can be accomplished by
to measure. needed to pe
are related to all
those abilities
and determining if the test items
 Chapter 4 Psychological Testing 103

torm the job. Wih á word-processing job, for example, test questions about
word-procesing computer software are job-related, whereas questions about
isical abilities may not be. In the classroom, if your professor a:1nounces that
will be tested on the lirst three chapters of this book, then questions about
information from other chapters would not be considered content valid.
Construct validity is an attempt to determine the psychological character Construet validity A lype of
cics measured by a test. How do we know that a new test developed to measure validity that attempts to deter.
aelligence or motivation or emotional stability really does so? One way to mea- mine the psychological char
actenstics measured by a test.
sure construct alidity statistically is to correlate scores on the new test with
cores on established tests that are known to measure these variables. If the cor-
relation is high, then we can nave some confidence that the new test is measur-
it claims.to measure.
ing the trait

Cace Validity. Face validity is not a statistical measure but a

nression of how well the test items seem to be related to the job in subjective im
question. Air- Face valldity A subjecive
impression of how well tes
ine pilots would not think it unusual to take tests about mechanics or items seem to be related to the

because these topics are directly related to the job they expect to perform,navigation
but requirements of a job.
they might balk at being asked if they loved their parents or slept with a light on
in their room. Such questions might be related to emotional
stability, but they do
not appear to be related to flying tn airplane. If a test lacks face
cants may not take it seriously, ar.d this may lower their test
validity, appli-
College students from the United States and from Franceperformance.
(a total of 259 sub-
jects) were asked rate the effectiveness and íairness of several selection
to
dures, to assess the students' degree of favorability toward the proce-
measures. The
selection procedures included personality, ability,
tests, as well as interviews, résumés, biographical data,honesty, and work-sample.
tacts, and handwriting analysis (a selection
references, personal con-
technique popular in
countries). The single strongest correlate of favorable ratings of these European
was the face validity techniques
ofí the measures (Steiner & Gilliland, 1996).
The best psychological tests include in their manuals the results of validation
studies. Without this information, the human
can have little confidence that resources or personnel manager
the tests in the
program are actually measuring the qualities andcompany's employee
abilities being soughtselection
in new
employees. Test validation is expensive, but proper validation
more than pay for themselves. procedures will

Validity Generalization
Until the late 1970s, 1-0
psychologists
ficity," which recommended
followed doctrine of "situational
a
speci
job and validating a test inevery situation-that is, every
every organization-for which it was
Were assumed to be differentially valid. A test chosen as a selection device. Tests
tory technicians in one company was not automaticallyappropriate for selecting labora-
ecting technicians in another considered valid for se-
Conidence for company. Therefore, no test could be used with

8iven
employee selection without first determining its validity in'the
instance, no matter how
valid the test had proven for other,
The idea of
situatiónal specificity or differential similar jobs.
validity generalization. On the basis of validity has been replaced by Validity generalization The
studies, 1-0 meta-analyses of previous validation
psychologists have concluded that tests valid in one situation may
idea that tests valid In one sit
uation may also be valid in
another situation.
 Human Resources
104 Part Two The Development of

alca be valid in another situation. In other words, once establshed, the validity
(Schmidt et al., 1993).
of a test can be generalized
and Organlzational Psychology (SIOP) SuDno
The Society for Industrial
has also been endorsed by the National Academy.
validity generalization., It
Sciences and is included
in the Standards for Educational and Psychological Te
is widely accepted not only for tests hue
ing of the APA. Validity generalization
also for biographical data, assessment centers, interviews, integrity tests, and
and government agencies apply
other selection devices. Many large corporations
selection programs.
the concept of validity generalization in their
for psychological
Validity generalization has important practical implications
as an employee selection technique.
Organizations have realized that if
testing for every job at every
tests no longer require expensive validation proceduresby including tests, while
selection programs
level, then they can improve their
saving time and money.

FAIR EMPLOYMENT PRACTICES

in validity re.
legislation has been an increase
One result of fair employment
If studies show that appli.
test is discriminatory.
search to document whether a on the
score bElow a certain
level on a test perfom poorly
cants of all races who research confirms
race. 1-O psychology
then.the test is not discriminatory by
job, coelficients have relatively
low levels of adverse im.
that tests with high validity test scores with job per
procedures (correlating
Criterion-related validation
pact. the guidelines of the Equal
are required, when leasible, by
formance measures) Rational validation procedures
Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC).
may also be
used to meet EEOC requirements. to be valid for an-
valid for one group is expected
A test that is found to be test
that racial differences among average
other. Research has demonstrated educational, social, and cul.
from
scores are not the
result of test bias but arise
known scientists issued the follow.
tural differences. A group
of internationally
Journal:
ing statement, published in 1994 in the Wall Street
American blácks or other
Intelligence culturally biased against
tests are not
in the U.S. Rather, 1Q scores pre.
native-born, English-speaking peoples
of race and so
dict equally accurately for
all such Americans, regardless
cial class.
Association's ßoard of Sci
American Psychological
A report prepared by the are not biased against
concluded that cognitive ability tests
entific Affairs in 1996 discriminate against minority
African Americans. In other
words, the tests do not
discrimination that has
Rather, they reflect in quantitative terms the
groups.
time.
been reated by society over not guarantee
that a
demonstration of validity does
However, the empirical use. This
oc*

declared discriminatory and barred from further

test will not be
Curredwith-the-General Aptitude Test Baltery (GATB)usedby
the U.S. Employ
it also assesses manua
The GATB is a test of cognitive functioning:
meni Service.
than 750 validity studies
have confirmed the high va
and finger dexterity. More instrüment for employment.
Test validities 10r
lidity of the test as a screening minority job applicano
were comparable, although
whites and minorities hired.
scores and hence were
less likely to be
showed lower average
 of Human Resources
108 Part Two The Development

ADMINISTERING PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTs

they are constructos
ways: (1) how
be categorized in
two
Psychological tests can to measuree.
skills and abilities they are designed
and administered and (2) the

1-Individual and Group Tests

can be administered
large number. of
to a
that
sothey to 20, 200, or 2,000 an
Some tests are designed
tests can be given
time. These group
Psychological people at the same is the size of
the testing room o r the
Group tests
designed
csts to be adminis- Simultaneously. The only limitation
piicants
of stations available.
teredto large
a number

people at the same time.
Individual tests Psycho
Ogal tesis designed to
be adminisiered to one
person at a time.
. adaptive tests provide
Computerized adaptive
tests A means of administer
in
ing psychological tests
which an applicant's response
to an item delermines the
level of difficulty of succeed-
ing inems.
number of computerized testing at a time. Because this
administered to one person
Individual tests are
used less trequently by em.
tests, they are
makes them more costly than group for selecting senior management
are reserved
Usually they
ploying organizations. for vocational guidance and coun.
popular
tests are more
personnel. Individual
work with patients.
seling and for diagnostic
Computerized Adaptive Tests
Designed for large-scale group testing, computerized
takes the test,at a computer
which the applicant
an individual testing situation in referred to as tailored testing because the
terminal. This approach is sometimes
it.
test is tailored, or adapted, to the person taking
test in paper-and-pencil for.
If you were given a standard cognitive ability
mat, you would have to answer questionsdesigned to sample the full range of

Because individual tests are costly and time-consuming to administer. they are
used mostly for vocational counseling and for selecting management personnel.
 109
Chapter 4 Psychological Testing

intelligence. Some questions would be easy because your level of intelli-

youz
higher than the level at which the questions are targeted, whtreas other
nce is higi
ould be more difficult because they are at or above your level of in-
stions wooul
ence. To complete the test, you must spend time answering all the ques
telig
even the simple ones.
tions,tn computerized adaptive testing, you do not have to waste time answering
ections below your level of ability. The computer program begins with a ques
u of average difficulty. If you answer correcthy. it proceeds to questions of
tio
a less
reater difficulty. Had you answered incorrectly., it would have given you
grea
dilficult question.

Another advantage computerized adaptive testing is that the testing can

of
ón finding a
he done
at any time during the selection proces. It is not dependent
Because a range of
malified test administrator and scheduling a testing session.
less opportunity for
abilities can be measured in a relatively short time, there isimmediate results are
interest and motivation to diminish. Also,
the applicant's
available the human resources department.
to
of different types of test items. For ex-
Computers also allow for the use
of spatial ability allow the use of three-
ample, computerized adaptive tests
of two-dimensional stationaryY
dimensional objects moving in space instead
can be presented with full-motion video and stereo sound.
images. Questions
either a standard keyboard response or a joystick, m o u s e ,
or
can use
Test-takers
rackball to respond to test questions..
initial investment than does
Computerized adaptive testing requires a larger
r u n . Consultants
a paper-and-pencil
test, but it is more economical in the long
of Defense could s a v e $5 million annually by
estimate that the U.S. Department recruits.
computerizing the basic
enlistment test given to military
given in paper-and-pencil format and c o m -
Comparisons of the same tests
In one
adaptive versions show little difference in the resulting scores.
puterized
work-related noncognitive tests. Half of the-
study, 874 college students took four ver
version and half the paper-and-pencil
subjects received the computerized & Miles,
test performance (King
sion. No significant differences were found in
significant differences belween c o m -
1995). Also, other studies have shown no
fake r e -
test in terms of the tendency to
puterized and print versions of the s a m e which there is
& Drasgow, 1999). Tests o n
sponses (Richman, Kiesler, Weisband,
formats. However,
a time limit have shown less valid responses for computerized
have found that using an electronic stylus
o r light pen to respond
psychologists
10 test items, instead of making keyboard en1ries, tends to equalize these differ
ences (Overton, Taylor, Zickar, & Harms. 1996).
with tests is that many tests a r e avail-
computerized
One growing problem
on Internet sites and c a n be accessed from any computer terminal. Since
dDle environment, such as a company's
are not admninistered in a controlled
ney
office o r testing
room, opportunity exists for cheating.
ample
numan resources
books
applicant could consult source or
ror example, for an intelligence test, an

dve someone else present to help with the answers.

Speed tests Tests that have a

4ixedume hnit atwhicl

3.Speed and Power Tests
tests is the time allotted for comn-
e difference between speed tests and powertime limit, at which point everyone
Petion of the tests. A speed test has a fixed
ding the test must stop. A power test has no time limit. Applicants are
point everyone taking t'he Csi
Power tests Tests thit have
no une limt. Appliconts are
allwed ay nmuch ume as they
need tu cumplete the ic>u
110 Part Two The Development of Human Resources

allowed as much time as they need to complete the test. A power test often
Con
tains more difficult items than does a speed test. Large-scale testing pror
often include speed tests because all test forms can be collected at the same ti
For some tasks, working speed is an important component of successfulne.
performance. A test for a computer keyboarding job wonid contain rela
easy questions. Given enough time, most people would be able to respond cor atively
rectly. The important predictive. factor for keyboarding or word processing is the
quality of the work that can be performed in a given period: in this case, dats
entry accuracy and speed. A power test would not be able to evaluate this ski
properly.

TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS

A more familiar distinction among psychological tests for employee selection is in

terms of the characteristics or behaviors they are designed to measure. The
basic
categories are tests of cognitive abilities, interests, aptitudes, motor skills, and
personality.
Cognitive Abilities
Cognitive ability tests (intelligence tests) are widely used for employee selection.
Group'intelligence tests, the kind given most often, are a rough screening device.
They are brief, take little time to complete. and can be easily scored by hand or
machine. Research studies involving thousands of people in the military services
and in a variety of civilian jobs have shown consistently that cognitive ability
tests are highly valid for predicting success in job training programs and in actual
job performance (Bchlong. 1998; Hough & Oswald. 2000).
A meta-analysis of thousands of studies conducted over a period of 85 years
compared the predictive validities of 19 selection techniques. The results showed
that cognitive ability tes1s had the highest validity for predicting success in job
training and performance (Schmidt & Hunter. 1998). An additional meta-analysis
ofstudies of more than 40.000 people also supported the predictive value of co8
nitive ability tests for job perlormance (Bobko, Roth, & Potosky. 1999).
The Otis Self-Administering Tests of Mental Ability has been found useful
for screening applicans for jobs such as office clerk, assembly-line worker, and
first-line supervisor. The test is group administered and takes little time to com
plete.It is less useful for professional or high-level managerial positions because
it does not discriminate well at the upper range of
intelligence.
The Wonderlic Personnel Test. a reliable 50-item measure of general mental
ability. is a popular individual or group test for selection. placerment. promotion,
and reassignment. It is applicable to more than 140 jobs in business and industry
such bank tellet, store managel. and industrial engineer.
as flight attendant.
cause the test has a l2-minute time limit, it is an economical screening device.
Be
Test items measure the ability¥ to, understand instructions, to solve job-related
problems., and to propose ideas that can be applied to new work situations. Test
norms are based on more than 450,000 working aaults. Computer ard hand
scoring versions are available.
Wonderlic scoresshowa high positive correlation with scores on the Wech
sler Adult Intelligence Scale, a longer and more complex individual test. A hiring
 Testing 111
Chapter 4 Psychological

employer compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act of

kit to facilitate
1990 offers braille, and audiotape versions of the test. Sine intro-
large-print, its

Auction in 1937, the Wonderlic has been administered to more than 125 million
people. A study of applicants to a computer applications training cen-
college-age
er found no significant differences between mean scores of persons who took
the computerized version and scores of those who took the print version (Dem-
bowski & Callans, 2000).

The latest developments and applications for the Wonderlic

test can be found at www.wonderlic.com.

measure of cognitive ability, the

Revised Beta Examination,
A nonverbal
individual test, is designed for
a 15-minute group or
Second Edition (Beta-l1), at all. Instructions are pro-
who read poorly or who cannot read
use with people The test has
for English-speaking and Spanish-speaking job applicants.
vided in correctional
for occupational rehabilitation programs
been used extensively manufacturing job-retraining
unskilled workers in large-scale
facilities and for form boards, pic-
include mazes, coding, paper
The six timed subtests The
programs. absurdities (see Figure 4-1).
clerical checking, and picture
ture completion,

items from Revised

distance
FIGURE 4-1. Sample Edition (Beta-uD.
Mazes ask examinees
to mark the shortest minutes) Beta Examination,
Second
without crossing any lines (1.5 Copyright 1978
through a maze
(Reproduced by permision.
Corporation, San
by The Psychological
Antonio, TX. All rights reserved.)

with their
Coding requires lebeling figures
minutes)
corresponding numbers (2

00+|D|o
112 Part Two The Development of Human Resoure
technical, clerical sales, Crat.
Beta-lI can be scored for professional, managerial, rats,
and service occupations.
The Wechsler Adult Intellígence
Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) is a lengthu .

administered rest used.primarid

proximately 75 minutes), individually assessment, such a$senior
for
Jobs requiring a comprehensive psychological man
agement personnel. Its administration,
scoring, and interpretation reguir
examiner. The WAIS-R includes l
well-trained and experienced clinical
are information, digit
span, vöcabular
tests, as foHows: the verbal subtests
similarities; the pertormance subtests are ni
arithmetic, comprehension, and
block design, object assembly, and diois
ture completion, picture arrangemen1,

Too Bright for the Job?

be a cop in New London, Connecticut, the
Bob Jordan wanted to took the Wonderlic Per
town where he lived. He applied
for the job,
for an interview. No call came. He
sonnel Test, and waited to be called
passed the test-the questions seemed so
easy--and
was sure he had who had applied at the same time
when he heard that other people
station to find out what had
had been hired, he went to the police
happened to hi_ application. the profile" ofa successful po-
He was advised that he did not "fit
test? Had he scored so low
lice officer. Had he performed poorly on the to ever leam
that he was considered unlit for training
or too dumb
that he scored too high.
how to do the job? No. Bob's problem The test norms for the
was

Too high? He was too smart? Yes. Won

for of If
variety jobs. your
derlic provide an optimum range of scores
a

score is too low; the norms suggest

that you lack the ability to súçceed on
that you are too in-
the job. And if you score too high, the test makers say
and will probably quit before
telligent, that you will be bored by the job
hiring the highest scoring em-
long. According to the test manual, "Simplyscored
Jordan six points too high to be
ployee can be self-defeating." Bob
considered a good candidate for the job.
the deputy police chiel revealed more information.
An intervliew with
Bob Jordan isexaetly thetype of guy we would want to screen out.Police
work is kind of mundane. We don't deal in gunfights every night."
was so angry that he did
what any good American does when
Jordan
he feels he is being ireated unlairly. That's right. He sued, claiming he was
ruled
against because of his level of intelligence. But judge
a
discriminated
that since the police department treated all highly intelligent job applicants
that the
the same, it had not discriminated against him. The judge noted
decision to disqualily Jordan might have been unwise, but he
had not been
denied equal protection. Jordan now wopks as a prison guard.

The not-toó-high-Q standard. New York Times, Sep*

Source: M. Allen. Help wanted:
tember 9, 1999.
 Chapter 4 Psychologlcal Testing 113
symbol. Separate verbal.and performance measures of cognitive ability can be
Sned as well as an overall 1Q score. Computer scoring and imterpretation
are available.

Interests

tnterest tests include items about daily activities from among which applicants Interest tests Psychological
lect their preferences. The rationale is that if a person exhibits the same pattern tests to assess a person's inter
Csts and prelerences. These
of interests and preferences as people who are successful in a given occupation. tests are used primarily lor ca
then the chances are high that the' person taking the test will find satisfaction in eer counscling

that occupation.
It is important to remember, however, that just because a person shows a.
high degree of interest in a particular job, it is no guarantee that he or she has
the ability to be successlul in that job. What interest test scores show is that the
person's interests are compatible with the interests of successful people in that
career. If a test showsthat a person has no interest in a field, then the chances of
succeeding in it are limited.
Cross-cultural research on nearly 50.000 people showed no significant dif
ferences in vocational interests. African Americans, Mexican Americans, Asian
Americans, Native Americans, and Caucasians expressed highly similar patterns
of likes and dislikes for various types of work (Day & Rounds. 1998)
Two frequently used inierest tests are the Strong Interest Inventory and the
Kuder Occupational Interest Survey.
The Strong is a 317-item. computer-scored group test that covers occupa
tions, school subjects. leisure activities, types of people. and work prelerences.
Items are rated as "like" "dislike," or "indilferent." Scales for more than 100 vo-
cational, technical, and professional occupations are grouped around six themes
on which test-takers are ranked from low interest to high interest. These themes
are: artistic, conventional. social. realistic, investigative, and enterprising. In ad-
dition, many of the test's occupational scales are gender-differentiated: that is,
they have separate male and lemale norms. Research on the Strong has shown
that people's interests tend to remain stable over time.
The Kuder items are arrnged in 100 groups of three alternative activities.
Within each forced-choice trio. applicants select the most preferred and least pre-
ferred activities. The test can be scored for more than 100 occupations. Typical.
groups of items are as follows:

Visit an art gallery. Collect autographs.

Browse in a
library Collect coins.
Visit à museum. Collect buterflies.

Both of these interest inventories are used

primarily for career counseling.
where the focus is on trying to select the right kind of occupation for an individ-
ual. One problem with using them for personnel selection is the possibility of ap-
plhcants' faking their responses to make themselves appear more suitable fora
parucular job. Presumably, when a
person is taking an
pose of career counseling. he or she will answer more interesilest for. the pur
Sults will be used to
honestly because the re
select a broad area of training and employment rather
particular job
a
than
114 Part Two The Development of Human Resources

The KuderCareer Search Website (www.kuder.com) con

tains backound information on the Kuder test, sample
items, and an updated interactive version.

Aptitude tests Psychological
tests to measure specific abili-
ties, such as mechanical or
clerical skills.
Aptitudes
For many jobs, aptitude tests are administered to applicants to measure specific
skills. Sometimes these tests must be specially designed for a particular job, but
there are also tests available that measure general clerical and mechanical apti.
tudes.
The Minnesota Clerical Test is a l15-minute individual or group test in two
parts: number comparison (matching 200 pairs of numbers) and name comparison
see Figure 4-2). Applicants are instructed to work as fast as possible without mak.
ing errors. The test measures the perceptual speed and accuracy required to per.
form various clerical duties. It is useful for any job tha: requires attention to detail
in industries such as utility companies, financial institutions, and manufacturing,
The Revised Minnesota Paper Form Board Test measures those aspects of
mechanical ability that require the capacity to visualize and manipulate objects
in space, necessary skills for occupations with mechanical or artistic orientation,
such as industrial designer or electrician. Applicants are presented with 64 two-
dimensional diagrams of geometric shapes cut into two or more pieces and are
given 20 minutes to picture how the figures would look as whole geometric
shapes (see Figure 4-3). Research shows that the test successfully predicts perfor-
mance in production jobs, electrical maintenance work, engineering shopwork,
industrial tasks.
power sewing machine operation, and various other
The Bennett Mechanical Comprehension Test uses 68 pictures with ques
tions about the application of physical laws or principles of mechanical operation
instructions are provided for applicants with
(see Figure 4-4). Tape-recorded
limited reading skills. The Bennett is designed for individual or group administra-
tion. t takes 30 minutes to complete. The test is used for jobs in aviation, con-
struction, chemical plants, oil refineries, utilities,. glass manufacturing. steel.
paper and plywood manufacturing, and mining.
The Computer Competence Tests include five individual or group subiests
level of knowledge of
containing multiplé-choice items to assess an applicant's in the workplace. A
basic terminology and.ability to operate computets
computer

FIGURE 4-2. Sample items from Minne WHen the two numbers or names in a pair
sota Clerical Test. (Reproduced by per- are exactly the same, make a check mark

l1933, renewed 1961, on the line between them.

mission.Copyright
Corporation, 66273984
1979 by The Psychological 66273894
All rights reserved.) 527384578 527384578
San Antonio, TX.
New York World. N e w York World
| Cargill Grain Co.. Cargil Grain Co.
 Chapter 4 Psychologlcal Testing 115

There ate two parte in the upper len-handcomer. Now look at the fve figures labeled
A.C. D,E. You are to decide wnkeh igure shows how these parts cen fit together.

K
FIGURE 4-3. Sample item from
Revised Minnesota Paper Form Board
Test. (Reproduced by permission.
Copyright 1941, renewed 1969, 1970
by The Psychological Corporation, San
Antonio, TX. All rights reserved.)

typical question is: Which component of a computer system is used to períorm

anithmetic operations? (a) Input device; (b) Output device; (c) Storage unit: (d)
Processing unit. The test is useful for any job that requires computer expertise.

Motor Skills
Many jobs in industry and the military require abilities involving muscle coordi
nation, finger dexterity, and eye-hand coordination.

FIGURE44. Sample items from Bennett Mechanical

Comprehension Test. (Reproduced by permission. Copyright
1940, renewed 1967; 1941, renewed 1969; 1942, renewed 1969; 1967, 1968. 1980
tion, San Antonio. TX. All rights reserved.)
by The Psychological Corpora-

Which would be the better shears for cutting metal?

Which letter shows the seat where a passenger
will get the smoothest ride?

B
116 Part Two The Development of Human Resources
The Purdue Pegboard is a performance test that simulates assembly.t
ces.
coordination ne
and eye-hand
dexterity rehabilitation.
fingertip
work, and vocational
measures
conditions and
factory rapidly as possib.
lor assembly tasks,
general
of holes in a pegboard as to 30 seco
ible,
Sary in a series Each task is
limited
is to place 50 pegs both.
s i m u l t a n e o u s use of
task then the other,
then
the both
with one hand, task involving
rst also includes a
1-minute

ne test assemble pins, collars, and washers. the

O'Connor
Tweeeezer Dexteri
Test and
nands to
Dexterity small holes by hand aand
The O°'Connor Finger can insert
pins into dexterity.
of finger and
fast an applicant
how
measures
standard
lest
measure
These tests
are
for occupations that reauiire
the use of tweezers.
job
success
by be useful in predicting
have proven to
precise manipulative skills.

satisfaction and job

Personality per
to jobimportant traits for coun
contribute
can
characteristics
are un
Certain personality empathy and
nurturance
investigative reporters; and
For example, vital to are
tormance. and persistence Personality test scotes
have;
selors to autonomy accountants.

are needed by all occupations, Tha

Personallty tests Psycho. orderliness and precision success in virtually
with job as those for assess.
have been found to correlate scores can
be as high
feelings. test
sonal traits and
predictive validities of personality
questionnaires. inventories and
ment centers
and biodata assessment are self-report
to personality inventories include items deal.
Two approaches Self-report personality are asked to indi.
Self-report personality projective techniques.
symptoms, or
feelings. Applicants
situations, much they agree
with each
inventories Personality
assessment iests that include ing with specific describes themselves o r hoW
cate how well
each item
guestions dealing withsitua
tions, symptoms. and feelings. item. with self-report personality
be the major problem
Test-takers are asked to indi-
Honesty of responses
may
and people can usually
figure out how
cate how well
each item de-
often transparent, think
whatever qualities they
are
scribes themselves or
how
tests. Test questions
much they agree with themselves appear to possess
to respond to
make
cach iten.
the organization wants, applicants with an
techniques for personality testing present the fig
Projective techniques A Projective inkblot. The task is to
tell what is seen in
as an
stimulus such wishes,
persónality assessmeni tech
ambiguous will project their thoughts.,
nique in which test-takers The rationale is that people These tests cannot
ure o r picture.
an effort to give it meaning.
onto
project their feelings the stimulus in
an ambiguous stimulus and feelings onto
such as an inkblot. are no right and wrong answers.
Rorschach înkblot Test; in which
there
be faked because
The best known project+ve techn+que is thE what they see
and asked to describe
10 standardized inkblots are asked to
re:
subjects are shown Apperception Test (TAT), subjects
in the figures. In the. Thematic of
people and situations.
spond to 30 ambiguous pictures

site provides technical information

The www.rorschach.org The
on the Rorschach
Inkblot Test and links to related sites.
sites dealing
search engine Yahoo! lists more than 500 Web
with the Rorschach. Not all of them are serious.
 Psychologlcal Testing 117
Chapter 4

Projective tests are time-consuming and must be administered individually

Fvaminers must bethoroughly trained and experienced. Because fewbf the tests
ve objective scoring keys, there is ample opportunity for subjective bias to af-
scoring and pretation of the results. Athough projective techniques
fect the
e 1Sed for employee selection at the executive level, research shows that they
have low vàlidity.

Self-Report Inventories. The Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey is a

widely used paper-and-pencil personality test. The items are statements rather
than questions, and the applicant Yesponds by checking "yes," *?," or "no." Three
a r e the following:
sample items
You start work on a new project with a great deal of enthusiasm.
You are often in low spirits.
Most people use politeness to cover up what is really cutthroat competition.

The test yields separate scores for 10 independent personality traits. As a

check against faking or carelessness in responding, there are three falsification

scales based on answers to selected items.

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2), first published
in 1943 and revised in 1989, is the most frequently used personality test for em-
ployee selection and for clinical diagnostic work. The test is widely used in
screening for jobs that require a high-level of psychológical adjustment, such as
police officer, firefighter, air traffic controller, and airline flight crew member.
The 1989 revision of the MMPL, the MMPI-2. consists of 567 statements an-
swered by "urue," "false," or "cannot say." The items cover physical and psychob-
logical health: political and social àttitudes; educational, occupational, family.
and marital factors; and neurotic and psychotic behavioral tendencies. A number
of items can be scored to determine whether the person takipg the test was fak
ing, careless, or misunderstood the instructions.
One problem with any test as popular a[ the MMPI-2 is that some people
will take it more than once. should they apply to diferent organizations that use
it.Among a sample of 1997 workers in the nuclear power indusiry. more than
200 were found to have taken the MMPI four times, 102 had taken it five times,
26 had taken it six times, and 3 had responded to all 567 items seven times.
The scores of these examinees showed that repeated administrations of thee
testresulted in less extreme scores. One'reason for this finding is that the job ap-
plicants became more "test-wise" with each additional exposure to the test. The
psychologists who conducted this survey concluded that

the usefulness of the Inventory appears to decrease. with an

increasing numn
ber of administrations. (Therefore] it becomes increasingly difficult to
identify unfit employees with the [MMPI) (Kelley, Jacobs, & Farr, 1994,
p. 575).

nis problem is not unique to the MMPI; it applies to any psychological test used
by a large number of employers.
The California Psychological Inventory, developed in 1957 and revised in
87, consists of 462 items
r e s on 17
calling for "irue" or "false" responses. It provides
personality dimensions and has been shown to be useful for predicting
18
Part Two The Development of Human Resources

entists,
Success in teaching and in health care occupations (physicians, dentists.
nurses). The test has scales to identify leadership and management potential,e
and
Cre
ative potential, and social maturity.

The Big Five Petsonality Factors. Predictive validities for self-report personal.
ty tests are generally in the low to moderate range. However, research usina
Selt-report inventories to assess the so-called Big Five personality factors ha
factors:
shown higher validities. These are the basic personality

. 1. Extraversion,
2. Agreeableness
3. Conscientiousness (or the will to achieve)
4. Neuroicism
5. Openness to experience

Two of these factors, conscientiousness and extraversion, have been found

to be particularly effective in predicting job performance. Conscientiousness in-
cludes such characteristics as being responsible and dependable, able to plan, or.
ganized, and achievement-oriented. Conscientiousness has been found to be a
valid predictor for many occupations, including managerial, sales, professional,
law enforcement, and skilled and semiskilled jobs.
Extraversion, which includes the characteristics of sociability, talkativeness,
correlates highly with success for
ambition, assertiveness, and high activity level,
correlation
salespersons and managers. Extraversion also shows a high positive
with success in obtaining a job. A study of 83 job-seeking college seniors found

that theirlevel extraversion was thé best single predictor of whether they re-
of in Europe of
ceived a job offer(Caldwell & Burger, 1998). A study conducted
extraversion and conscien-
401 college graduates found that their test scores on
and those who had
tiousness distinguished between those who had found jobs
The people who had scored high in
not, when surveyed a year after graduation.
extraversion and conscientiousness were the ones most likely to be employed

(DeFruyt & Mervielde, 1999).

In a study involving 146 civilian managers employed by the U.S. Army, ex
traversion and conscientiousness were found to be more valid predictors of job
high degree
offered a of autonomy than
performance for managers whose jobs
for managers-whose jabs offered low autonomy.Inother words, managers who
were highly conscientious
and extraverted were more successful when their jobs
be independent and to take responsibility (Bar-
offered thera the opportunity to
rick & Mount, 1993.
were found to be highly
The traits of agreeableness and conscientiousness as
when the job involved participation
valid predictors of successíul performance work
a member of a work
team. A study of 79 four-person human resources
were
scores on agreeableness and conscientiousness
teams showed that high
getting along well with other group mem
closely related to task achievement,
wth conllicts. (Neuman & Wright, 1999).
bers, and dealing effectively
been conducted on the role of conscientious
Much additional research has employed
ness as it relates to
work behavior. A study of 91 sales representatives
manulacturer found that salespersons who were high in
by large
a appliance to them.
set goals and to be committed
conscientiousness were more likely to
ratings ot
related to bigher sales volume and higher supervisor
This, in turn, was
 Chapter 4 Psychologlcal Testing 119

their job performance (Barrick, Mount, & Surauss, 1993). A study of 130 resort
hotel employees found that conscientiousness correlated significantly with self
direction-that is, the performance of desirable on-the-job behaviors undertaken
at the worker's own initiative (Stewart, Carson, & Cardy, 1996). A meta-analysis
of 36 studies of workers conducted in several countries in Europe showed con-
cdentiousness to be a valid predictor of job performance in professional, police,
sc
managerial, sa les, and skilled labor jobs (Salgado, 1997).
Other studies have found that conscientiousness is a highly valid predictor
of successful performance for U.S. employees working for multinational corpora-
tions in other countries, whether they are newly hired or long-term employees
(Caligiuri, 2000; Stewart, 1999). În research showing a negative correlation, low
Scores on conscientiousness were found to be a valid predictor of dysfunctional
behaviors such as alcoholism, substance abuse, and reckless driving. People scor-
ing high in conscientiousness were much less likely to exhibit these behaviors
than were people scoring low (Sarchione, Cuttler, Muchinsky. & Nelson-Gray,
1998). In view of these and many other similar studies, it is clear that conscien-
tiousness is a desirable characteristic for employees to show and for employers to
seek in job applicants.
Studies of managers who make hiring decisions confirm that conscientious-
ness (along with general mental ability) is the most important attribute related to
suitability for hiring (Dunn, Mount, Barrick, & Ones, 1995). Other research
found that ratings of conscientiousness and extraversion made by supervisors,
co-workers, and customers of 105 salespeople were valid predictors of job perfor
mance (Mount, Barrick, & Strauss, 1994). Thus, whether coñscientiousness and
extraversion are assessed by self-report inventory or by ratings given by otheTs
both correlate positively with high job performance.
Inventories have been developed to measure other specific personality char-
acteristics, such as introversion. self-esteem, sociability, emotional maturity, and
proactivity. Proactivity refers to a tendency to take action to try to influence or
change one's environment. The Proactive Personality Scale consists of 17 items
to which respondents indicate the extent of their agreement or disagreement. A
sample item is: "Nomatterwhat the odds, ifI believe in something I wil makeit
happen." People who express a high degree of agreement with a statement such
as that should perform well in certain jobs,
particularlythose in sales.
A study of real-estate agents found a high positive correlation between high
scores on the Proactive Personality Scale and objective measures of job perfor-
mance such as commission income, number of homes sold, and number of new
in va-
listings obtained (Crant,
1995). on nearly
Research 500 people employed a
riety of jobs found that proactivity correlated positively with salary. promotions,
and job satisfaction (Seibert, Crnt, & Kraimer, 1999)

If you need abreak, check out the lighthearted view of per-

Sonality tests at www.goofiness.com/personality/test.
120 Part Two
The
Development of Human Resources
Integrity Tests
American companies lose billions of dollars every. year to theft, embezleme
ment,
and other forms of employee dishonesty. The polygraph (the so-called ie dee.
tor) has been discredited as an effective means of detecting employee theit
more valid way to predict and detect employee dishonesty is with integrity tese
a to the
paper-and-pencil approach developed as an alternative polygraph. l.
psychologis1s estimate that every year more than 15 million employees and ioh
applicants take integrity tests. Currently, some four dozen such tests are in use.
There are two types of integrity tests: (1) overt integrity tests, which directly
assess attitudes toward theft and other dishonest behaviors, and (2) personality
oriented integrity tests which measure general delinquency, impulse control, and
conscientiousness. Both types of test appear to be valid predictors of theft and of
such counierproductive behaviors as absenteeism. drug abuse, and malingeting
They have also been found predictive of general job performance as assessed by
supervisor ratings. A comparison of overt integrity test results from 725.000 job
applicants lound that women scored higher than men did. No significant difer
ences were found between applicants below and above the age of 40, or between
groups of Blacks, Whites, Hispanics. Asians. and Native Americans (Ones &
Viswesvaran, 1998).
Research evidence suggests that most integrity tests are probably measuring
the Big Five factor of conscientiousness, which would explain why the tests are
such valid predictors of job performance.

LIMITATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

danger with psychological is their uncritical or

tests
Uncritical Use. A continual
human resources managers who may be taken in
inappropriate use by trusting
of instant success in solving problems of em
by slick brochures and promises
opportunity. A manager may choose a
ployee selection and equal employment the test's norms, reliability, or
valid-
test because it is new, without investigating information about its de
continue to be used despite negative
ity. A test may employment office is unaware of the
research. Often,
pendability because the test because no research has ever
been conducted
thereare no data tosupport a an improper testing program affects omy nor tne
on it. The harm generated by from a job Dy
but also applicants who may be unfairly disqualified
organization
an ineffective test.

Qualified Applicants. Even the best psychological

tests n are

Rejection of
coefficients for tests reach a perfect posiive correio
perfectly valid. No validity some margin for error in the prediction ofjoD Su
There is always
tion of +1.00. and sometimes other
Sometimesunqualified persons will be hired,
cess. unqualified or ineligibie
will be incorrecuy identified as
qualified applicants of error also applies
to other s the
test performance. (This type
the basis of their reduced when tests w
These false-positive errors can be
tion techniques.) selection
for the program. be
validities are chosen
highest predictive selection program should
errors, an employee
To minimize these allows for the col
technique. The use of several techniques
based o n a single
evaluationof much more information about a n applicant.
lation and
 Faking. We mentioned
lection must be sensiti earlier that Chapter 4
sitive to the organizatio using1 tests Psychological Testlng
aie need of a job and
ate apply for a sales possibility of 121
the following questions: position.faking. employee
You areSuppose you nployee
in
se-
se-
a given test that desper-
I enjoy meeting new people. includes
I get along well with most Yes
1 find it easy to talk to people. Yes No
people. No
Yes No
You can easily
Swer. Unles thes
anticip
the way the
ese
characteristics
videthe company with a company expects
apply to you,
ll not be successful or lalse impression. You however, yoursalespersons
answers
to an-
do' not possess. In thesatisfied with the job may be hired, but you pro will
dicadvantage, but it is hard tolongconvince because probably
run,
then, faking test it requires abilities that
some responses avid job works
Fchical Issues. The seekers of this in to yoúr
ethical practices of all American advance.
Psychological Association is
psychologists,
demic laboratory research whether engaged in concerned about the
Droper conduct state that and teaching, or in employee clinical practice, in aca
iare of the persons with psychologists must protect the selection. Principles for
whom they deal. dignity,
violated in applying
code psychological
describes safeguards for tests to Unfortunately, this idealworth,
is
and wel-
sometimes
employee
. Test users.
the
distribution and use ofselection. The APA ethics
psychiological tests.
Persons who
be aware of the administer and interpret
and the principles
limitations
of
psychological psychological tests should
of test measurement and validation
should consider more
to
interpretation.
than one means of They must avoid bias and
standardized test
achieve accuracy
assessment. They must
administratiðn procedures and make adhere
in
2. Test recording and scoring test.results.
security. Actual test
every effort to
medium such questions
should never be
newspaper or magazine: It is reprinted into a public
as
sample questions (similar
a

permissible
but not items used in publish
to real
tual scoring of a test. questions) the ac-
Tests should be sold [The examples in this chapter are sample
only to questions.]
3. Test
interpretation: Test scores professionals who will
should be given safeguard their use.
terpret them. They should to
qualified to in only those
not be given to
SOurces human re- anyone outside the
the
department, such as the applicant's potential
supervisor has been trained to supervisor, unless
tested has the the interpret scores. The
4. Test know the test score and what it means.person being
right to
publication. Tésts should not be
released for u_e without adequate
background research to support the test
and current test manuals
developers' claims. Inlormative
data containing reliability. validity, and normative
should be made available.
curately, without emotional or Advertisements should describe tests ac-
persusive appeals.
wacy Issues. One aspect of psychological testing that has
under attack
ne use of questions about personal or intimate issues. Criticscome
onal probing is an unnecessary invasion of privacy. charge that such
dted when Individual freedom is vi-
organizations request or require information that cannot be shown
122 Part Two The Development of Human Resources

Personality Test
Store Sued Over
at Target Stores
for a job as a security guard
When Sibi Soroka'ap]lied about his religioue
he would be asked
in Califomía, he didnt know
didn't like it when
he
was. As parn of the
beliefs or his sex life. And he a person.
process, he had to take Psychscreen,
employment screening which contains items from two wel-known
ality test used by Target,Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventorv
psychological tests, the
Inventory.
and the California Psychological been invaded when hewas asked
had
Sorokà felt that his privacy afterlife. He was also
devil and a hell in'an
if he believed thère was a
of his own sex
attracted to members
asked whether he was strongly were entirely
sex. Questions like these
dreamed a lot about or ser.
or if he besides, what did
his religlous belieís
too personál, he said, and Soroka sued Tar.
to do with being a security
guard?
ual behavior have
right to privacy.
get for violatinghisdenied to prohibit fur.
Soroka's inotion for an injunction
The traljudgé Target Stores and
rüled that Psychscreen
ther üse.of the petsonality test by applicants. Soroka ap.
unreasonable device for screernirig job
was not an California Court of Appeals,
which ruled in his lavor.
case to the
pealed his about religion and sex, wrote the judges in
a 39.

Psychscreen's questions right to privacy,. unless

the company
job applicant's
page decision, violatedinformation was directly related to job performance.
a

could prove that such did not object to

the psychological screening
The appeals court ruling that Target had a legitmate
guards; it acknowledged
of the store's security stable applicants. Nor did the
interest in hiring emotionally select guards.
and justifiable the idea of using
personalityY tests to
find fault with and religion
of questions about
court sex
the asking
empirical demonstration of a
What it did criticize was
could not provide any
when the company information aboat an applicant.
interest in that kind of personal Court, it
compelling the California Supreme
Stores appealed to
Although Target Soroka before a decision could be
settlement with
made an out-of-court undisclosed amount of the settle-
the legal fees and the
rendered. Between
the use of Psychscreen
turned out an
tobe
notoriety.
ment, plus the public
-expensive selection technique
for this comnpany.-

Stores settle out óf court in Soroka v. Dayton Hud-

J.
Source: D. C. Brown (1993). Target 88-89. Also D. N. Jadkson
31(2),
& D.
Industrial-Organizational Psychologist, in the
son. The questionnaires in selection;
Privacy sues
Kovacheff (1993).'Personality 30(4), 45-50.
Industrial-Organizational Psychologist,
Soroka case. The

w
is applying. re
performance of the job for which the person
to be related to
the background, trau
the right of an organization to investigate
people question applicants. But personal
questions adout
of job
court

and personality challenged in ob

ing, abilities, health have been successfully
religion, political beliefs, and such questions were
related to
invasions of privacy., Even if De
as unwarranted ourselves we should
of how much of
there remains the issue
performance,
employer.
to reveal to a potential
quired