INTRO TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - an added cost

- no cost benefit
- SOX – stricter; use scrubber
ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS - Sweet fuel: less sulfur
1. Atmosphere
- Sour fuel – more sulfur
2. Hydrosphere
4. Storage
3. Lithosphere
- Used when the waste can no longer
4. Biosphere – living part of the earth
be treated
- Temporary
Contaminants – anything not natural or foreign to the
5. Disposal
system Contaminants can be pollutants.
- A certain concentration of a contaminant can be
 SUSTAINABILITY
a pollutant when the most beneficial use of a
– full use of a process but still leave for the
resource is adversely affected
future generation
Pollutants – concentration, transport, reactant
 Population trend – increasing
 Birth Rate, Life expectancy – increasing
ENVIRONMENTAL WASTE MANAGEMENT
CARRYING CAPACITY
Pollution Reduction/Source
Reduction
Recycle/Reuse

Waste Treatment

Storage

Disposal

- The number of individuals the earth can

Karnot Engine – most efficient engine support
- 50% maximum efficiency (operates - Nature can only support a certain number
at hottest and coldest reservoir) of people. If this limit exceeds, the earth
- 30% usual efficiency will take into action (try to limit the
population)
ENVIRONMENTAL WASTE MANAGEMENT SYS: - At the carrying capacity, population should
1. Pollution Reduction/Source Reduction have stabilized
- Use of high purity raw material
- Use of excess oxygen during
combustion
FOUR STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
- Use of better equipment
- First In First Out, JIT, 5S of good
1. Tool Making revolution
housekeeping
- man survived primarily by hunting and gathering
2. Recycle/Reuse
- began to use tools for hunting and food preparation
- Use of waste and uses it in the
- use fire for cooking, habitat improvement and drive
process
wild animals
- Recycle: use the material and return
- use of tools and fire leave its mark on the
it to the cycle
environment
- Reuse: use the material for another
2. Agricultural Revolution
purpose
- marked by domestication of plants and animals
3. Waste Treatment
 - plough was invented and allowed humans to clear ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
larger areas of land 1. Resources
- led to increase in population growth and building of 2. Land Use/Waste Disposal
more permanent habitats 3. Pollution
- most agricultural practices are not sustainable 4. Human Population Growth
3. Industrial Revolution
- shift from small-scale production of goods by
hand to large-scale production of goods by
machine
- aim is to gain material possessions
Benefits:
- creation and mass production of many useful and
economically affordable products
-significant increases in average per capita income
- sharp increase in productivity
- sharp rise in average life expectancy
Negative effects on the environment
1. Increased production and consumption of goods
by humans
2. Dependence on non-renewable resources
(e.g., oil, natural gas and various metals) ECONOMIC FUNCTIONS OF THE
3. Production of synthetic materials ENVIRONMENT
4. High use of energy • Supplies us with resources
4. Information Revolution • Assimilates wastes (always go back to the
- born with the invention of miniaturized electronics environment)
like transistor, integrated circuits and central • Provides life support services such as maintenance of
processing units genetic diversity and stabilization of the ecosystem
- maybe our saving grace • Provides us with various environmental services like
- today’s phase providing space for recreation and scenery and wildlife
for aesthetic enjoyment

RESOURCES
• Resources – anything we get from the environment
that meets our needs and wants
• Availability
a.) directly available – air, water and edible
biomass
b.) others are available because we developed
technologies for exploiting them
- eg. Oil, minerals

• Classification (according to degree of renewability)

a.) Potentially Renewable
- can be depleted in the short term by rapid
consumption and pollution
- can be replaced in the long term by natural
processes
- examples: wood, tap water, soil

SUSTAINABLE YIELD
– the highest rate at which a potentially
renewable resource can be used without
decreasing its potential for renewal
 • Hierarchy of Waste Management
Pollution Reduction/Source
Example: Reduction
Soil regeneration: 1cm/decade Recycle/Reuse
Soil agricultural use: 10cm/decade
Waste Treatment
Thus, soil must be used in less than
1cm/decade in order to achieve sustainable Storage

yield Disposal

1. Pollution Prevention
b.) Non-renewable resources – finite and
2. Recycle/re-use
exhaustible
3. Treatment
- cannot be replenished on the scale of human
4. Storage
lifetimes
5. Disposal
Conservation of non-renewable resource:
 Pollution Load
1. Recycling
- No pollution growth in 1830’s
2. Re-use
- Environment can still clean itself in the same rate
the pollutants are being produced
c.) Perpetual Resources – inexhaustible on a
- Pollution load increase exponentially
human time scale of decades and centuries
- solar, wind and tidal energies
- wind (most difficult to harness and store)
- solar (requires relatively large space)

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
– Development that meets the needs of
the present without compromising the
ability of the future generations to meet
their own needs.

 Natural Capacity
POLLUTION - Capacity of the environment to clean itself
• Pollution
- contamination of a substance in such a way that
the beneficial use of a certain resource is
adversely affected
- change in the physical, chemical, radiological or
biological quality of the resource (air, water, or
land) caused by man or man’s activities that is
injurious to existing, intended or potential use of
the resource.
• Wastes
- unwanted by-products and residues left from
the use or production of a resource
• Second Law of Thermodynamics
Everything goes from order to disorder
- many pound of raw materials needed to make
one pound of product
- most of raw materials go to waste not to
product
WASTE MANAGEMENT 3. Pollution overpopulation
- a circumstance in which a small or large
number of people use technology that are overly
polluting
- e.g. China

5M’S UNDER POLLUTION PREVENTION

1. Materials (matl’s of higher purity)
2. Methods (JIT, FIFO, 5S) ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
3. Man Environmental Scientist
4. Machine 1. Evaluate source and nature of pollution
5. Measurement problem
2. Evaluate environmental impact
Environmental Engineer
1. Evaluate possible solutions
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT MODEL 2. Design, build and operate pollution control
• Extent of environmental impact depends on: systems
1. Population Summary
2. Per capita consumption of resources Identify and quantify pollution problem
3. Amount of pollution or environmental (environmental science)
degradation per unit of resource used. Solve pollution problem (environmental
• Formula engineering)

environmental impact = (number of people) x

(per capita consumption of resources) x
(degradation and pollution per unit of resource REACTIONS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
used)
1. Acid-Base Reactions
TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
• Bronsted- Lowry Theory
1. People overpopulation acid – donor of H+
- circumstance in which a large number of base – acceptor of H+
people have insufficient resources and therefore • Ampotheric – chemical species that are
overuse them capable of acting as either acid or base
- e.g. Africa • Neutralization reaction – reaction
between a strong base and a strong acid
2. Consumption overpopulation that results in formation of salt
– the use of resources at a very high rate by a • Strongest Acid: H2SO4
small number of people • Strongest Base: OH-
- e.g. USA • Surface water polluted by acid rain: Ph
= 4.5
 Seawater – Ph=8-10
Unpolluted Water – Ph=5.5
3. Precipitation Reaction
Important Acid-Base Reactions:
4. Complexation
2. Reduction – Oxidation (RedOx) Reactions
- reactions that involve the complete
transfer of electrons from a chemical
species to another
• reduction – gain of electrons
• oxidation – loss of electrons
• cannot happen independently from
each other
• very important example is aerobic
photosynthesis
• Examples of Redox Reactions
- reaction in which soluble ions in
separate solutions are mixed together to
form an insoluble compound that settles
out of solution as a solid
• most environmentally important
precipitation reactions involve water as
solvent
- complex formation is a reaction that results
in dative bonds
• Complex Metal Ion - has a metal ion at
its centre with a number of other molecules
or ions surrounding it. These can be
considered to be attached to the central ion
by co-ordinate (dative covalent) bonds.
• Ligands - The molecules or ions
surrounding the central metal ion
• Complexes – metal + lone pair
- sharing or orbitals and vacant
shell
Complexes in the Environment:
- Metals are usually able to form complexes
- EDTA – used in detergents (surfactants)
- Mercury – a teratogen, form a complex
with EDTA
- Effect of mercury in pregnant women is
passed on fetus
- Solubility increases when a metal forms a
complex
- That is, mercury alone < mercury-EDTA
- More Soluble in soil, human body =
contamination
Examples:

•Chelates - molecules that can trap or
encapsulate certain highly reactive trace
metal cations
• Bioavailability- the ability to absorb and
use the mineral. Bioavailability can be
increased or decreased depending on the
mineral-chelate complex formed.
5. Hydrolysis Reactions
- reactions that involve water as one of
the reactants
• Acid hydrolysis reactions involve acid
solutions
•Base hydrolysis reactions involve base
solutions
-Examples of Hydrolysis
- alkyl halides are poisonous and
persistent
- halides alone have less impact
compared to alkyl halides
5. Free Radical Reactions
- reactions involving free radicals
• Free Radicals - atomic or molecular
species with unpaired electrons
• Reactive oxidative species (ROS) - like
sunlight and carcinogens lead to the
formation of free radicals
Example of Free Radicals:
• Superoxide and hydroxyl radical
- participate in unwanted side
reactions resulting in cell damage
- cancer are thought to be the result
of reactions between free radicals
and DNA
- some of the symptoms of aging are
also attributed to free-radical
induced oxidation of many of the
chemicals making up the body
- anti-oxidants neutralize free
radicals such as retinoic acid,
vitamin E and green teas/dark
chocolates by donating their own
electron
Anti-oxidants examples:
- Glutathione – natural antioxidant
of the body; use as an antioxidant
to clean liver; side effect:
whitening effect
- VIAGRA – before: improves blood
circulation
Example of Free Radical Reactions:
- Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) have long
residence time
- Can go up to the stratosphere
- When CFC is present in the stratosphere,
breakdown of ozone is faster and ozone
formation is lower = OZONE DEPLETION
- Ozone layer is more depleted in poles =
material moves from high P,T to low P,T
CHEMICALS OF CONCERN
•Organic Compound – contains C and H
covalently bonded together
- may also contain other atoms
like N,S,P and halogens
•Aliphatic Compound – are organic compounds,
in which carbon atoms are joined together in
straight or branched chains
Examples of aliphatics:
•Aromatic Compound – organic compounds
which include a benzene ring
 Examples of aromatics: Examples of POPs
1. Dioxin – carcinogen POPs Chemicals:
2. Triclosan – found in toothpastes, • Aldrin and Dieldrin
safeguard (fungicide) • Endrin
3. PCB –cleaves into smaller molecules • Chlordane
(carcinogens) • DDT
• Heptachlor
Issues:
• Hexachlorobenzene
1. They are suspected carcinogens • Mirex
2. Very stable. Non-biodegradable. • Toxaphene
Persistent. • PCBs
• Dioxins and Furans

Health Effects in Humans

• Immune system biochemical alterations
• Reproductive deficits
• A shortened period of lactation in nursing
mothers
1. PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS (POPS) • Neurobehavioral impairment including
learning disorders, reduced performance on
- carbon containing chemical compounds that, to
standard tests, and attention deficits
a varying degree, resist photochemical, biological
• Diabetes
and chemical degradation • Cancer
- often halogenated and characterized by low
water solubility and high lipid solubility EMERGING POLLUTANTS
- semi-volatile, a property which permits them 1. Caffeine
either to vaporize or to be adsorbed on 2. Triclosan
atmospheric particles 3. Estrogen – female hormone
- undergo long range transport in air and water
from warmer to colder regions of the world
- Chemical substances that persist in the
environment, bioaccumulates through the food
web, and pose a risk of causing adverse effects
to human health
- Long range transport of POPs is the cause why
they are found in regions where they are not
used or produced

Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification

 Example DDT (lypophilic)
 DDT concentration rises from the
bottom of the food pyramid
 It interfered with calcium
production in heming gull eggs (has
2. ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS
thin shells)
- exogenous (outside the body)
substances that cause adverse
biological effects by interfering with
the endocrine system and disrupting
the functions of hormones
- can result in changes in growth,
development, reproduction or
behaviour that can affect the
organism itself, or the next
generation
 - Sources:
1. Incineration – burning waste
2. Combustion – burning fuel

WAYS ON HOW THE ENVIRONMENT

PROTECT ITSELF
Pollutants redistribute and stay in the environment.
1. Photolysis – pollutants are converted to
substances of lower impact
2. Hydrolysis – breaks down pollutants using water
to reduce impact
3. Volatilization to Atmosphere – pollutants divide
to atmosphere and body of water HYDROSPHERE
4. Biodegration and Transformation – true for
putrescible pollutants using microorganisms in Hydrosphere
water • Liquid portion of the atmosphere
5. Dillution and Diffusion – lowering of • Primarily water
concentration as a pollutant go to the body of
water Beneficial Uses of Water
6. Deposition and Resuspension – for solid • Aquatic life and fisheries
pollutants (deposited at the bottom of the body • Drinking water resources
of water and becomes a fossil) • Domestic uses
7. Bioconcentration – pollutant divides itself • Recreation
between water phase and living phase • Agricultural use
• Industrial uses
• Transportation

Water Properties
 Water is called the "universal solvent" because it
dissolves more substances than any other liquid
 Pure water has a neutral pH of 7, which is
neither acidic nor basic
  Water is unique in that it is the only natural
substance that is found in all three states --
liquid, solid (ice), and gas (steam) -- at the
temperatures normally found on Earth.
 Water is unusual in that the solid form, ice, is
less dense than the liquid form, which is why ice
floats.
 Water has higher density than most other
liquids.
 Water has high heat capacity. (Land has lower
heat capacity)
 Water has high heat of vaporization
 Water has a very high surface tension. (Water
from roots going up to the plant requires high
surface tension)  Processes in the cycle:
Precipitation
– the change of atmospheric water vapor to liquid
(rain) or solid (snow)
Evaporation - the change of water from liquid to
vapor
Transpiration – the release of water into the
atmosphere by plant and animal cells
Evapotranspiration – liquid to vapor but most go to
living things
Infiltration – the movement of liquid water downward
from the land surface into and through the soil and
rock. Recharges ground water.
Runoff – the total amount of water from continents
flowing into a stream

All water on Earth:  Residence Time – the amount of time that a water
0.3% is usable by humans molecule typically resides in a given reservoir
99.7% is unusable by humans Oceans – 2650 years
atmosphere – about 8 days
continents – 403 years
Hydrologic Cycle
 Three main reservoirs of water:  Hydrologic budget – compares inflow and outflow of
1. Oceans water in a certain reservoir
2. Atmosphere • Storage = INPUT – OUTPUT
3. Continents • Groundwater = infiltration – discharge
 Hydrologic cycle = (Precipitation-Evapotranspiration) -
- the movement of water from one reservoir to Discharge
another
- Powered by the sun
 Possible because of the different phase changes that
water can undergo:
- evaporation and condensation
- sublimation
- melting and freezing

Surface Water Systems
• Drainage channels and enclosed bodies of water
that regulate the supply of fresh water in the
continents
• Include rivers, lakes, ponds and wetlands
• Store some precipitation and glacial melt water
and carry the run-off to replenish the ocean
• Supports an ecology of interdependent plant and
animal
1. Rivers
- Drain into oceans
- Characterized by uni-directional current with
a relatively high velocity (0.1-1.0 m/s)
- Thorough and continuous vertical mixing
(able to dilute pollutants)
- Lateral mixing may take place only over
considerable distances
2. Lakes
- Body of water that is surrounded by land
- Characterized by a low, average current
velocity of 0.001 to 0.01m/s (surface values)
- No thorough vertical mixing (more
susceptible to pollutants)
- Currents are multi-directional
- Alternating periods of stratification and
vertical mixing the periodicity of which is
regulated by climactic conditions and lake
depth.
EUTROPHICATION OF LAKE
- Aging of lakes; proliferation of algal
growth
Age of Lakes:
1. Oligotrophic – Young Lake
2. Mesotrophic – Middle-aged lake
3. Eutrophic – Older Lake
2 TYPES OF EUTRPHICATION:
1. Natural
– results from natural sources of
nutrients
- occurs over centuries
2. Cultural
– results from human-induced
urban run-off
-occurs over decades
ALGAL BLOOM
- Proliferation of algae
- Esteros: fecal matters has NPK
- A body of water becomes neutrophile
- Water quality depends on DO. A high
DO means clear and odorless water.
- HOW DOES IT AFFECT DO?
- When algae die, it will settle on the
bottom of a lake. It increases the
amount of sediments present in the
lake. The dead algae undergoes
 decomposition thus using oxygen in
the process. Oxygen is then depleted.
- Aerobic animals are located on the
upper portion of the body of water.
Anaerobic at the bottom.
- Temperature increases from the
bottom to the top.
- great spots for fishing, canoeing, hiking, and
bird-watching,
GROUNDWATER
- Underground water
- Water table – determines the boundary where
groundwater starts
- Characterized by steady flow patterns in terms of
direction and velocity
- Velocity is between 10-10 to 10-3 and largely
governed by permeability and porosity of the
geological material
- Poor mixing

Environmental hazard associated with

3. Wetlands groundwater:
- Poorly drained, low relief (elevation) areas in 1. land subsidence
which the soil is seasonally or perenially 2. groundwater mining
saturated or covered with water 3. saline intrusion in coastal areas
- Examples include rice paddies, mangrove 4. groundwater pollution
forests and marshes Sources:
- Rich in organic matter - oil-storage tanks
- Destroyed mainly through draining and filling - pesticides and fertilizers
Functions - septic tanks
- provide habitat for plants and animals in the - landfills (engineered dumping
watershed sites)
- help to absorb and slow floodwaters. - Leachates – water that percolates
- absorb excess nutrients, sediment, and other through the garbage and
pollutants before they reach rivers, lakes, dissolves nutrients
and other waterbodies.
- (Phytoremediation) – removal of pollutants Major sources of groundwater pollution:
from mine tailings by plants 1. leaking underground storage tanks and
septic tanks
 2. leachate from landfills and dumpsites
3. pesticides and fertilizers from agricultural
fields
4. accidental spills
- Contaminants flow in groundwater thru
DISPERSION. Same concentration as it reaches
the groundwater (not diluted). Solution: Put a
semi permeable barrier: inject/collect
groundwater, treat, re-inject back

Contaminated groundwater is cleaned by

1. containment
2. containment withdrawal
3. bioremediation

Coastal and Marine Waters

• Saline because the rate of addition of ions from
rivers exceeds their rate of depletion
• “Dumping Ground”
• Surface currents are driven by winds
• Deep-ocean currents occur because of gravity
pulls water along a density gradient created by
vertical differences in temperature and salinity

•
 • Pollution in Oceans
• - consists of waste water from homes and
• - wastes are contained and disposed of on
WATER POLLUTION
WATER POLLUTION
- Water pollution occurs when a body of
water is adversely affected due to the
addition of large amounts of materials to the
water
- When it is unfit for its intended use, water is
considered polluted
POINT AND NONPOINT SOURCES
• Point sources
- occur when harmful substances are emitted
directly into a body of water from a pipeline
or sewer
-technology exists for point sources of
pollution to be monitored and regulated
• Nonpoint sources
- delivers pollutants indirectly by passing
through the continents
-example is when fertilizer from a field is
carried into a stream by rain
- Nonpoint sources are much more difficult
to control
- Try to convert from nonpoint to point
source to determine the real problem
WATER POLLUTION CLASSIFICATION
(SOURCES)
The major sources of water pollution can be classified as
municipal, industrial, and agricultural
1. Municipal water pollution
commercial establishments
e.g. Home: Fecal matters, kitchen
wastes, sediments
2. Agricultural water pollution
- includes commercial livestock and poultry
farming
- contaminants include both sediment from
erosion cropland and compounds of phosphorus
and nitrogen that partly originate in animal
wastes and commercial fertilizers
land; their main threat to natural waters,
therefore, is from runoff and leaching
e.g. animal wastes, pesticides
3. "Industrial wastewater"
- means process and non-process wastewater
from manufacturing, commercial, mining, and
silvicultural facilities or activities, including the
runoff and leachate from areas that receive
pollutants associated with industrial or
commercial storage, handling or processing, and
all other wastewater not otherwise defined as
domestic wastewater
eg. Oil Refining : BTEX
Food Processing: Additives,
preservatives, blood, hair
WATER POLLUTANTS
1. Oxygen Demanding Material
- anything that can be oxidized in the receiving
water with the consumption of molecular oxygen
- usually biodegradable organic matter
- comes primarily from human waste and food
residue in domestic wastewater
- can come from industries like food and pulp
and paper
- examples: human waste, food residue
- alive: respiration, dead:decomposition
Introduction to DO
DO = Dissolved oxygen
 High DO = cleaner water
 Aquatic aerobic organisms need
oxygen to survive
  Maximum amount in clean water is
about 9 mg/L.
 DO varies with temperature,
salinity, elevation, and turbulence
(mixing).
 Increase in Temperature, Salinity
and elevation decreases DO
 Increase in Turbulence, Increase DO

• REAERATION
- Process of dissolving oxygen from atmosphere to
the water body
- Rate of reaeration is proportional to oxygen
deficit
- Rate of reaeration = k1D (dependent on physical
property of water)
- Rate of usage of DO = k2L (L is the conc. Of
Oxygen-demanding material) (dependent on
type of wastewater)
- dDO/dt = k1D – k2L

1) Clean Zone – dDO/dt = 0 (constant)

Effect of Turbulence on DO
2) Decomposition Zone – k2>k1; faster
• A stream with good mixing will
depletion rate
replenish DO quickly
3) Septic Zone – dDO/dt = 0
• A slow, sluggish stream (or a lake)
4) Recovery one – k1>k2; faster reaeration
will replenish DO slowly
rate
5) Clean Zone - dDO/dt = constant
•OXYGEN DEFICIT
 Difference between actual DO and • DO SAG CURVE
DO at saturation (DOs) see figure
- Temporal DO Sag Curve – DO vs time
 Oxygen Sinks:
- Spatial DO Sag Curve – DO vs x
 Aquatic Organisms
 Benthic decomposition
 Oxygen Demanding
Materials
 Oxygen Sources:
 Atmosphere
 Green Plants
 Poliomyelitis (3 types) Acute anterior poliomyelitis,
infantile paralysis
PROTOZOA
Entamoeba histolytica Amebiasis (amebic dysentery,
amebic enteritis, amebic
colitis)
Cryptosporidium Crystosporidiasis (cramping,
vomiting, diarrhea, fever)
Giardia lamblia Giardisasis (Giardia enteritis,
lambliasis, hikers disease)

4. Suspended Solids
- organic and inorganic particles that are carried
by the wastewater into a receiving water
2. Nutrients - reduce usefulness and value of the water
- Nitrogen and phosporous - scenario: when suspended solids settle at the
- problem when they become excessive bottom, the body of water becomes shallower.
(eutrophication) Some fishes need soil porosity in order to hatch
- sources can be phosporous based reagents their eggs.
fertilizers and food-processing wastes - effect is ORGANOLEPTIC –something that can
o E.g. fecal matter and livestock – be seen/smell
delivered back to wetland
5. Salts
3. Pathogenic Organisms - dissolved solids
- include bacteria, viruses and protozoa excreted  Water Hardness
by diseased persons and animals  Total concentration of
- causes infections/diseases multi-valent cations
- makes water non-potable Includes
+2
- shellfish can concentrate pathogenic organisms • Calcium Ca
+2
in their tissues. • Magnesium Mg
+3
• Iron Fe
+2
• Manganese Mn
Effects of Hardness
Pathogens Causes soap scum and water spots
- disease-causing viruses, parasites, and bacteria Causes scaling in:
- sources include hospitals, schools, farms, and • Swamp coolers
food processing plants • Cooling towers
-illnesses from wastewater-related sources • Boilers and pipes
include gastroenteritis , hepatitis A, typhoid, -water must be demineralized
polio, cholera, and dysentery before using to prevent scaling

Pathogen Disease 6. Toxic metals and toxic organic compounds

BACTERIA - agricultural run-offs containing pesticides
Escherichia Coli Cramping, vomiting, diarrhea, and herbicides
fever - urban run-off can be source of metals
Francisella tularensis Tularemia (deer fly fever)
and organics from gasoline
Leptospirae Leptospirosis (Weil’s disease,
swineherd’s disease, - Metals in IONIC FORM are more toxic compared
hemorrhagic jaundice) to its metallic form
Salmonella paratyphi Paratyphoid (enteric fever) - Acute – one time, big time
(A,B,C) - Chronic – everyday small dosage
Salmonella typhi Typhoid fever, enteric fever
Shigella (S. Felxneri, S. Shigellosis (bacillary
sonnei, S. dysenteriae, S. dysentery)
boydii)
Vibrio Comma (Vibrio Cholera (Asiatic, Indian, El
cholerae) Tor)
VIRUSES
Hepatitis type A Infectious Hepatitis
 Temperature
- only a problem with
wastewater discharges.
Sources:
Power plants
Industrial cooling
Effects:
• Fish and other organisms sensitive
to temperature.
• Higher temperature causes lower
solubility of DO in water.
• Biological processes are
temperature-dependent and
chemical reactions and reaction
rates all temperature sensitive.

pH
- acidity or alkalinity of wastewater
affects both treatment and the
environment
- pH of wastewater needs to remain
between 6 and 9 to protect
beneficial organisms

7. Synthetic or Chemical Organic Compounds 8. Heat

- more stable and cannot be quickly broken - comes primarily from industry through
down by organisms use of cooling water
-certain synthetic organics are highly toxic
- can also damage processes in treatment
plants.
9. Gases
- examples: benzene, toluene phenols - can cause odors, affect treatment, or are
-found in some solvents, degreasers, potentially dangerous
petroleum products pesticides, and other -example: H2S
products @ low conc. = smelly
- synthetic organic compounds are being @ high cnc. = no smell
developed all the time, which can complicate
treatment efforts.
 *TS = TDS + TSS
*TS = VS + FS
MEASUREMENTS OF WATER QUALITY
PHYSICAL MEASURES OF WATER QUALITY
A. TOTAL SOLIDS
Types of Solids Acc. to Chemical Property:
1. Organic – (C, H covalently bonded to S,
O,N)
2. Inorganic – include salts and minerals
Types of Solids According to Size:
1. Suspended > 1 mm (larger than bacteria)
2. Colloidal between 1 mm and .001 mm
3. Dissolved < .001 mm
4.
• Total Solids (TS)
- related to both specific conductance
and turbidity
• Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
- solids in water that can pass through a filter
(pore size of 0.45 micrometer)
- about 90 % in true solution and 10% colloidal
- about 40 % organic and 60 % inorganic
• Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
– solids in water that can be trapped by a
filter
- can be removed from the water by
physical or mechanical means
- 70% organic and 30 % inorganic
- consist of settleable and colloidal solids
Types of TSS
• Settleable – can settle in one-
hour
- determined using Imhoff cone
- approx. 75% organic
- indicates the volume of solids
removed by settling in
sedimentation tanks, clarifiers or
ponds
 Imhoff Cone: determining the maximum depth at
which it is visible
- longer depth = lower turbidity
- results are reported in meters

•Settleable Solids Test -indicates -

whether the primary and secondary
processes are functioning properly 2. Chemical titration method
o Unit: mL settleable solids/L sample – involves titrating a turbidity solution
1. Fill an Imhoff cone to the one-
into a sample until an equilibrium point
liter mark with a well-mixed
sample.
is reached.
2. Allow sample to settle in the - results are reported in Nephlometer
Imhoff cone for 45 minutes. Turbidity Units (NTU) or Jackson
3. Gently stir the sample with a Turbidity Units (JTU)
glass rod to release the -in general, a turbidity value of > 40 NTU
suspended matter clinging to the for at least twenty-four hours indicates a
sides of the Imhoff cone. problem.
4. Let sample settle for an
additional 15 minutes. COMPARISON
5. At this point, one hour has
Gravimetry – for a lot of SS (wastewater)
passed. Record the volume of
settleable solids (in milliliters) in
Turbidity Meter – for POTABILITY check
the Imhoff cone.

• Colloidal Suspended Solids C. COLOR

- not truly dissolved yet do not settle readily • Anthropogenic sources:
- important factor in treatment and disposal of 1. Paper mills
wastewater 2. Textile mills
• Suspended Solids (SS) 3. Food processing
– used as measure of wastewater • Impact of Color
strength and process performance • Usually an aesthetic problem, both in drinking
• Volatile Suspended Solids (VSS) water and wastewater
– indicator of the organic content of • May be an indication of toxicity
wastewater • May stain textiles and fixtures
- provides measure of the active Measurement of color
microbial population in biological Optical principle
processes Light is absorbed
Measures absorbance in nm
Place detector in direction of incoming light
B. TURBIDITY source
- measure of water clarity
- capacity of solids in the water to scatter light ;
caused by suspended solids

Measuring turbidity
1. Secchi disk method – involves • TRUE COLOR UNITS (TCU)
lowering a special black and white disk o Compare to the color of chromium
called a Secchi disk into the water and (yellow)
 o For compliance monitoring

D. TASTE AND ODOR

- usually inter-related
Inorganic chemicals can affect taste but not
cause any odor:
• Salt
• Minerals
• Metals
A few inorganic chemicals can cause both taste
and odor problems:
• Ammonia
• Chlorine
• Hydrogen sulfide
Organic chemicals usually affect both taste and
odor:
• Biological decay products
• Petroleum products
• Pesticides
Impact of Taste and Odor
• Odors from wastewater an aesthetic
problem.
• Taste and odor in drinking water can
upset consumers B. DISSOLVED SOLIDS
-represents the total amount of salts in
Taste and Odor Measurement the water
• Very subjective test:
Precipitation and Dissolution
• Get 5-10 volunteers
• Dissolution: Minerals enter into water
• Give volunteers water
sample diluted with • Precipitation: Minerals are deposited
decreasing amounts of DW out of water
• Have them taste and smell
water Effect of pH on TDS
• Have them record when - Some solids such as carbonates,
they detect taste or smell oxides and hydroxides tend to dissolve
(TON) under acidic conditions (pH < 7)
- By the same token, these solids tend
to precipitate out of the water under
E. TEMPERATURE basic conditions pH >7)
–measured in situ - measured as conductivity
- compliance monitoring
Conductivity
- indicates the concentration of
inorganic (ionized salts)
CHEMICAL MEASURES OF WATER QUALITY - used for compliance monitoring,
process control and performance
A. pH monitoring
- pH must be measured in situ and must - high conductivity = high ionized salts
be accompanied by temperature - Conductivity
measurement T = k x conductance
k = 0.55 to 0.75
pH of Natural Waters - conductance is measured in
• Surface water pH from 6.5 to 8 microsiemens/cm ( S/cm)
• Groundwater pH from 5.5 to 7.5
Dissolved Oxygen
• Acid rain pH as low as 3
-mg/L or % saturation
• Lakes damaged by acid rain can have - concentration of oxygen gas dissolved in a
pH of 4 or less liquid
 - AERATION – process of putting oxygen in
water
- use for process control of sewage
treatment aeration system
ORP (mV)
- Measure of the voltage difference
between a solution and standard
electrode
- Implies the amount of reducing or
oxidizing agent present in the
solution
- The higher the ORP the more
oxiding the environment is.. higher
DO… permits more aerobic
reactions
- Used for process control
C. ORGANIC CONTENT
CxHyOz + bacteria + nutrient + O2 → CO2 +
H2O + protoplasm
Collective Analysis is done
Methods
A. Based on the amount of carbon dioxide
produced
- TOC (Total Organic Carbon)
B. Based on the amount of oxygen used
(oxygen demand)
- BOD, COD, TOD
Measurement of TOC
• TOC concentration is not directly measured;
the Analyzer measures total carbon (TC) and
total inorganic carbon (TIC) and subtract TIC
from TC to obtain TOC.
• An oxidizer and an acid are added to the
sample. The acid reacts with bicarbonate and
carbonate ions present in the sample to
release carbon dioxide (CO2)(TIC in the
sample)
• The sample is then subjected to ultra-violet
(UV) radiation, which reacts with the oxidant
and breaks down all remaining carbon bonds
in the sample to release CO2.
• The CO2 released from both the acid reaction
and the UV radiation represents all the
carbon (TC) released from the sample.
• TOC is then obtained by subtracting TIC from
TC.
• |CO2,out – CO2,in|/L of sample
• Expensive!
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
- the amount of oxygen required by aerobic
microorganisms to decompose the organic
matter in a sample of water and used as a
measure of the degree of water pollution
- Disadvantage not for cellulosic,
aromatic; can’t give the total
BDO
Equations for BOD:
L = Lo(10 –kt)
L = carbonaceous BOD remaining at time t
(O2 needed to oxidize carbonaceous organic
matter remaining)
Lo = ultimate carbonaceous oxygen demand
(ultimate BOD; O2 needed to oxidize
carbonaceous organic matter initially
present)
k= rate constant
BOD Test Description
- If waste is very strong, it is diluted
with a known amount of water.
- If waste does not contain bacteria,
they are added (seeded).
- Test is run for 5 days
- Temperature is kept at 20°C
- Bottles are kept in the dark.
- Analyzed by measuring the DO at
the beginning and end of a time
period, usually 5 days.
- Rationale:
o 20 °C = temp of rivers
o 5 days = days for waste
runoff to sea
o River-system simulation
o BOD5 means tested in 5
days
o Dark brown bottle =
easily degrades
o Disadvantages – not for
cellulosic, aromatic;
can’t give the total BDO
Sample Calculation:
Waste is diluted 1:100
Initial DO = 9 mg/L
Final DO = 3 mg/L
BOD = 100*(9-3) = 600 mg/L
 Factors Affecting BOD
• Seed
• Toxicity
• Nitrification
oxidation of carbonaceous
matter:
CxHyOz  CO2 + H2O
oxidation of nitrogenous material
NH3  NO2  NO3
Equation:
BOD exerted =
–k1t
Lo(1-10 ) + LN(1 – 10 )
–k2t
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
- indicates the amount of oxygen needed to
chemically oxidize organic compounds present in
wastewater
- based on the fact that nearly all organic
compounds can be fully oxidized to carbon
dioxide with a strong oxidizing agent under acidic
conditions.
- Advantage – more thorough
analysis
- Disadvantage – oxidizes non-
organic compounds
Oxidizing Agents
1. Potassium Permanganate
(KMn04)- poor oxidizing agent
2. Potassium Dichromate
(K2Cr2O7)
- dichromate is reduced to form
Cr+3,
- Cr+3 is used as indirect measure
of organic content of water
sample
-oxidizable inorganic materials
may interfere with the
determination of COD (chloride,
nitrite, ferrous iron, sulfides)
Total Oxygen Demand (TOD)
- Determined by oxidation at high
temperature and use of a suitable
catalyst
- Oxidizes ammonium and ammonia
- During TOD measurements, non-
carbon containing compounds, for
example sulphur and nitrogen
compounds, are also oxidized.
D. PATHOGENS
-organism that produces disease
Limitations to direct measurement of
pathogens in water:
• Time consuming and laborious analyses
• Large numbers of potential pathogens
requires many types of analyses
• Pathogens are normally present in
relatively low concentrations.
• large sample volumes
• sample pre-concentration
• High cost
Pathogen Measurement Alternative
Use a pathogen indicator as a surrogate
of many direct pathogen measurements
• Eschrichia Coli (E. Coli) is the
preferred pathogen indicator.
Note: this is not the pathogenic
E. Coli O157:H7 strain
Properties of E. Coli as a
pathogen indicator
• Present in the in the intestinal
tract of warm-blooded animals
• Found in much higher
concentrations than most
pathogens in fecal material
• Non-pathogenic
• Easy to detect
• Relatively fast and inexpensive
analysis
• Its absence indicates absence
of enteric pathogens
Most Probable Number (MPN) Test
Total Coliform – all aerobic and
facultative anaerobic gram-
negative, non-spore forming,
rod-shaped bacteria that
ferment lactose with gas
formation within 48 hours
E. NUTRIENTS
A. Nitrogen – nitrate, nitrite, ammonia
nitrogen, organic nitrogen and N2
Kjeldahl method
o Total ammonia nitrogen and
organic nitrogen – nitrate,
nitrite – spectrophotometric
methods
B. Phosporous – dissolved ortho-
phosphates and poly-phosphates
Calorimetry
 o Determination of total • Threat to Public health
phosphorus • Threat to local livelihood
• Threat to quality of tourism

WATER REGULATIONS % of Rivers that are considered as sources of

36
water supply
% of groundwater that is contaminated with
58
• Coastal Water – coastal water within coastal and coliform and needs to be treated
marine areas, where the area and resources start from % of groundwater extraction that is covered
the point on land where it interacts with the sea and the 40
by proper permits
sea interacts with land, up to the point at sea where % of illnesses monitored over a 5-year
human activities affect it. period that is caused by water-borne 31
sources
• Philippine Coasts at Glance % of Philippine population connected to a
7
sewer system
Annual economic loss (health costs, fisheries
and tourism losses) caused by water 67
pollution in billions of pesos
Investment required to put a sewerage
250
infrastructure, billion pesos

• Water Quality Situationer

•Problems Affecting Philippine Coasts

• Over fishing and destructive fishing practice

- Cyanide
- Dynamite
- Compressor
- Trawler
•Unsustainable Logging Practices and
Deforestation
• Slash and Burn Farming
• Agricultural Run-off: Chemical Fertilizer,
Pesticides and Sedimentation
• Lack of proper Sewerage Treatment and solid • Water Situationer
waste facilities continue to threaten costal water Water pollution and contamination:
quality o Increase in water pollution loads by 16
• Unplanned and unregulated development to 18 times for solids and organics
along the shoreline results in environmental Water resources use competition:
degradation and resource use conflicts domestic, municipal, industrial uses.
• Threat to Quality of Life
 o From 1995 to 2025: Increase of 70 to
345%
o Industrial use in cities: 700%

EFFLUENT REGULATIONS

WATER QUALITY STANDARDS

CLEAN WATER ACT

• RA 9275- Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004
• DAO 2005-10 – RA 9275 IRR

Effluent Regulations Notes: Primary aspects of the Clean Water Act:

1. Nationalize a system of discharge permits, in
effect, granting permissions to industry for the
use of surface waters (lakes, rivers, etc.)
2. Create water quality management areas that
will be responsible for all the water and all water
users within their jurisdictions.
3. Make retrofits and use of clean technology
more feasible than paying fines, encourage
industry to use less water by rewarding re-use /
recycling

Salient features of the Clean Water Act include

the following:
1. To promote a system of policy coordination
and cooperation among LGUs, water quality
management areas or “river basins” shall be
formed, each with a governing board.
2. Establishment of a national baseline of
groundwater vulnerability.
3. Requirement for sewage generators in highly
urbanized cities (HUCs) and Metro Manila to
put up appropriate sewage collection and
treatment facilities or connect to sewage
lines. In areas not considered as HUCs, a
septic or combined sewerage septic
management system shall be employed.
4. Establishment of effluent standards based on
categories of point sources.
5. Implementation of water pollution charge
system based on “polluters pay principle”.
The fee shall be based on the total waste
load and other factors.
6. For new projects which are subjected to EIA
System, a financial guarantee instrument
shall be required to finance emergency
response, clean-up or rehabilitation of
affected areas, should pollution incident
clearly attributable to the project occurs.
7. Establishment of Water Quality Management
Fund to finance containment and clean-up
operations of government, research,
capability-building, enforcement and
monitoring other expenses.
01 ONSITE TREATMENT
ONSITE TREATMENT
- Water treatment - water from a source (such as
dams) is treated via sedimentation, filtration and
chlorination
- Wastewater treatment - water from a process is
treated before being discharged
- Onsite treatment - wastewater is treated
where it is generated
- Offsite treatment - true for domestic
wastewater, water travels through a pipe
and is treated elsewhere
ONSITE TREATMENTS
A. SEPTIC TANKS
• buried, watertight receptacles designed and
constructed to receive wastewater from the
structure to be served
• separates solids from the liquid, provides limited
digestion of organic matter, stores solids, allows
the clarified liquid to discharge
• Commonly used for homes in rural areas
• Wastewater flows into tank, where solids settle,
oil & grease floats
• Treated wastewater flows into a network of
perforated pipes, then trickles into the soil
• PARTS
• Inspection port
• Access port (people can go in)
• Scum and grease (lighter than water)
• Clarified water (in between scum and grease
& sludge)
• Sludge (heavier than water)
• 4 zones in a sedimentation tank
• Inlet Zone (make the velocity of the
particles uniform as it enters the
settling zone via baffles)
• Settling Zone
• Sludge Zone
• Outlet Zone (overflow weirs are
used to avoid entrainment of
particles due to turbulence)
• Leach field (gravel)
• Baffle – promotes uniform velocity
• Outlet Tee – retainment of particles;
overflow weir
ADVANTAGES OF SEPTIC TANKS
o Relatively low capital costs
o Low maintenance requirements
 Pag wala nang tubig, kailangan
tanggalin yung sludge sa ilalim
 Antiseptic tank pumping (?)
o Does not require an electrical power supply
DISADVANTAGES OF SEPTIC TANKS
• Maintenance-intensive: sludge must be pumped
out every 1-2 years
• Leach field is vulnerable to clogging with oil &
grease
• BOD and nitrates are not treated effectively
• Can cause groundwater contamination
• Septic tanks are usually made of
concrete - contaminants seep out
• Newer materials of construction are
now used to avoid this (HDPE, PVC)
(dense and lighter)
• Easy to move out
• NOT so efficient in the degradation of organics
• Can cause smell nuisance
• Effluent produced cannot be discharged to a ditch
or stream
• Requires emptying of water and sludges for
cleaning
SEPTIC TANK SYSTEM
 Leach Field – made up of perforated
pipes in parallel/series

SEPTIC TANK PARAMETERS
1. Effective volume
2. Retention time
DESIGN
B. CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS
PRODUCTS OF SEPTIC TANKS
1. SCUM
- Substances lighter than water (oil, grease,
fats) float to the top, where they form a
scum layer.
2. SLUDGE
- The "sinkable" solids (soil, grit, bones,
unconsumed food particles) settle to the
bottom of the tank and form a sludge layer.
Anaerobic bacteria works
3. EFFLUENT
- The clarified wastewater left over after the
scum has floated to the top and the sludge
has settled to the bottom. It flows through
the septic tank outlet into the drain field.
- the liquid volume in the clear space between
the scum and sludge layers
- volume occupied by clarified water in the
settling zone
- time the water spends in the tank, on its
way from inlet to outlet.
- function of the effective volume and the
daily household wastewater flow rate
Retention Time (days) =
Effective Volume (gal) / Flow Rate (gal/day)
A common design rule is for a tank to provide a
minimum retention time of at least 24 hours, during
which one-half to two-thirds of the tank volume is
taken up by sludge and scum
Under ordinary conditions (i.e., with routine
maintenance pumping) a tank should be able to
provide 2 to 3 days of retention time.
Septic tank cannot be too big
• Maximum depth - 3m
• The inlet pipe must be positioned
1.10 m up from the bottom of the
tank
• The outlet pipe must be positioned
1.0 m up from the bottom of the
tank
- artificially created water bodies
- typically long, narrow trenches or channels to
promote the occurrence of PLUG FLOW
CONDITIONS – different concentrations through
length
- typically a 1-m deep basin which is sealed with
clay or some other form of lining to prevent
percolation into groundwater
- filled with soil in which reeds are then planted
- Layers (bottom to top): clay-HDPE-clay-top soil
(to be planted on)
- Stones and gravel provide filtering
- can significantly remove BOD, TSS, nitrogen and
phosphorus, as well as metals, trace organics
and pathogens
- mosquito control and plant harvesting are the
two main operational considerations
 - septic tank, a primary settling basin or an - Heavy metal removal
anaerobic reactor commonly precedes - PHYTOREMEDIATION - plants have
constructed wetlands for sewage treatment the ability to absorb metals
- A lined depression is filled with rock or sandy
- Problem: if the plants are too many,
media
- The granular material filters out solids they will die, until the wetland dies
- Bacteria degrade solids and soluble BOD to with it as the bodies settle.
inorganic nutrients (ammonia and phosphorous) - Solution: plants are
- Plants grow in the media assimilating nutrients removed regularly - you
- Common plants cannot just dispose of it if
o Bulrush the plants are used for
o Phragmites
heavy metal removal
o Cattail
o Duckweed - Incinerated
o canna lily - Trivia: red - lead
o reeds
o tambo (PH)
- Plants must be harvested frequently to prevent
overgrowth
- Effluent is very clean and typically meets CWA
requirements for discharge

CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS CONTAMINANTS

TWO SYSTEMS OF WETLANDS

1. Free water surface systems with shallow water
depths (SURFACE FLOW CONSTRUCTED
WETLAND)
- More efficient
- Wastewater in contact with plants
CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS ARE ABLE TO REMOVE
CONTAMINANTS
- BOD5 - removed from stems, leaves, roots,
and bed media via microbial respiration and
settling
- Phosphorus - stems, leaves, roots, bed
media
- Microbial respiration, uptake,
sedimentation/burial, adsorption
- Nitrogen - leaves, algae in water column,
roots, soil, bed media (gravel sand)
- Volatilization (as N2 and N2O)
+
- NO3 and NH4 → soluble organic 2. Subsurface flow systems with water flowing
nitrogen laterally through the sand or gravel
- Ammonium → nitrate (SUBSURFACE FLOW CONSTRUCTED WETLAND)
+
- Nitrate → N2, N2O or NH4 - Water is in contact with only the roots of the
- Settling plant

DESIGN
- Max hydraulic design loading flow: 25,000
gal/acre/day
- Minimum recommended detention time: 7-14
days
- Recommended depth of flow: 6-24 inches with 9 in
as optimum depth
- A rectangular configuration is recommended to
enhance treatment efficiency in the system with a
length to width ratio of between 5 and 10 to 1.
However, irregular shorelines offer substantially
better support for wildlife
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
• Detritus removal should be considered to prevent
aging of the wetland. Harvesting or burning are
two options available.
• To provide the greatest potential for wildlife
enhancement, 25 to 35% of the artificial wetland
surface should be open water with a depth no
greater than five feet.
• The emergent vegetation should comprise 65 to
75% of the available surface area with a water
depth of less than two feet deep.
• To prevent mosquito-production problems, the
design is such that the occurrence of hydraulically
static areas is minimized.
C. LAGOONS
o with the addition of an algal population
o Oxygen is supplied by natural reaeration from the
atmosphere and algal photosynthesis
o Degradation by bacteria releases carbon dioxide
and nutrients used by algae
o Higher life forms such as rotifers and protozoa
primarily as polishers of the effluent.
o Temperature has a significant effect on aerobic
pond operation. Organic loading, pH, nutrients,
sunlight, and degree of mixing are major factors
o CxHyOz + O2 -> CO2 + H2O + sludge (produced at
the bottom of lagoon
o Algae utilizes the CO2 produced
o CO2 and sludge settles at the bottom
o BOD degradation is not sufficient
3 TYPES OF BACTERIA
1. Aerobic - can degrade organics in the
presence of oxygen, will die if O2 is
absent, exists in the photic (aerobic)
zone (low depth) - most efficient
degradation
2. Anaerobic - can degrade organics in the
absence of oxygen, will die at the
presence of oxygen, exists in the
Facultative
3. Zone (highest depth) - will process most
of the BOD
4. Facultative - can function if O2 is absent
or present, can be anaerobic or aerobic
depending on circumstances, exists in
the Anaerobic Zone (average depth)
AEROBIC LAGOON
- Raw wastewater enter lagoon from left
- Solids settle to the bottom where aerobic lagoons
degrade the waste to carbon dioxide and
recalcitrant solids
- Carbon dioxide rises to the top where algae use it
as food source. Sunlight is used during
photosynthesis to create new algae.
- Algae settles to the bottom to be consumed by
bacteria as a food source
- Treated effluent is low in BOD but contains high in
TSS in the form of algae (green effluent)
- The process typically fails the CWA TSS
requirements for discharge but effluent is
acceptable for irrigation
- Lagoons eventually have to be cleaned as the
recalcitrant
- Therefore, lagoons are only applicable for specific
types of wastewater (such as school wastewater)
 ISSUES
- When it rains, bumabaho yung lagoon
- Runoffs, which consists of organics, will go to
the water. O2 is not enough to degrade
organics. H2S is produced due to
decomposition of anaerobic decomposition
- When it’s summer, bumabaho yung lagoon
- Less O2 dissolved
Facultative Lagoon
- Approximates CSTR behavior (if nasa taas yung
aerator)
- Approximates PFR behavior (if nasa baba yung
aerator)
- Due to high electricity demands, minsan hinahati
yung lagoon into regions of Aerobic and
Anaerobic/Facultative Parts
- Inlet -> Anaerobic -> Anaerobic -> (optional)
Sludge exit-> Aerobic -> Exit
- Aerobic becomes economical if 500 or less yung
BOD5, but still, it will require a lot of space

DESIGN BASIS
A. The total organic loading for the total surface area
shall not exceed 20 pounds of BOD5 per acre per day.
B. The design average flow rate shall be used to
determine the volume required to provide a
minimum liquid retention of 180 days.
C. The minimum depth must be two (2) feet. The
maximum normal liquid depth should not exceed 6
feet.
DISSOLVED OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS
1. Oxygen requirements generally will depend on the
BOD loading, the degree of treatment and the
concentration of suspended solids to be maintained.
2. Aeration equipment shall be capable of maintaining a
minimum dissolved oxygen level of 2 mg/l in the
ponds at all times.

02 OFFSITE TREATMENT

OFFSITE WASTEWATER TREATMENT

PROCESSES
5 treatment processes (you can stop anywhere, but sludge
treatment is always included
A. Preliminary
B. Primary
C. Secondary
D. Advanced or Tertiary
E. Sludge Treatment

A. Pre-treatment
– provide protection to the wastewater treatment
AERATED LAGOON plant equipment that follows
- Contains surface aerators to increase O2, B. Primary Treatment
therefore increase efficiency - remove from wastewater those pollutants that will
either settle or float
 - typically remove about 60% of the suspended solids 4. Grit Removal
and 35% of the 5. Equalization
BOD5
- soluble pollutants are not removed 1. Flow Measurement
C. Secondary Treatment - so that it can be compared with the
- remove soluble BOD5 and provide added removal of standards set by the law
suspended solids
- For efficient operation, chemical addition
- does not remove significant amounts of nitrogen,
- For a weir, the design equation is
phosphorus, heavy metals, pathogenic bacteria and
viruses - Q = 2.52H^2.47
- will remove dissolved solids (organics), can be - Flow rate needed for efficient operation,
chemical (for metallic) or biological (for BOD5) chemical addition, etc
D. Tertiary Treatment - Measure flow rate to facilitate plant
- done when secondary treatment is not operation
enough - Several operations need flow rate data for
- will remove hard to remove pollutants such good operation
as pathogens (disinfection) •Chlorination
E. Sludge handling and disposal •pH adjustment
- Legislative Requirement
Debris (large solids, branches, shoes), grit (hardened - 2 METHODS
organics) must be removed before treatment because 1.Parshall FLUME
they can damage pumps 2.V-notch Weir (Q = 2.52H^2.47)

Equipment
- Grit Screen
- Control Room
- Digesters
- Heating Building (uses methane produced
from anaerobic)
- Utility Building
- Bioreactor - aerated
- Pump Station
- Chlorine Contact Chamber
- Primary Settling Basins

A.PRELIMINARY TREATMENT
1. Flow Measurement
2. Screening
3. Solids Grinding
2. Screening
o Remove large objects
o Prevent damage to pumps and other
equipment
TWO TYPES OF SCREENS:
a. Coarse Screens
- remove debris from wastewater
- typically have openings of 6 mm or
larger
- Trash Rack (Mechanically cleaned -
equipped with a rake; Manual cleaned)
b. Fine Screens
- remove material that may create
operation and maintenance problems for
WWTP without primary treatment
- typical openings are 1.5- 6 mm.
SCREENINGS - Solids removed from screens
- solids removed from screens should be
promptly disposed off
- disposal in a sanitary landfill, grinding and
returning to wastewater flow, incineration
are the most common disposal practices
3. Shredding/Grinding
- Grind organic material that pass through
screening process
- Ground material is put back into wastewater
- Popularity is decreasing, due to maintenance
problems
- Device is called comminutor
COMMINUTOR - is a device that cuts and shreds any
solids in the wastewater that passes through its
screen. All particles passing through the comminutor
are cut to 5/16" or smaller.
Uses either:
a. rotating drums with cutting teeth
b. Barminutor – vertical bar screen with cutting
head
Channels in which comminutors are installed
shall be provided with an emergency bypass to a
bar screen
LOCATION
• Coarse bar racks or bar screens shall precede
communitors and mechanically cleaned grit
chambers.
 • Fine screens, if used, should follow grit removal and
have additional provisions for the removal of
floatable greases and oils. Comminuting devices shall
not be used ahead of fine screens.
5. Equalization
4. Grit Removal
- GRIT is hard inorganics such as sand, cinders,
wood chips, coffee grounds, etc.
- OBJECTIVES
• Remove sand and grit
• Prevent equipment damage
• Prevent the accumulation of these
materials in the Primary Clarifiers which
would cause a loss of usable tank volume
- Grit is incinerated or sent to landfill for
disposal
GRIT SETTLING CHAMBER
- equipment used for settling, utilizes gravity, low
velocity of flow - adjust cross sectional area of flow
- 2 ft /s > v > 1 ft/s
- Settlable solids must not settle kasi babaho
- To improve the settling of grit
- Use hydrocyclone
- Aerate to divert the flow (centrifugal flow)
- Aerated Grit Chamber - makes the fluid
flow circular
- Tangential velocity of solids will hit the
walls
- dampen variations in wastewater characteristics
so that the wastewater can be treated at a nearly
constant flowrate
- large basins that collect and store wastewater
and from which wastewater is pumped to the
treatment plant at constant flowrate
- located downstream of pre-treatment facilities
- Wastewater - designed for a flow rate (average
flow) and set of parameters (pH, etc) - since
microorganisms and enzymes are very sensitive
- However, there are instances that the
properties of wastewater vary
- Capture the average
- Prevent shock loading (mamamatay
enzymes due to sudden changes;
protect wastewater treatment facility)
- OBJECTIVES
• Smooth out fluctuations in flow rate
• Decrease fluctuations in flow rate, to provide
more consistent treatment.
- Done by storing excess wastewater during
high flow periods
- Results in more consistent treatment
- Wastewater is released during low flow
periods
LOCATION OF EQUALIZATION TANKS
1. Near the head end of treatment work. Preferably
downstream of pre-treatment facility.
2. Prior to discharge
3. Prior to advanced treatment operations.
4. Offline in a collection system
5. As in-line units
Equalization Tanks
 GREASE TRAP
- removes fats, oils that clog the sewer system
DESIGN OF EQUALIZATION TANKS
- Primarily controls flow rate (average flow) - Can collect solids that are floating on top
- Tank must not overflow or be empty given an - Usually 3 chambers
outgoing average flow rate - Skimming Belts are used to collect
- Cumulative Flow: sum of flow rate * time
- plot cumulative flow volume vs time
- Slope of plot is the flowrate
- Equalization volume: volume of tank
- From average daily flow, get point where
tangent is equal to ave daily flow (parallel),
different in volume is the equalization
volume

MIXING REQUIREMENTS
3
- 0.3 l/m sec (18 cfm/1000 cu ft) of basin volume is
the minimum to keep light solids in suspension
3
- approximately 0.02 kW/m

- Approaches to mixing:
1. Baffles- most economical Flotation Units:
2. Mechanical mixing- for smaller
equalization tanks, with high
TSS and rapid strength fluctuation
3. Aeration – most-energy intensive.

BASIN REQUIREMENTS:
• May be constructed of earth, concrete, or
steel
• Corner fillets and hopper bottoms with
drawoffs shall be provided to prevent
accumulation of sludge and grit
• Mixing requirements for normal domestic
wastewater shall range from 0.02 to 0.04
hp/1,000 gallons of storage
• Aeration shall be sufficient to maintain a
minimum of 1.0 mg/l of dissolved oxygen in
the basin at all times.
•

Oil Skimmer:
 - circular sludge collectors are relatively trouble
free but corner sweeps are problematic
- more weir length in corners leads to non-
uniform radial flow thus sludge collects in
corners
- inflow at center, outflow along perimeter weir
or radial collection troughs; circular rake arm
to rake sludge to center or with suction pipes
- depths usually 3m or more
- lower capital cost than a rectangular tank
- Inlet zone (center), settling zone (gitna), outlet
zone (outer perimeter)
- Lower capital cost than a rectangular tank
- Circular - more efficient sweeping of sludge;
many opt for circular
- Most people use circular tanks

B.PRIMARY TREATMENT
- Removal of floating and suspended solids, using
physical processes
- Removes TSS and settleable solids
- TSS = colloidal solids + settleable solids
- Overflow rate / plan area- efficiency determining
factor
- Objective
• Remove suspended solids
• Organic solids also contain BOD
• Typically, remove 70% of incoming solids,
30% of BOD
- Equipment
• Done in tanks called CLARIFIERS
- Primary Sedimentation
• Solids are removed from clarifier as a sludge
• Hydraulic detention (i.e.., V/Q) 1 to
3 Hr.

SEDIMENTATION

TYPICAL TANK SHAPES

1. Rectangular tanks
- usually have chain –drive scrapers to bring
sludge to withdrawal trough in tank bottom.
- Typically 3 m deep for water treatment
- better hydraulic characteristics thus less short
circuiting
- less cause, more space efficient
2. Square tanks
- less expensive since side walls can be shared
3. Circular tanks
03 SEDIMENTATION

SEDIMENTATION
- examines the transport (specifically the
downward settling) of particles in water Drag Coefficient vs Reynolds Number
- looks at flocculation as a process to enhance
settling
- Key parameter is settling velocity
- Determines how fast particle will settle and thus
how much volume (i.e. residence time) treatment
systems require.

SETTLING VELOCITY DETERMINATION, VS

3 REGIONS IN THE GRAPH:

I. Laminar (Re <1)

1. W = gravitational force on particle

II. Transition (1 < Re < 104)

2. B = Buoyant force on sphere due to

displaced fluid

III. Turbulent (Re > 104)

3. D = Drag Force
 - often sedimentation tanks are circular with inflow at
center and outflow along outer edge

OVERFLOW RATE

- Residence time (Detention Time) - time for a

particle of water to cross the sedimentation tank
- Settling time - time for a particle to settle from
top to bottom
- U = Q/WH (vol flowrate / width * height)
- % removal = (inlet - outlet)/inlet
- The overflow rate will depend on the type

- Calculations assume uniform settling

velocity, which never happens.
- Particles smaller than assumed will have Vs <
Vo and will not all settle out in time

TYPES OF SETTLING
REMOVAL RATIO
1. Type I – Discrete/Unhindered settling
– not affected by depth of sedimentation tank - happens when particle concentration
- not affected by shape is ~ 200 mg/l
 - Brief removal
- kind of settling in most grit chambers
2. Type II - Flocculant Settling
- primary sedimentation tank
- In treatment, many particles are present, as
particle falls, it collides with other particles
and they stick together to form
larger particles.
- Also, chemicals and polymers are added to
enhance coagulation
and flocculation
DEFINITIONS:
• Coagulation
– destabilization and initial coalescing of
colloidal particles
• Flocculation
o formation of larger particles (floc)
from smaller particles
• Chemicals are added to quickly cause
coagulation, which then slowly flocculate
COAGULATION
o Chemicals added to remove small
particles
o Particles repelled from each other by
negative electric charge
o Two forces are at play:
1. Electrostatic repulsion (dominant)
makes the system stable
2.Van der Waals attractive forces
(similar to gravitational forces)
o Charge cloud due to colloids repel each
other
o Zeta potential - must be overcome by a
particle so that van der Waals force will
predominate
o Coagulation - to break the zeta potential
o Actual agglomeration is flocculation
3 ZONES OF CAGULATION IN INORGANIC
METALLIC SALTS
TYPES OF CHEMICALS (FLOCCULANTS)
b. Aluminum sulfate (alum)
- Most commonly used
- Concerns about Alzheimer's disease
b. Ferric chloride (iron chloride)
- Usually not as effective as alum
c. Polymers
- "Liquid plastic"
- Very effective, doses as small as 0.1 mg/l
- Mechanism is called “particle bridging”
FLOCCULATION
o Once particles are coagulated, they can
be flocculated
o Mixers are used to promote flocculation
o Slow mixing only so that flocculation is
not broken
o Also, chemicals and polymers are added
to enhance coagulation and flocculation
Flocculation occurs by:
1. Brownian motion
– important for small particles (< 0.5
µm)
2. Stirring
– mechanical stirring strong enough to
cause particle collisions but not so strong
as to break-up particles
3. Differential settlement
– larger, faster particles catch up with
smaller , slower particles
Flocculated settling is sometimes called Type • Removals are then charted on depth vs. time
II settling plot and removal isolines are determined
- since particles become larger as they fall, • The fraction removed at detention time t (
settling e.g. t2) comes from chart by reading ∆depth
between removal isolines reading vertically
velocity keeps on increasing
from x-axis

DESIGN FOR TYPE II CLARIFIER

*V = 1/t *h (h is constant at 3m)

- Determine overflow rate first → plan area

(Ap)
- Aeration tank always goes with a clarifier
(secondary clarifier; separates solids from
aeration tank; use type 3 analysis)

3. Type III – Hindered or Zone Settling

- At high particle concentrations, inter-particle
repulsion interferes with settling
• Design of clarifier for type II (flocculant) - Also particle has less room for flow to go around
sedimentation requires knowledge of particles, creating hydrodynamic forces keeping
settling velocity distribution particles from settling:
• Lab apparatus is column of depth similar to
prototype tank and with diameter > 5 in to
reduce wall effects
• Initially, suspended sediment is well mixed,
then allowed to settle.
• Samples are taken at each port at selected
time intervals, e.g. 5, 10, 20,40, 60, 120,
minutes and C/Co is determined. 4. Type IV – Compression Settling
- water gets squeezed out of sludge
- settles as blankets
 - longer weirs allow more water to flow out of the
sedimentation basin without exceeding the
recommended water velocity.

SUMMARY OF THE TYPES OF SETTLING

FLOW PATTERNS IN SEDIMENTATION BASINS

SEDIMENTATION DESIGN FACTORS

1. Detention Time
2. Surface Overflow Rate
– cubic meters per day per square meter of surface
area of the tank
- depends on settling velocity
3. Weir-Overflow Rate
- cum/m or gal/ft length of weir
- the higher the weir overflow rate, the more
influence the outlet zone can have on the
sedimentation zone
- weir overflow rate, is the number of gallons of
water passing over a foot of weir per day
- standard weir overflow rate is 10,000 to 14,000
gpd/ft and should be less than 20,000 gpd/ft
 04 BIOLOGICAL KINETICS

C. SECONDARY TREATMENT
- Removal of biodegradable organics and
suspended solids, using chemical and/or
biological processes
- may remove more than 85 % of BOD and SS
- does not remove significant amounts of nitrogen,
phosphorous , heavy metals, pathogenic bacteria
and viruses
OUTLET STRUCTURES
Effluent structures are designed to do the BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT
following: - Objective:
• Provide uniform distribution of flow over a To coagulate and remove the non-settleable
large area colloidal solids and to stabilize organic matter
• Minimize lifting of the particles and their using microorganisms
escape into the effluent - Oxidation/Synthesis
• Reduce floating matter from escaping into the
effluent

- COHN: organic matter; C5H7NO2 (new

cells/biomass)

BIOCHEMICAL REACTION
- convert colloidal solids into various gases
and cell tissues with specific gravity slightly
higher than water
- cell tissue must be separated from treated
effluent by sedimentation.

MICROBIAL METABOLISM

NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR MICROBIAL

GROWTH
To be able to live and reproduce micro-organisms
need:
1. An energy source
2. Carbon source for synthesis of new cellular
materials
 3. Nutrients – inorganic elements such as
nitrogen, phosporous and sulfur

SUBSTRATES
- carbon and energy sources are usually referred
to as substrates

TYPES OF MICROORGANISMS ACCORDING TO

CARBON SOURCE:
1. Heterotrophs - use organic carbon for
the formation of cell tissue (animals) CATABOLISM
2. Autotrophs – use carbon dioxide for cell - Redox process
formation (plants) - Common electron acceptor = oxygen
- Usually exothermic
- Produces energy and end products
TYPES OF MICROORGANISMS ACCORDING TO
ENERGY SOURCE
ANABOLISM
1. Phototrophs – use light as an energy
- Energy in the cell
source (plants)
- Stored in mitochondria
2. Chemotrophs – derive energy from
- Building of new cells
chemical reactions (animals)
MICROBIAL ENZYMES
- proteins that act as catalysts
- reaction and substance specific

3 TYPES OF REACTIONS
a. hydrolytic- converting insoluble substrates into
simple soluble components
b. oxidative – reactions that yield energy
c. synthetic – synthesis of cell material

TYPES OF MICROBIAL METABOLISM

Chemoheterotrophic microorganisms can be
grouped into organisms with:
*Chemoheterotrophic are used in wastewater 1. Respiratory metabolism – can generate energy
treatment from an electron donor to an electron acceptor
2. Fermentative metabolism – does not involve the
NUTRIENT AND GROWTH REQUIREMENTS participation of an external electron acceptor
1. Inorganic
• Macronutrients – N, S, P, K, Mg, Ca, Fe, Na TYPES OF RESPIRATORY METABOLISM
and Cl 1. Aerobic respiration
• Micronutrients – Zn, Mn, Mo, Se, Co, Cu, o when O2 is the electron acceptor
Ni, and V o organisms are called OBLIGATE
2. Organic (Growth factors) AEROBES
• Amino acids 2. Anoxic
• Purines and pyridines o when oxidized inorganics such as nitrate
• Vitamins and nitrite act as electron acceptors in
the absence of O2
DOMESTIC WASTEWATER
– may contain sufficient nutrients TYPE OF FERMENTATIVE METABOLISM
INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER 1. Anaerobic
– maybe nutrient deficient - sulfate, carbon dioxide and organic
compounds serve as electron acceptors
METABOLISM - organisms are called OBLIGATE ANAEROBES
– the general term that describes all the chemical and can exist only in the absence of O2
activities performed by a cell
 - FACULTATIVE ANAEROBES have the ability
to grow in either the presence or absence of
molecular oxygen
- can use either O2 or nitrate for metabolism
TYPES OF FACULTATIVE ANAEROBES
1. True Facultative Anaerobes – can shift
from fermentative to aerobic respiratory
depending on presence or absence of O2
2. Aerotolerant Anaerobes – strictly
fermentative but relatively insensitive to
presence of O2
TYPES OF MICROBIAL WASTE DECOMPOSITION
• Aerobic
o Electron acceptor – oxygen
o Aerobic metabolism process
• Anaerobic
o Electron acceptor - nitrate -
denitrification (N2 is removed)
 CHO + NO3 -> CO2 + H2O + N2
o Electron acceptor - sulfate - sulfate
reduction
 May produce H2S -> causes bad
odor
• Electron acceptor - carbon dioxide -
methanogenesis
 Used to produce methane
• Which one would be used if all are present?
• Depends on redox potential
REDOX POTENTIAL (Decreasing)
O2
NO3
SO4
CO2
- Aerobic oxidation > denitrification > sulfate
reduction > methanogenesis > ethanol formation
- The more negative the free energy,
the more spontaneous
- Efficient → go to aerobic
1. Aerobic
- primary products are CO2, water and new
cell material
- wider spectrum of organic material can be
decomposed
- more stable products
- very costly
- 96-99% efficiency
- capable of high growth rates - indicates na
maraming sludge - although high efficiency,
sludge must be treated again before disposal
(both an advantage and disadvantage)
- Applicable for large quantities of dilute
wastewater (BOD5<500mg/L) -> if BOD >
500, not applicable due to high cost (since
high amounts of O2 must be introduced)
- applicable for large quantities of dilute
wastewater (BOD5 < 500 mg/L)
- O2 must be introduced using air - utility cost
- Become very expensive → apply to water
with large quantity but very dilute
2. Anoxic decomposition (denitrification)
- end products are N2, CO2, water and
new cell material
- Same energy produced as aerobic (similar
weaknesses)
- Used when N2 is wanted to be released - no
other process
- Before denitrifcation, nitrification occurs
first
- Form of N in wastewater - organic
nitrogen (urea) and NH3 (NH4+)
- NH3 -> NH4+ + O2 -> NO2 -> NO3-
(nitrification process)
- NO3- then undergoes denitrification to
form N2 (anoxic)
 - There are therefore 2 stages of
treatment - nitrification and
denitrifcation
- The oxygen that reacts is the nitrogen
oxygen demand (for the nitrifcation
process)
3. Anaerobic decomposition
- production of hydrogen sulfide and
mercaptans (high MW sulfur compounds)
- produces less sludge than activated sludge
- much cheaper, less efficient
- end products are CO2, methane and water
- two-step process:
- complex organics→ low MW fatty acids →
methane
- Produces smaller energy than aerobic -
therefore, low cell growth - less
sludge/biomass
- No need for aeration (cheaper) but less
efficient
- Appropriate for BOD5 > 1000 mg/L
- Tandem of both (anaerobic until 500 mg/L
then aerobic)
anaerobic aerobic
-
TEMPERATURES
- Psychrophiles – 5-20 °C
- Mesophiles – 20-50 °C
- Thermophiles – 50-80 °C
- Extreme Thermophiles - > 80 °C
- Anaerobic microorganisms - high mesophiles (35 - 50
C) - no problem in the Philippines kasi mainit yung
wastewater (anaerobic treatment) - in other
countries, heating is required - added cost
- Aerobic - aeration is required
- Cost of anaerobic vs aerobic then depends on BOD -
at high BOD, heating is more efficient; at low BOD,
aeration more efficient (because kaunti lang
kailangan)
05 ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS
IMPORTANT MICROBES IN WWT
1. Bacteria
- highest population of microorganisms in
WWT
- single celled organisms that can use
soluble food
- conditions are adjusted to favor
chemoheterotrophs
- Hydrolytic enzymes are used to hydrolyze
the stuff before they are absorbed by
bacteria
2. Fungi
- of environmental importance are multi-
cellular, nonphotosynthetic, heterotrophic
protists. Mostly strict aerobes
- have low nutrient requirement and can
survive under lower pH
- good for industrial wastes
- Suspended or attached? mostly attached
3. Algae
- photosynthetic
- important in eutrophication
4. Protozoa
- motile and mostly aerobic heterotrophs
- larger than bacteria and often use them as
energy source
- act as polishers by consuming bacteria and
particulate organic matter
5. Rotifer
- motile, aerobic and heterotrophic
- effective in consuming dispersed and
flocculated bacteria and small particles of
organic matter
- presence indicates a highly efficient
aerobic biological treatment (because
highly aerobic)
6. Protozoa
- Motile (moves) and mostly aerobic
heterotrophs
- Larger than bacteria and often use them as
energy source
- Act as polishers by consuming bacteria and
particulate organic matter (which cannot
be hydrolyzed and consumed by bacteria)
- Amoeba, paramecium, stylomychia,
verticella, colpidium, tetrahyme
EXAMPLES OF MICROORGANISMS IN WWT
Aerobic: Pseudomonas, Zooglea,Bacillus,
Flavobacterium and Nocardia
Anaerobic: Clostridium, Propionibacterium,
Streptobacterium, Streptococcus,
Lactobacillus and Enterobacter
*Secondary treatment
ACTIVATED SLUDGE PRINCIPLES
• Wastewater is aerated in a tank
• Bacteria are encouraged to grow by providing
 Oxygen
 Food (BOD)
 Correct temperature
 Time
• As bacteria consume BOD, they grow and multiply
• Treated wastewater flows into secondary clarifier
• Bacterial cells settle, removed from clarifier as sludge
• Part of sludge is recycled back to activated sludge
tank, to maintain bacteria population
• Remainder of sludge is wasted

BIOMASS
- dead + living microorganisms
- (MLVSS - mixed liquor volatile suspended solids)
- Separated from the product water via a clarifier
- Clarifier - only separation of the liquid
- Sludge contains a high amount of BOD (di pwedeng
itapon nalang)
- Part of the sludge is recycled as activated sludge
(higher efficiency and smaller reactor size; prevent
washout of microorganisms) RECYCLE – increases efficiency; decreases reactor
- Activated sludge - activated by microorganisms size; prevents washout of bacteria
- If there is no recycle, high food to microorganism
ratio. If there is recycle, gutom na gutom si sludge
AERATORS
- facilitate the transfer of air to the liquid
pagpasok ng aeration tank -> high efficiency
phase
- interfacial transport sa bubbles
ADVANTAGES - Approximates CSTR behavior (if nasa taas yung
• Diverse; can be used for one household up a huge aerator)
plant - Approximates PFR behavior (if nasa baba yung
• Removes organics
aerator)
• Oxidation and Nitrification achieved
• Biological nitrification without adding chemicals
• Capable of removing ~ 97% of suspended solids
• The most widely used wastewater treatment
process

DISADVANTAGES
• Does not remove color from industrial wastes and
may increase the color through formation of highly
colored intermediates through oxidation SECONDARY CLARIFIER - has pipelines that go to
• Does not remove nutrients, tertiary recycle and waste
treatment is necessary
• Problem of getting well settled sludge
 COMPLETE MIX
• Settled wastewater and recycled activated
sludge are introduced at different points in
the aeration tank
• This is the most common method used
today.
• Since the wastewater is completely mixed
with bacteria and oxygen, the volatile
suspended solids concentration and oxygen
TYPES OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS demand are the same throughout the tank.
1. Conventional Activated Sludge
3. Step-Aeration Activated Sludge

STEP FEED
– settled wastewater is introduced at several
points in the aeration tank

PLUG FLOW 4. Contact Stabilization

• Wastewater flows through as a plug & is treated
as it winds its way through the tank.
• Settled wastewater and activated sludge enter
the head end of aeration tank and mixed by
diffused air or mechanical aeration
• As the wastewater goes through the system, BOD
and organics concentration are greatly reduced.

2. Complete-Mix Activated Sludge

CONTACT STABILIZATION
• Microorganisms consume organics in the
contact tank.
 • Raw wastewater flows into the contact
tank where it is aerated and mixed with
bacteria.
• Soluble materials pass through bacterial
cell walls, while insoluble materials stick to
the outside.
• Solids settle out later and are wasted from
the system or returned to a stabilization
tank.
• Microbes digest organics in the
stabilization tank, and are then recycled
back to the contact tank, because they OVERALL MASS BALANCE
need more food.
• Detention time is minimized, so the size
of the contact tank can be smaller.
• Volume requirements for the stabilization
tank are also smaller because the basin
receives only concentrated return sludge,
there is no incoming raw wastewater.
• Often no primary clarifier before the
contact tank due to the rapid uptake of
soluble and insoluble food.

5. Oxidation Ditch

OXIDATION DITCH
- similar to plug flow but uses a circulator
aeration basin

6. Krauss Process
Assumptions:
1. Influent and effluent biomass concentrations
are negligible
2. Aeration tank is a fully mixed CSTR
3. All reactions occur in aeration basin

KRAUS PROCESS
- The anaerobically digested sludge and
digester supernatant may be added to the
return sludge, thus improving settling of the Define:
floc.
- A portion of the return sludge flow from the
secondary clarifier is mixed with the
anaerobically digested sludge and the
digester supernatant before being combined
with the return sludge stream and recycled
Design Equations:
back to the aeration basin.

06 ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS II

 - S_0 - incoming BOD_5

07 ATTACHED GROWTH
ATTACHED GROWTH
- Rather than being suspended as in activated most of
the biomass is attached to some support media over
which they grow
- Microorganisms in anaerobic do not get as much
organic nutrients, will die and fall off as sludge
- Examples:
Limiting Cases: 1. Trickling Filter
2. Rotating Biological Contractor (RBC)
- The organic contents of the effluents are degraded
by the attached growth population
- Oxygen from the air diffuses through this liquid film
and enters the biomass
- As this organic matter grows, the biomass layer
becomes thicker and eventually will separate from
the support media
- The separation occurs in relatively large flocs which
settle relatively quickly
-

VALUES OF GROWTH CONSTANTS FOR

DOMESTIC WASTEWATER:
Ks ( mg/L BOD5)
- 25 -100 (range)
- 60 (typical)
-1
ke (d )
- 0.025-0.075 (range)
- 0.06 (typical)
m(d )
-1

– 2-10 (range) 1. TRICKLING FILTER (TF)

- 5 (typical)
Y (mg MLVSS/mg BOD5)
– 0.4-0.8 (range)
- 0.6 (typical)

TYPICAL DESIGNS:
c = 4 to 10 days
 = 4 to 10 hours

ACTIVATED SLUDGE
- Hydraulic retention time HRT (theta), 4 to 10 hours,
same with SRT kapag walang recycle (proves that
recycle is required - lessens space needed for the same
efficiency)
- Solids retention time (SRT) (theta_c) - only a function of
the BOD (of the wastewater), 4-10 days
- MLVSS (X) - mixed liquor volatile suspended solids,
composed of microorganisms, wastewater, and
everythign inside the aeration basin
- S - BOD_5 that the regulation dictates
• Tank is filled with solid media
- Rocks
- Plastic packing material
• Bacteria grow on surface of media
• Wastewater is trickled over media, at top of tank
• As water trickles through media, bacteria degrade
BOD
• Bacteria eventually die, fall off of media surface
• Filter is open to atmosphere, air flows naturally
through media
• Treated water leaves bottom of tank, flows into
secondary clarifier
• Bacterial cells settle, removed from clarifier as sludge
• Some water is recycled to the filter
• an attached growth biological process that uses an
inert medium to attract microorganisms which form a
film on the medium surface - waste water is
distributed as the water goes around
ATTACHED MICROORGANISMS
- consists of aerobic, anaerobic and facultative
bacteria, fungi (have the ability to attach,
important in industrial wastewater), algae
and protozoans
- Role of filter media - being the surface to
which microorganisms attach
- ALGAE - found in upper reaches of the filter
where there is sunlight, provide O2 during
daytime
- PROTOZOANS - Responsible for keeping
bacterial population in check
- Good filter media: a lot of void spaces
(porosity), increases surface area for contact,
should not decompose (not react with
chemicals and light),
- Raschig ring - good mechanical strength
ADVANTAGES OF TF SYSTEMS
(a) simplicity of operation
(b) resistance to shock loads
(c) low sludge yield and
(d) low power requirements.
DISADVANTAGES OF TF SYSTEMS
(a) relatively low BOD removal (85%)
(b) high suspended solids in the effluent (20 - 30
mg/L)
(c) little operational control.
PARTS OF A TRICKLING SYSTEM
1. A circular tank filled with the packing media in
depths from 1 to 2.5 m, or 10 m if synthetic
packing is used. The bottom of the tank must
be constructed rigid enough to support the
packing and also designed to collect the
treated wastewater
2. A rotating distribution arms which distributes
the wastewater using regularly-spaced nozzles.
It distributes wastewater from top of filter
percolating it through itnerstices of the media
3. A secondary clarifier
4. Oxygen - supplied by the atmosphere ,
circulation through the filter by natural draft
CHARACTERISTICS OF PACKING
1. High specific surface area
- SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA ("packing density”)
is the measure of how much biologically
active area is contained in a given volume
2. High Void Fraction
- VOID FRACTION is the percentage of open
space or volume in the packing.
- High void fractions allow free and
unrestricted flow of water or air and water.
3. Large free (or clear) passage diameter
4. Resistance to plugging or clogging
5. Inert material of construction
o non-corrosive, resistant to rot or decay
and generally impervious to chemical
attack.
o UV protection should be incorporated in
any plastic biofiltration packing.
6. Low cost per unit surface area
7. Good mechanical strength
o it is very desirable that the media be
able to safely support the weight of one
or more workers
o better dimensional stability, reduced
vessel support requirements and longer
life
8. Light weight
o low freight costs
o heavier packings typically require
stronger and more expensive supports
and vessels
9. Flexible in overall shape
o Since biofilter vessels come in all shapes
and sizes, the packing should fit into any
shape vessel.
10. Ease of maintenance
11. Low energy Consumption
12. Light Attenuation
 o packing should be opaque and the shape
should prevent light from penetrating into
the interior of the packing.
TYPES OF PACKING MATERIALS
1. ROCK AND GRAVEL
 readily available, inexpensive
and can have relatively high
specific surface areas
 typically very inert and durable
with excellent mechanical
strength
DISADVANTAGES
- very low void fraction
- tend to plug rapidly
- heavy
2. FIBER MESH PADS
 Thin fibers similar to air
conditioning filters but are
formed into heavier and thicker
pads
 Act as both a physical filter and a
biological filter
 Light in weight and have more
surface area per unit
DISADVANTAGES
- tend to rapidly plug and lose
effectiveness under most
circumstances
- difficulty of cleaning and
regenerating the pads
- difficulty of installing the large
quantities of pad needed
3. Brillo Pads
 similar to the mesh pad is the
"ribbon bundle" or "brillo pad" type
packing
 light in weight and offer relatively
large amounts of surface area at a
low cost
 successful in small aquarium
applications
DISADVANTAGE
- very poor mechanical strength
- not possible to stack high without
compressing the bottom layers
- become easily plugged.
4. Random or Dumped Packings
 Injection molded plastic shapes
made from PP (polypropylene) or
HDPE (high density polyethylene).
 Are also available in stainless steel,
ceramic, porcelain
 Have a good void fraction and
relatively high resistance to plugging
 Packing is small
 Must be installed over a grid or
screen type support
DISADVANTAGES
- have poor mechanical strength
- will tend to settle and compact
over time.
- do not incorporate sufficient
ultraviolet inhibitors to protect the
packings from direct sunlight
- expensive
- the inability of the operator to
determine what is happening in the
interior of the biofilter bed
5. STRUCTURED PACKINGS
 have virtually all of the
characteristics that one looks for
in the "ideal" packing
 typically constructed of vacuum
formed sheets of PVC (polyvinyl
chloride)
 Lower cost per unit surface area
than injection molded packings
ADVANTAGES:
• great mechanical strength
combined with light weight.
• can be used without any
containment vessel in a trickling
filter design.
• ease of installation and removal.
• allow the design of filters that
operate with the lowest energy
costs in terms of water pumping
head and aeration compressor
pressures.
COMPARISON OF PACKINGS
Note : 1 = Worst, 5 = Best, A = Acceptable
STANDARD RATE AND HIGH RATE TRICKLING FILTER
- based on organic and hydraulic loadings
1. STANDARD RATE FILTERS
 2
- have hydraulic loading of 25 - 100 gpd/ft
and an organic loading of 15 - 30 lbs
3
BOD/day/1,000 ft .
2. HIGH RATE TRICKLING FILTER
- Loading greater than the one above
(e) reseed the filter and
(f) increase air flow
- Dampen variations in loading over a 24 hr period
FACTORS TO CONSIDER
- (choices: pond, lagoon, activated sludge, trickling
filter - not considered nowadays due to low
efficiency)
- Area available
- Skill needed for operation
- Costs (both operating and initial investment)
- Operating Characteristics - You want the it to
be resistant to shock loads NOT sensitive to
intermittent operations, and a MINIMUM
degree of skill needed - best yung lagoon
- Cost Considerations - must have the
minimum land needed, initial costs,
operating costs
- Although Lagoon has the best operating and
cost considerations, it does not work due to
low efficiency (However, activated sludge is
the most efficient - if you want the best,
you have to pay; very expensive due to
initial and operating costs)

CONCENTRATION PROFILE

ACTIVATED VS TRICKLING FILTER

- Difference between recycle of trickling filter and
activated sludge instead of recycling the sludge, the
treated effluent is recycled (to keep population of PROCESS FLOW SHEET
microorganisms constant)
- Trickling filter - not as efficient as activated sludge,
needs dilution to lower the BOD (via recycling) to
prevent shock loading to the microorganisms
- For microorganisms to be able to grow, they
need water and they need to attach to the
medium (needs to be thouroughly wet) ->
achieved through recycling
- To improve dissolution of oxygen, increase
the turbulence at the surface (via the DESIGN FORMULAS FOR TRICKLING FILTERS
recycle stream)
FILTER PERFORMANCE
A. FOR SYNTHETIC MEDIA FILTERS
OBJECTIVES OF TRICKLING FILTER
RECIRCULATION
(a) reduce strength of filter influent
Se/So = exp {- [(T-20) k20 D/ Qn]}
(b) maintain constant wetting rate
Where:
(c) force sloughing to occur, increase shear forces
 = temperature constant equal to 1.035
(d) dilute toxic wastes
So = BOD of primary effluent (not including recirculation)
 Se = BOD remaining, i.e, BOD of effluent
D = depth of filter
Q = hydraulic loading rate (not including recirculation)
n = exponent characteristics of filter ( 0.67 for synthetic
media)
o
k20 = treatability constant at 20 C

Rate Constant K:
- for synthetic packing where D is in feet and QL is in
2
gal/min –ft , K = 0.01 – 0.10 (for various wastewaters) - RBCs constructed of plastic media on a
- Correction of K with respect to temperature long shaft
(T-20)
KT = K20 (1.035) - Media is submerged in a tank
where : - Shaft rotates media through water
o
KT = rate constant at T, C
K20 = rate constant at 20 C
o - Bacteria grow on media, degrade BOD in
T = temperature, C
o water
- Bacteria get air by exposure to
B. MUNICIPAL WATER ON STONE MEDIA atmosphere
- Bacteria eventually die, fall off media
St = __________1_________ surface
So 1 + C (D 0.67/ QL 0.50) - Dead bacteria and other solids are
removed in the secondary clarifier
Where: - Media up 12 feet in diameter
St = BOD5 in the filter effluent, mg/l - Shafts as long as 25 feet
So = BOD5 in the wastewater discharged on the filter bed,
- Media areas up to 180,000 square feet
mg/l
C = 2.5 for English units and 5.358 for SI units per shaft
D = filter depth, ft (m)
3 2
QL = unit liquid loading, MG/acre-day (m /day-m ) LIMITATIONS:
• Organic and hydraulic shock loads
• Process efficiency would be expected to
decrease during colder temperatures.
• Lack of operational flexibility.

ADVANTAGE:
• process simplicity and stability
• very low maintenance cost
• largely limited to greasing of bearings
and inspecting the chains and sprockets
for wear and slack
k correction for depth: • low disc speed used in the bio-disc
x
k2 = k1 ( D1/D2 ) process achieves sufficient mixing and
X = 0.5 for rock media filters; 0.3 for plastic
aeration while consuming relatively little
medium filters
power.
NRC EQUATIONS (1946)
- from numerous WWTP operated at military bases during
WWII • IN RBC UNITS, THE BIOMASS IS ATTACHED
- study included low rate, single stage high rate,and two
stage high rate trickling filter plants
TO DISKS
- applicable for domestic wastewaters with stone media

2. Rotating Biological Contractors (RBC)

1. rotate at 1 to 3 rpm
2. immersed up to 40% in the wastewater
3. made of corrugated, light plastic
material.
 - The ratio of surface area of disks to liquid
volume is typically 5 l/m2.
- The power consumption is in the order of 2
kW/1 000 m3/day of capacity.

SELECTION OF AEROBIC TREATMENT

Factors to consider
• the area available
• the skill needed for operation
• costs (both operating and initial investment)

TYPES OF SLUDGE
1. Primary sludge
- organic solids, grit, inorganic fines, greasy, odorous
slurry
- includes ~ 1 % tank skimmings
- solids conc ~ 4-6%
- VSS ~ 60-80%
2. Waste activated sludge (secondary sludge)
- active microbial mass
08 SLUDGE MANAGEMENT - dark brown suspension
- inoffensive at first, can rapidly become odorous
- Regulatory bodies have standards for sludge, - solids conc ~ 0.5-1.5 %
- VSS ~ 70-80%
depending on final use or disposal
3. Trickling filter sludge (humus)
- Apply to agricultural use, compost, landfilling and
- similar to waste activated sludge
incineration - solids conc ~ 0.5-1.5
- Toxics tend to concentrate in sludge: - VSS 70-80%
o Restrictions on sludge use, depending on 4. Anaerobically digested sludge
concentration of toxics and pathogens - dark brown thick slurry
o Heavy metals - smells like garden soil
o PCBs - VSS ~ 30-60 %
- solids conc. ~ 3-12%
o Pesticides
5. Aerobically digested sludge
- Compost - not a fertilizer (kailangan may N,K), it is a
- dark brown
SOIL CONDITIONER, not a fertilizer - more difficult to process due to flocculent nature
- Sand – when compost is put to sand, it promotes fast - solids conc ~ 1-2%
draining - VSS ~ 35-40%
o Compost + sand -> compost serves as glue of
sand particles, slower drainage - better for ESTIMATION OF SOLIDS PRODUCTION
planting Ws = Wsp + Wss
Ws = total dry solids [M/T]
- Clay - slow draining
Wsp = raw primary solids [M/T]
o Compost + clay -> grow in between the clay Wss = raw secondary solids [M/T]
particles to make drainage a bit faster
o PEDS - big particles of clay Wsp = f x SS x Q
o Composts may be exported (but has low f = fraction of suspended solids removed in
primary settling ~ 0.4-0.6
shelf life and hard to package) 3
SS = suspended solids conc. in wastewater[M/L ]
3
o It has no economic value in Ph Q = flow rate [L /T]

Wss = k x BOD x Q
k = fraction of influent BOD that becomes excess
 biomass - air is dissolved into wastewater under high
= 0.3-0.5 (for F/M = 0.05-0.5) pressure
= lower for extended aeration AST and - thickened solids are 3-6 % solids
RBC’s
- not recommended for primary sludge or trickling
filter humus
SLUDGE MANAGEMENT -
2
typical loading: 240 kg/ m -day
A. Sludge Thickening 3. Centrifugal Thickening
B. Sludge Stabilization
C. Disinfection
D. Dewatering
E. Final Disposal

- sludge is centrifuged to concentrate solids

A. SLUDGE THICKENING - with polymer addition
- thickened solids ~ 5 – 8 %
SLUDGE THICKENING - must be front-loaded instead of top loading
- Objective - remove water before stabilization (causes burning of motor because of an
(because stabilization is aerobic) -> remove water to imbalance)
lessen volume of fluid to lessen volume of stabilizer 4. Gravity belt thickening
design

1. Gravity thickening

- sludge is treated with polymer flocculants,

- most common thickening method
- (same equipment as sedimentation, but smaller)
- type 4 settling, dissolved air flotation, centrifuge
- PICKETS rake sludge - promotes well-mixing
- primary sludge :from 4 to 8%
activated sludge : from 1 to 3 %
primary-secondary mixture : from 4 to 6%
o Operating criterion:
solids applied per unit bottom area
2
primary: 100-150 kg/m -day
primary plus AST: 40-80
AST: 20-40
o Thickeners should recover 90-95 % of solids
o Bottom sludge blanket ~ 1 m deep
2. Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF)
- most applicable to solids near neutral buoyancy
- pressured air is dissolved in the wastewater -
goes into the solids’ interstices - decrease the
density, causing the solid to float in the flotation
tank
then conveyed on continuous porous belt
- typical performance
Primary sludge –from 2-5 to 8-12
Secondary sludge –from 0.4-1.5 to 4-6
50-50 primary-sec – from 1-2.5 to 6-8
B. SLUDGE STABILIZATION
- Objective - kill pathogens, eliminate odors,
stabilize organics, concentrate solids
- process of treating solids to make them stable
- reduces odor and pathogens
- Processes:
1. anaerobic digestion
2. aerobic digestion*
3. composting*
4. alkaline stabilization*
5. incineration*
1. Anaerobic digestion
- Overall process consists of four steps:
1. Hydrolysis
2. Acidogenesis (fermentation)
3. Acetogenesis
4. Methanogenesis
- Overall process stabilizes about 40-65 % of
VSS
- Anaerobic digestion (more viable due to high
BOD levels)
- Sludge is placed in a sealed tank → (obligate)
anaerobic bacteria grow and degrade sludge
solids → produces CH4 (useful product, can
 be burned as fuel, used to heat the high rate o Carbonate makes pH more acidic (make methanogens work)
digester, electric generator, flare), CO2 and
H2S (with biomass; reason for bad odor)

- CHEMISTRY OF ANAEROBIC DIGESTION

o Organic matter + combined oxygen
+ (anaerobes)  new cells + CH4 +
CO2 + other end products + energy
for cells

*Organic matter: carbohydrates,

proteins, fats, oils
2- 2- -
*Combined oxygen: CO3 , SO4 , NO3 ,
3-
PO4
*Other end products: H2S, H2, N2
- MICROBIOLOGY OF ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
o Micro-organisms:
 Methanogens – methane-
producing
 Acidogens – acid-producing
 acetogens
o pH:
methanogens are inhibited at pH < 6.5
acidogens and acetogens at pH < 5
o Parameters to monitor – pH and
ANAEROBIC DIGESTER DESIGN
volatile acid concentrations 1. Low rate digesters
(reported as acetic acid)
- OPERATING CONDITIONS

- GAS COMPOSITION :
55 – 75 % methane
25 –45 % CO2
- SOLIDS REDUCTION: - cylindrical tank with roof
50 –75 % VSS - Layers: Scum, Supernatant, Active Layer and
35 – 50 % TSS stabilized solids
- GAS PRODUCTION: - no mixing or heating
3
0.75-1.1 m per kg VSS stabilized - low loading rates, large tank size
- INHIBITORY COMPOUNDS: - detention time: 30 –60 days (SRT)
high ion concentrations - used only for small plants
some metals
ammonia and sulfide gas
2. High Rate Digesters

- supplemental mixing and heating

- SRT : 15- 20 days
- different mixing systems
- one variation is egg-shaped digester
 • Compost is sold or given away
CHEMISTRY OF SLUDGE MANAGEMENT
• Sludge = CH4 + CO2 + H2O + stable solids 09 NUTRIENT REMOVAL
• Stable solids are removed, sent to final disposal
• Leftover water returned to treatment plant NITROGEN AND PHOSPOROUS
o most common nutrients found in
METHANE USE wastewater
• Methane (CH4) can be burned as fuel o Can cause “eutrophication”
• Heat digester o Algae - C106H263O110 N16P1
• Run electric generator
• Flare LIEBIG’S LAW OF THE MINIMUM
• BIOGAS = methane from anaerobic respiration – growth will be limited by the nutrient that is least
available relative to the organisms’ need
C. DISINFECTION
o Objective: TYPICAL N and P CONCENTRATIONS
Kill pathogens that survive stabilization process
o Physical processes :Heat
o Chemical processes
Chlorination
Lime

D. DEWATERING
o Objective:
Remove water from stabilized sludge
o Processes:
Vacuum filter (correct to gravity belt thickener)
- Polymer and solids are flocculated to
increase size A. NITROGEN REMOVAL
- Plows - compresses the fluid
- Belt - porous, water goes to the belt and
NITRIFICATION
goes downwards to the belt filtrate and
washwater
Centrifuge
Drying beds - pinakamadali

E. FINAL DISPOSAL
o Objective:
Dispose of sludge in environmentally sound way
o Processes
1. Landfill
2. Land application
3. Composting o Nitrification is the conversion of ammonia to
nitrate
1. Landfill o Two-step process:
+
• Place sludge in a typical solid waste o Oxidation of ammonium , NH4 to nitrite,
landfill NO2
2NH4 + 3O2 + (nitroso bacteria)  2NO2 +
+ -
• No beneficial use with this method +
2. Land Application 4H + 2H2O
• Sludge is injected or tilled into soil o Oxidation of nitrite NO2 to nitrate NO3
2NO2 + O2 + (nitro-bacteria)  2NO3
-
• Done on either non-agricultural or o
agricultural land Overall reaction
NH4 + 2O2  2H + H2O + NO3
+ + -
3. Composting
• Sludge solids are composted with
other solids DENTRIFICATION
 o nitrate is converted to N2 (very - Supplementary source of carbon:
stable) through the use of organic  Methanol:
5 CH3OH + 6 NO3  3 N2 + 5 CO2 + 7
-
carbon -
o bacteria oxidize organic substrate H2O + 6 OH
 Acetate:
using nitrate/nitrite as electron
5 CH3COOH + 8 NO3  4 N2 + 10
-
acceptor -
o Nitrate: electron acceptor for the CO2 +6 H2O + 8OH
organic carbon, produces nitrogen - Conditions: DO < 0.2 mg/L in bulk liquid
gas
o done by Pseudomonas 3. Same principle as pre-anoxic
o Nitrate goes as: NO3  NO2  NO
- -

 N2O  N2
o Organic substrate maybe
wastewater:
C10H19O3N + 10 NO3  5N2 + 10 CO2
-
-
+ 3 H2O + NH3 + 10 OH

TYPES OF NITROGEN REMOVAL SYSTEMS

1. PRE-ANOXIC PROCESS B.PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL
TYPICAL P CONCENTRATIONS

Typical removal in secondary biological

- Sometimes called “substrate –driven” treatment 10 – 30 % of Total P
denitrification
- Wastewater is electron donor
ANALYTICALLY DETERMINED FORMS OF P
- Substrate + nitrate -> N2
• Total P
- Nitrate feed to the anoxic process comes
• Particulate P – trapped by 0.45 m filter
from the aerobic process
• Soluble P – passes thru filter
• Reactive P – molybdate blue method
2. POST-ANOXIC DECOMPOSITION (without acid digestion -> orthro P)
3-
• forms available to micro-organisms : (PO4
)
• unreactive P - remainder

IMPORTANT FORMS OF PHOSPOROUS

1. Orthophosphates
 Available to microorganisms
- Aerobic/nitrification before anoxic process 2. Poly phosphates
- called “endogenous driven”  from detergents
- endogenous = dead phase (sodium tripolyphosphate,
- Methanol is used as a carbon source for the Na5P3O10)
denitrification process, complements the  to bind the hardness, broken down
conversion of nitrate to N2 to orthophosphates before
- Homogenous decay of cells supply electron processing
donors  polyphosphates (converted to)
- endogenous decay of cells supply electron orthophosphates (eaten by)
donors microorganisms then harvested
- slower rate of reaction thus requiring longer SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS
retention times  No digestion - ortho P
  H2SO4 acid digestion - inorganic = ortho P +
poly P - strong acid digestion (nitric or
perchloric)
 Total P = inorganic P + organic P

BIOLOGICAL P REMOVAL SYSTEMS

- Designed to create conditions favorable to
Phosporous Accumulating Organisms
(PAOs)
Ex : Acinobacter 2. BARDENPHO Process
- Process is called LUXURY UPTAKE - removes 93% total N, 65 % total P
(synthesize polyphosphates and store in
cellular material)
- PAO - P is accumulated in these organisms,
after which they are harvested. They
undergo aerobic processes, after which, P
becomes PHB
- Next step: sedimentation to remove P along
with the organisms
- Fermentation products -> becomes PHB in a
microoganism -> P
- PAO’s are favored by alternating
aerobic/anaerobic conditions

STEPS: 3. PHOSTRIP PROCESS

1. Anaerobic - Hydrolysis in anaerobic reactor releases poly
P to water – 30-70 mg/L
- storage of carbon and electron in
- Addition of lime raises pH ~ 11 causing
polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) and other volatile
Ca3(PO4)2 to precipitate
fatty acids
- done in absence of O2 or NO3
- break down of poly phosphates and release
of ortho in mixed liquor
- production of acetate

2. Aerobic or anoxic
- metabolism of stored PHB, uptake of ortho-P
3. Removal of P
- enriched cells in wasted sludge

NON-BIOLOGICAL REMOVAL SYSTEMS

1. Chemically Enhanced Primary Treatment (CEPT)
- Improves removal rates in primary treatment
by enhancing settling
- Effective for P removal and odor control
- Used when chemical contaminant is present
- improves removal rates in primary treatment
by enhancing settling
- effective for P removal and odor control
- Chemicals used:
1. Metal salt - usually FeCl3 or alum Al2 (SO4)3
TYPES OF P (& N) BIO REMOVAL SYSTEMS 2. Anionic polymer
- Typical concentrations:
2
1. PREDENITRIFICATION – A O PROCESS  FeCl3 – 20-30 mg/L
 polymer- 0.25 mg/L
 - Phosphorous Removal by chemical
precipitation
FeCl3 + H2PO4 + 2 HCO3 
- -
FePO4 + 3 Cl + 2 CO2 + 2 H2O
-
- coagulant action of ferric salts and
polymer increases settling of solids
- effective technique to upgrade existing
treatment plants
- allows increased wastewater flow rate
to be treated
10 TERTIARY TREATMENT
A. ADSORPTION
2. AIR STRIPPING
- Scrubbing (gas to liquid)
- Stripping (liquid to gas)
- Partitionaing between liquid and gas phase, it
shoukd have high affinity on gas phase
- Air is circulated through wastewater
- Used to remove
Ammonia (at high pH)
Volatile organics (practical for relatively
insoluble volatile compounds)
- Air emissions may be regulated in some localities
- APPLICABILITY
a. Air stripping is used to separate VOC’s
from water.
b. ineffective for inorganic contaminants
c. Henry's law constant is used to determine
effectiveness ( organic compounds with
constants greater than 0.01 atmospheres
3
- m /mol are considered amenable to
stripping)
d. compounds that have been successfully
separated from water include BTEX,
chloroethane, TCE, DCE, and PCE.
- LIMITATIONS:
a. Effective only for contaminated water
with VOC or semi volatile concentrations
with Henry's constant greater than 0.01.
b. Consideration should be given to the type
and amount of packing used in the tower
c. Process energy costs are high.
d. Compounds with low volatility at ambient
temperature may require preheating
e. Off-gases may require treatment based
on mass emission rate.
*OUTLINE:
A.ADSORPTION
a. Carbon Adsorption
B.ION EXCHANGE
C.MEMBRANE FILTRATION
a. Pervoration
DEFINITIONS
o Adsorption – mass transfer of chemicals in
liquid phase onto solid phase
o Absorption – chemicals penetrate into solid
forming solution
o Adsorbent – adsorbing phase
o Adsorbate – chemical being adsorbed
TYPES OF ADSORPTION
1. Physical adsorption
–driving forces are provided by Van der
Waals forces
2. Chemisorption
- chemical reaction forms a chemical bond
between the compound and the surface of the solid
3. Electrostatic adsorption
- involves the adsorption of ions through
Coulombic forces, and is normally referred to as ion
exchange
ADSORPTION OBJECTIVES
- Used to remove organic contaminants:
1. taste and odor causing chemicals
2. synthetic organic chemicals
3. color-forming organics
TYPES OF ADSORBENT
1. Granulated activated carbon (GAC)
- most common adsorbent
2. Activated alumina
 - filter media made by treating
aluminum ore so that it becomes
porous and highly adsorptive
-will remove variety of
contaminants, including excessive
fluoride, arsenic, and selenium
- regenerant includes alum or acid
3. Forage sponge
- open-celled cellulose sponge
incorporating an amine-containing
chelating polymer that selectively
absorbs dissolved heavy metals
- functional groups in the polymer
(i.e. amine and carboxyl groups)
provide selective affinity for heavy
metals in both cationic and anionic
states, preferentially forming
complexes with transition-group
heavy metals.
4. Lignin adsorption/sorptive clays
- used to treat aqueous waste
streams with organic, inorganic and
heavy metals contamination
5. Synthetic resins
-more expensive than GAC
- typically regenerated using acids,
bases, or organic solvents, instead
of thermal methods
- tend to be more resistant to
abrasion than activated carbon,
increasing their service life.
APPLICABILITY OF ADSORPTION PROCESS
• The target contaminants groups for
adsorption/ absorption processes are most
organic contaminants and selected inorganic
contaminants from liquid and gas streams
• Activated alumina can remove fluoride and
heavy metals.
• The forager sponge is specifically used to
remove heavy metals.
• Lignin adsorption/sorptive clays treat
organic, inorganic and heavy metals
contamination within aqueous waste
streams.
• Synthetic resins are better suited for
thermally unstable compounds such as
explosives than GAC, due to the resins' non-
thermal regeneration requirements.
LIMITATIONS OF ADSORPTION PROCESS
• Water-soluble compounds and small
molecules are not adsorbed well.
• Costs are high if used as the primary
treatment on waste streams with high
contaminant concentration levels.
• Not applicable to sites having high levels of
oily substances.
• Not practical where the content of the
absorbable hazardous substance is so high
that very frequent replacement of the
absorbent unit is necessary.
• Contaminated media often require
treatment/disposal as hazardous wastes, if
they can't be regenerated.
CARBON ADSORPTION
- Pollutants adsorb onto surface of carbon
- Removal of:
Organics
Phenol
Benzene, toluene and xylenes (BTX)
Pesticides, etc.
Heavy metals (Pb, Hg)
Dechlorinating agent. Activated carbon
reacts with remaining chlorine in water.
- APPLICABILITY
 target contaminant groups for
carbon adsorption are
hydrocarbons, VOCs and explosives
 for removing contaminants at low
concentrations (less than 10 mg/L)
from water at nearly any flow rate,
and for removing higher
concentrations of contaminants
from water at low flow rates
(typically 2 to 4 liters per minute or
0.5 to 1 gpm)
 particularly effective for polishing
water discharges from other
remedial technologies to attain
regulatory compliance
- LIMITATIONS
 The presence of multiple
contaminants can impact process
performance. Single component
isotherms may not be applicable for
mixtures.
 Streams with high suspended solids
(> 50 mg/L) and oil and grease (> 10
mg/L) may cause fouling of the
carbon and may require frequent
treatment.
 Water-soluble compounds and
small molecules are not adsorbed
well.
 All spent carbon eventually need to
be properly disposed.
ACTIVATED CARBON
• Characteristics
 • Highly porous
• Light material
2
• High surface area (1,000 m /gram)
• Forms
• Powder (PAC)
• Powdered carbon used in well-
mixed tanks
• After use, powdered carbon is
separated from water, then
disposed
• Landfill
• Incineration
• Granular (GAC)
• Granular carbon used in
columns
• Water flows through column
• Spent carbon is either
regenerated or disposed
• Regeneration by
• Steam
o Ammonia removal
o Removal of heavy metals
o Radioactive waste treatment
• Limitations:
o Oil and grease in the ground water may clog
the exchange resin.
o Suspended solids content greater than 10
ppm may cause resin blinding.
o The pH of the influent water may affect the
ion exchange resin selection.
o Oxidants in ground water may damage the
ion exchange resin.
o Wastewater is generated during the
regeneration step and will require additional
treatment and disposal.
SOFTENING THEORY
• Hardness removal
2+
Ca + 2Na· R ↔ Ca· R + 2Na
+

• Hot air 2+
Mg + 2Na· R ↔ Mg· R + 2Na
+

where R represents the cation exchange resin

GAC BREAKTHROUH CURVE • Regeneration (strong (NaCl) brine required)
+ 2+
Ca· R + 2Na ↔ Ca + 2Na· R
+ 2+
Mg· R + 2Na ↔ Mg + 2Na· R
• Wash (required after regeneration to rinse off
excess brine)

B. ION EXCHANGE
DEMINERALIZATION THEORY
• Cation exchange
ION EXCHANGE z+ +
M + zH· R ↔ M· Rz + zH
• Principle: ions in solution are preferentially
where M represents the cationic species removed
exchanged over ions on solid medium
from solution
• Solid media (ion exchanger) – a material to which
certain ions are sorbed in exchange for ions already
• Anion exchange
x- -
bound to exchanger M + xR· OH ↔ Rx M· + xOH
• Synthetic resins: • Regeneration
Cationic - sulfonates is the exchanger –SO3H - Use strong mineral acid for cation exchange
Anionic - use carboxylic acid group –COOH resin (H2SO4 or HCl)
• Natural zeolites (only cationic) - hydrated alumino- - Use caustic soda( NaOH) solution to
silicate minerals with an "open" structure that can regenerate anion exchange resin
accommodate a wide variety of positive ions, such as
+ + 2+ 2+
Na , K , Ca , Mg and others. SELECTIVITY COEFFICIENT, K
• Applications: - For any exchange reaction, such as
+ +
o Water softening M1 + R· M2 Û M2 + R· M1
o Demineralization - A corresponding selectivity, K, coefficient is
o Desalting found: KM1/M2
 - The greater the selectivity coefficient, the
greater the preference for the ion
exchanger
- K increases with:
 Ionic valence
 Inverse of hydrated ionic radius
 Degree of polarization
 Inversely with degree of complexation
in solution

CATIONIC PREFERENCE SERIES

Ba2+ > Pb2+ > Sr2+ > Ca2+ > Ni2+ > Cd2+ > Cu2+> Co2+
> Zn2+ > Mg2+ >Ag+ > Cs+ > K+ > NH4+ >Na+ >H+
- H+ swaps with cation

Anionic Preference Series

SO42- > I- > NO3- > HCrO4- > Br- > Cl- > OH-
- OH- swaps with anion

MECHANISMS OF ION EXCHANGE

1. Movement of the ions from bulk of solution
2. Diffusion of the ions through the laminar film
3. Diffusion of the ions through the pores
4. Ion exchange
5. Diffusion of the exchanged ions outward
6. Diffusion of the exchanged ions through laminar layer
7. Movement of exchanged ion into bulk of solution
Mechanisms 2 or 3 tend to control exchange rate

C. MEMBRANE FILTRATION PROCESS

Other nanofiltration applications:
• removing pesticides from groundwater;
MEMBRANE FILTRATION • removing heavy metals from waste streams;
- A membrane process is a separating process, in • recycling effluent water in laundries;
which a feed flow is divided into two flows. The • producing ultra pure water.
flow containing the components retained by the
membrane is the RETENTATE flow, while the
components passing through the membrane
form the PERMEATE flow.
- DRIVING FORCES:
1. pressure difference
2. concentration difference
3. chemical or electrical potential difference
- ROLE OF MEMBRANE
- forms a semi-permeable barrier
through which some particles are
transported faster than others, so that a
separation occurs.
- The pressure driven membrane filtration
processes are:
1. microfiltration (MF) - bacteria
2. ultrafiltration (UF) - proteins
3. nanofiltration (NF) - oligosaccharides
4. reverse osmosis (RO) – halos walang
pinapadaan; can filter ions
Note: smaller pore size = bigger pressure
PERVAPORATION
- membrane process that combines the evaporation
of volatile components with their transport through
a selective membrane
- allows volatile organic components to transfer out
of a fluid mixture via a semi-permeable membrane
to the gaseous phase on the permeate side
- driving force is the difference in chemical potential
between the phases on either side of the
membrane.
 4. Thermosphere
01 ATMOSPHERE
ATMOSPHERE
• The envelope of gas that surrounds the atmosphere
• No sharp boundary between atmosphere and outer
space
• Within 80,000 km of earth’s surface
• Troposphere is heavy
• Temperature decreases at higher altitudes
due to the land as the source of heating

EVOLUTION OF THE PRESENT ATMOSPHERE

• At first it consisted primarily of H and He
• Next atmosphere was formed primarily through
volcanic emissions
Volcanic emissions:
- water vapor 85%
- carbon dioxide 10%
- nitrogen 1–5%
- sulfur 1–5%
- particles and surface materials
• Water vapor condensed, forming oceans
• Carbon dioxide was fixed in the oceans
• Formation of oxygen through photo-dissociation
2 H2O + uv  2 H2 + O2
• Formation of ozone through photo-dissociation
3 O2 + uv  2 O3
• Warming of the atmosphere is due to the reaction of
free radicals
• Current composition is due to the evolution of
photosynthetic organisms

COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

ATMOSPHERIC LAYERS
Upper atmospheric layers have no practical environmental
importance

1. STRATOSPHERE
- 10 to 50 km above troposphere
- ozone production zone
LAYERING OF THE ATMOSPHERE O2 + hv  2O
• Different energy inputs led to the layering of the O + O2 + M  O3 + M
atmosphere - once formed ozone absorbs solar radiation
• Different distribution of gases with varying capacity to (200 to 310 nm) and decompose back to O and
absorb solar energy O2
- UV radiation absorption increases the
FOUR REGIONS OF THE ATMOSPHERE temperature
1. Troposphere - temperature increases with altitude
2. Stratosphere - horizontal mixing spreads pollutant particles
3. Mesosphere
 - contains 1000 times less water than – the steeper the pressure gradient, the faster
troposphere winds will flow

2. TROPOSPHERE
- 10 – 18 km from the earth’s surface
- contains 90 % of mass of the atmosphere
- contains CO2, water vapor and methane that
regulate earth’s temperature (Greenhouse effect)
- temperature declines with elevation known as
o
lapse rate (6.5 C/km)
- most weather takes place

TROPOSPHERIC GREENHOUSE EFFECT

• Greenhouse Gases
- CO2, CH4, H2O, NO2, O3
• Transparent to incoming short wave solar
energy
• Molecules absorb outgoing long wave infra-
red terrestrial radiation
• Energy stored as heat
o
• Mean global surface temperature = 15 C
o
• MGST without greenhouse effect = -22 C

DENSITY OF DRY AIR VS MOIST AIR

Molecular Weight
Mass of one mole of molecules
Dry air – 29.87gm/mol
Water vapor – 18.02 gm/mol
MOIST AIR IS LESS DENSE THAN DRY AIR!

DIFFERENTIAL HEATING OF EARTH’S SURFACE

• Earth’s shape causes unequal distribution of solar
energy- poles receive less radiation than equatorial
region
• Tilt of Earth’s axis of rotation
• Poles receive less energy than does the equator
leading to the establishment of convection currents in
the troposphere

TROPHOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
CORIOLIS EFFECT
CONVECTION
• an apparent deflection of a freely moving object
– Mechanism of energy transfer between the
caused by the Earth's rotation
equator and the poles.
• in the Northern Hemisphere, air is deflected to the
– occurs because equatorial regions experience
right of its path, while in the Southern Hemisphere,
net gain of solar energy thus heating the air
air is deflected to the left of its path.
above it.
– As air moves, it experiences pressure gradients
resulting in winds
 • It is greatest at the poles, North and South, and
almost nonexistent at the equator. NIGHTTIME CONDITIONS

STABILITY
• the degree to which the atmosphere will support,
tolerate, or suppress turbulent motions
• related to both wind speed and lapse rate
• with lapse rate as stability condition there are THREE
STABILITY CATEGORIES:
1. Neutral stability
Deflection of the moving mass of air:
2. Unstable atmosphere
- Tropical Climate > Temperate Climate >
3. Stable atmosphere
Polar Climate
LAPSE RATE
- change of temperature with altitude =
T/H
1. Adiabatic Lapse Rate
• change of temperature with a
change in altitude of an air
parcel without gaining or losing
any heat to the environment
surrounding the parcel
2. Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate ( d)
• assumes a dry parcel of air. Air
o
cools 1 C per 100 m rise in
DAYTIME CONDITIONS: altitude
3. Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate (m )
• as parcel rises, H2O condenses
and gives off heat, and warms
air around it
 parcel cools more slowly as
it rises in altitude, 6 C per
o

1000 m
 2. UNSTABLE ATMOSPHERE
Superadiabatic Lapse Rate
• Ambient lapse rate > Adiabatic Lapse
Rate
AMBIENT/ENVIRONMENTAL LAPSE RATE () •  > d
- the actual atmospheric temperature • Good for pollutant dispersion
change with altitude
- not only does water content modify
lapse rates, but wind, sunlight on the
earth’s surface, geographical features
change actual lapse rates.
-

THREE STABILITY CATEGORIES

1. NEUTRAL STABILITY
3. STABLE ATMOSPHERE
- Ambient Lapse rate = adiabatic lapse
o Subadiabatic
rate
• ambient lapse rate < adiabatic
-  = d lapse rate
• < d
• Not good for pollutant
dispersion

TWO SPECIAL CASES OF STABLE ATMOSPHERE
1. ISOTHERMAL
– when there is no change in temperature
with atmosphere
2. INVERSION
– ambient temperature increases with
elevation
- warm, low density air riding on top of cool
high density air – a very stable air column
that traps pollution near the ground
- most severe form of stable temperature
profile
PLUME TYPES
A. LOOPING PLUME
- there is a super-adiabatic lapse rate
(unstable) from the ground up to plume
height
- the plume spread very widely over the
vertical.
B. CONING PLUME
- there is roughly a neutral lapse rate from
the surface well past plume height
- plume grows gradually both upward and
downward, resulting in this cone shape.
C. FANNING PLUME
- There are five classic plume types that
relate to stability. The first is the fanning
plume. You can see that the actual lapse
rate (the dark red line) is very stable
compared to the dashed white line,
which is the adiabatic lapse rate. A
fanning plume tends to be very narrow
in the vertical. Over a short period of
time, it's also narrow in the horizontal,
but as the wind direction fluctuates, it
tends to spread out widely in the
horizontal while staying very confined in
the vertical.
-
D. LOFTING PLUME
- a stable layer lies underneath a
neutral or unstable layer so the
plume is lofted upward
- can't disperse downwards because
of the inversion and stable layer
E. FUMIGATING PLUME
- a special case of the fanning plume
that goes through a transition
- can extend a concentrated plume a
significant distance from the source
and then rapidly mix it to the ground
 2. Anthropogenic Sources
- mobile transportation - combustion
- stationary combustion - combustion
- industrial processes - sulfuric acid
manufacturing, toxic fumes
- solid waste disposal – has something
to do with dust and odor
- Solid waste disposal ⅔ of total air
pollution is caused by transportation
PLUMING SUMMARY and combustion
The various stability categories are a function of time of day,
sky cover, and wind speed. For example, during the day, when
you have clear skies and very low wind speeds, the stability
category is A, which is extremely unstable. Under these
conditions you would have strong vertical motions that would
disperse the plume significantly. At night with clear skies or
light cloud cover and winds of 4-6 knots, the category would
be F, or very stable. This plume would be more confined in the
vertical, but over time would spread out in the horizontal.

Fig. Sources of Air Pollution and Their Effects

02 AIR POLLUTION

AIR POLLUTION
- Presence in the outdoor atmosphere of one or CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS
more air contaminants in sufficient quantities of
such characteristics and of such duration as to be A. ACCORDING TO ORIGIN
or threaten to be injurious to human, plant, or
1. Primary Pollutants
animal life or to property or which reasonably
- those that are directly emitted to the
interferes with the comfortable enjoyment of life
atmosphere (ex. Sox, Nox, and HC’s)
and property
2. Secondary Pollutants
- ex: O3, PAN
SOURCES - (not directly emitted -> ozone is formed
1. Natural Sources via reaction of oxygen with substances
- also considered, unlike in water in the atmosphere)
pollution
- pollen, fungi spores, salt spray, smoke, B. ACCORDING TO CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
and dust particles from forest fires and 1. Organic
volcanic eruptions - ex: HC’s, VOC’s, CFC’s
 - (carbon and hydrogen covalently c. Fumes
bonded together, may also contain – formed by condensation of
HONS) vapors of solid materials;
2. Inorganic flocculate and coalesce then
- ex: CO2, CO, NOx, Sox, H2S settle out
d. Fly ash
C. ACCORDING TO STATE OF MATTER – non- combustible particles
1. Particulate pollutants rising with flue gas
2. LIQUID PARTICULATES – mist, spray
- finely divided solids or liquids
a. Mist
- will eventually settle out - liquid formed by condensation
- ex: dust, smoke, fumes, fly ash of vapors, dispersion of liquid
2. Gaseous pollutants or chemical reaction;
- behave much as air causes fog
- do not settle out b. Spray
- ex: CO, Sox, Nox, VOC’s – atomization of liquids
3. SETTLING PROPERTIES
1. Suspended - < 1 µm – 20 µm
2. Settleable or dustfall - > 10 µm
PARTICULATES 4. OPTICAL PROPERTIES
- Any dispersed matter, solid or liquid in which the
- ability to scatter light; usually in
individual aggregates are larger than a single small
the range of 0.38-0.76 µm
molecule (0.002 µm dia) but smaller than about 500
- particulates cause decreased
µm.
visibilities (the other indication
of pollution is odor)
SOURCES - The higher the density of the
- Paper industry, fugitive dust, construction particulates, more scattering
activities, utilities, other combustion sources, - The finer particulates will cause
open burning more visibility problems (than
the larger particles)
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS - Measure of visibility is distance
1. Size (hanggang saan yung nakikita)
- of major interest to air pollution studies
are of the range of 0.01 µm to 100 µm
- Determines whether it is able to enter CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
the respiratory system 1. Organics
- phenols, organic acids, and alcohols
2. Inorganics
– nitrates, sulfates, metals (iron, lead,
manganese, zinc)
- comes from catalyst particles

2. Mode of formation
1. SOLID PARTICULATES
 dust, smoke, fly ash, fumes
a. Dust
– solid particles created by
break-up of large masses; do not
diffuse; settle by gravity
b. Smoke
– result from incomplete
combustion of organics; consists
mainly of carbon
BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
- Important when allergens are discussed
- includes protozoa, bacteria, viruses, fungi, spores,
pollens
EFFECTS OF PARTICULATES
A. RESPIRABLE SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
(RSP)
- particles with diameter of 10 microns or less
- observed human health effects include
breathing and respiratory symptoms,
aggravation of existing respiratory disease
and damage to lung tissues
 - susceptible population include persons with - particles from vehicular exhausts can be
chronic lung and heart disease, persons with of size smaller than 10 micron
asthma, elderly people and children EFFECTS OF LEAD EXPOSURE
1. Damage to the nervous system, red
EFFECTS OF RSP blood cells, kidney and potential
1. Health Effects increases in high blood pressure
Nature and extent depend on: 2. Decreased coordination and mental
A. Toxic Substance abilities
- chemical properties: chemical structure b. chronic lead poisoning:
- physical properties: size, shape, headache, weakness, lassitude,
solubility and vapor pressure constipation, and blue line
- toxicity: ability to cause injury to along gums
biological tissue c. small children (and fetuses) are
B. Recipient at greatest risk because of their
- genetics, sex, personal habits, diet, age, smaller size, breathing patterns
health status and metabolism of lead in their
C. Dose bodies
- concentration in air
- route and duration of exposure
- dose received by individual GASEOUS POLLUTANTS
D. Environment
- temperature, humidity, light and noise
levels, 1. Oxides of Sulfur (SOx)
- pressure differences, presence of other - Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfur trioxide
contaminants (SO3) have the most significance
2. Aeroallergens - SO2
- airborne substances causing allergies a. highly soluble in water
3. Effects on Plants and Animals b. remains airborne between 4 to
8 days and transported as far as
- Effects on plants (blocks photosynthesis) and
1000 km
animals (have smaller organs - effects on
human beings is worse on animals)
- Reactions:
a. SO2 + H2O → H2SO3
4. Effects on Materials
b. SO3 + H2O → H2SO4
- soiling of clothing and textile; discoloring
and destroying painted surfaces
- Sources:
 inorganic chemical
5. Meteorological effects
manufacture
- (acid rain due to H2SO4 sprays, rainfall  refineries
increases as particulate matter increases -
 calciners
particles serve as seeds)
 utilities
 Temperature - decreases as
- Effects of SOX
particulate matter increases o Human Health
(particles blocks sunlight radiation) - H2SO4, SO2 and
sulfate salts foster
PARTICULATE SIZE AND RESPIRATORY DEFENSE development of
MECHANISM respiratory diseases
- works in synergy
o Materials
- Statues and building
materials
- CaCO3 + H2SO4 →
CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O
- damage to textile
- corrosion

2. Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)

- Nitric Oxide (NO) and nitrogen
dioxide (NO2) are of major
B. LEAD PARTICULATES
concern
- Nitric Oxide (NO)
- main NOx emitted during
combustion
- N2 + O2 → 2NO
- can be converted into
nitrogen dioxide
- NITROGEN DIOXIDE (NO2)
- Highly soluble in water
- 2NO2 + H2O → HNO3 +
HNO2 (nitrous)
- 3NO2 + H2O → 2HNO3 +
NO (nitric)
- SOURCES:
- combustion of oil, coal and
gas in both automobiles
and industry
- bacterial action in soil
- forest fires
- volcanic action
- lightning
- fertilizer manufacturing
- EFFECTS OF NOX
o Human Health
- can irritate the lungs and
lower resistance to
respiratory infection such as
influenza
- individuals with respiratory
problems such as asthma are
more susceptible to the
effects
- in young children, nitrogen
dioxide may also impair lung
development
o PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG
- Smog
- a complex mixture of ozone,
nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbons that causes
respiratory problems, reduced
visibility and damage to
vegetation and minerals.
Usually a result of emissions
from vehicles and industrial
activities
- Needed for formation of smog:
- 1. sunlight
- 2. NOx
- 3. VOC’s
o
- 4. Temperature > 18 C
- Winter - smog at night (London
Smog)
- Summer - 10 - 11AM (Los
Angeles Smog)
- Main Reactions
- M- usually a HC serving as
catalyst
- may also react with O and
O3
- O3, NO3 - very strong
oxidizing agents, formed
through the reaction,
therefore are secondary
pollutants
- can also react with NO2
to form peroxy-acetyl
nitrate (PAN) [CH3CO-OO-
NO2]
- PAN - can irritate the eyes
causing them to water and
sting
- SMOG – as it matures they
form aerosol that reduces
visibility
- Time is needed for the
pollutants to react (reason
why smog is delayed for
the Los Angeles smog)
- Effects of Photochemical
Oxidants
- has greatest impact on
respiratory system
- where it irritates the
mucus membranes of nose,
throat and airways
- symptoms include cough,
chest pain, and
- throat and eye irritation
- some are associated with
eye irritation
3. CO2 and CO
- CO2
- greenhouse gas
- biggest source is combustion process
- CO
- colourless, odourless and tasteless gas
- lethal (first attack the brain)
- byproduct of incomplete combustion of
any fuel that contains carbon
- principal source is motor vehicle
- other sources: open burning, refineries
- EFFECTS OF CO
 o Health Effects
- binds preferentially to hemoglobin in
blood streams
- elevated CO concentration in healthy
person is associated with visual
impairment, reduced mental function
and poor learning ability
- susceptible population includes persons
with heart and circulatory ailment,
fetuses, young infants, pregnant women
and elderly people
4. Hydrocarbons
- Includes:
1. methane
2. non- methane HC’s including
BTEx
3. Volatile Organic Compounds
(VOC’s)
4. Halogenated HC’s
- VOC’S
- Emitted as gases from certain
solids or liquids
- Variety of chemicals some of
which may have short and long
term adverse health effects
- Concentrations of many VOC’s
are consistently
- higher indoors (up to ten times
higher) than
- outdoors
- EFFECTS OF HYDROCARBONS
- OZONE DEPLETION
- Ozone protects us from UV
- UV can cause sunburned skin,
cataracts, damage to immune
system and cancer
- Ozone is continuously forming
and dissociating in the
stratosphere
- Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)
 found primarily as
refrigerants,
propellants for aerosol
sprays and production
of styrofoams
 broken down by
sunlight to form
chlorine monoxide and
chlorine
- Cl + O3 → ClO + O2
- ClO + O → Cl + O2
ATMOSPHERIC CLEANSING PROCESSES
1. DISPERSION
-
wind currents lessen the
concentration of pollutants in any
one place
2. RAINOUT
- small particles acting as nuclei may
fall as rain
3. RAIN
4. WASHOUT
- raindrop collides with and collects
particles as it falls
5. CHEMICAL REACTION
-
- Rotten egg odor
- H2S – non-odorous at high conc.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
First option is to control pollute`
1. PROCESS CHANGE
- changes in processes to reduce raw
materials and fuels use of alternative
energy sources
2. CHANGE IN FUEL
- low sulfur instead of high sulfur
unleaded gasoline
- aromatic hydrocarbons as alternative to
lead – suspected carcinogens
- use of alternative energy sources
- solar: most successful (problem: space)
- wind – problem is storage
- tidal – very difficult to harness
3. GOOD OPERATING PRACTICES
APPLICATION OF AIR POLLUTION TECHNOLOGY
REQUIRES
1. Knowledge of source and the environment
2. Effluents from the source nature of pollutants,
quantity of pollutants
3. Air pollution regulations
4. Waste generated from the technology
NEED EQUIPMENT THAT
1. DESTROY
- Destroy pollutants
- From pollutant with high impact to low impact
- Eg. Incineration of hydrocarbons
2. MASK
- Tinatago yung effect ng pollutants
3. COUNTER ACT
- neutralize the pollutant (basic treatment of acids)
4. TRAP
 - collect pollutant before they get to atmosphere ii. Reverse-Air Baghouse
iii. Reverse-Jet Baghouse
DILUTION 4. Electrostatic Precipitators
- can be accomplished through the use of tall stacks
- based on the concept of dilution of contaminants 1. MECHANICAL COLLECTORS
- designed to disperse contaminants into the upper a. GRAVITY-SETTLING CHAMBERS
atmosphere away from immediate area
- use of this approach is discouraged
- not considered as a treatment

- Use the principles of gravity or

momentum in collecting particulates
I. Theory of Operation
- - rely on gravitational settling as
collection mechanism
- removal of PM by reducing gas velocity
so that force of gravity prevails
-
II. Applicable pollutants
- PM > 10 microns
- most designs are effective for PM > 50
microns
III. Industrial Applications
- -mostly as pre-cleaner
IV. Efficiency
- < 50%
- depends on residence time which in turn
depends on the volume of settling
chamber (needs larger volume)
- improve efficiency by lowering velocity
V. Advantages
- Low capital cost
- Very low energy cost
- No moving parts
- Low pressure drops = low maintenance
cost
A. PARTICULATE REMOVAL/CONTROL - dry collection and disposal
I. PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES - RULE: low cost = low efficiency
1. Gravity VI. Disadvantages
2. Inertia – used by cyclones - low collection efficiency
3. Filtration – letting air with particulates pass through filter material - LARGE physical size
4. Particle enlarging - Not a stand-alone equipment
5. Electrostatic Attraction VII. Others

b. BAFFLE COLLECTORS/CHAMBERS
II. EQUIPMENT
- For the same efficiency, is smaller than the gravity
1. Mechanical collectors
settling chamber
a. Gravity-Settling Chambers
- Higher operating cost (ng konti) compared to the
b. Baffle Collectors
gravity settling chamber, more efficient, higher
c. Cyclones
pressure drop
i. Multiclone
-
2. Wet Scrubbers
i. Packed-Wet Scrubbers
ii. Fluidized-Bed Wet Scrubbers
iii. Venturi Wet Scrubber
3. Fabric Filters I. Theory of Operation
a. Baghouse Filters - Gravity and inertia
i. Mechanical Shaker
 - operate by forcing waste gas to sharply - exponential increase with particle
change diameter
- direction thru use of strategically placed - rotational passes depends on height
baffles - improve efficiency by decreasing the
- particulates separate from gas because diameter → magbabara, can process
of momentum lower amount of feed
II. Applicable pollutants V. Advantages
- PM = 5-25 microns - Higher efficiency compared to gravity
III. Industrial Applications settling and baffle
- as pre-cleaner - low capital cost
IV. Efficiency - operation at ELEVATED TEMPERATURES
- 50 – 90 % possible
- increases with particle size and/or - no moving parts
density, increased gas - relatively low pressure drop
- stream velocity, number of baffles - relatively small space requirements
V. Advantages - dry collection and disposal
- low capital cost VI. Disadvantages
- no moving parts - relatively low collection efficiency
- smaller space requirements than gravity - prone to internal erosion / corrosion
settling chamber - high efficiency units may cause high
- relatively low pressure drop pressure drops
- dry collection and disposal VII. Variation
VI. Disadvantages - Multiclone
- relatively low efficiency
- unsuitable for sticky materials
- higher pressure drop than gravity
settling chambers
VII. Others
-
c. CYCLONES
2. WET SCRUBBERS

- feeding the air TANGENTIALLY
- two streams should not cross each other
- clean air (inside stream)
- dirty air (outside stream)
I. Theory of Operation
- removal of PM by centrifugal and inertial
forces
- induced by forcing waste gas to change
direction
II. Applicable pollutants
- PM of sizes < 10 microns but > 2.5
microns
III. Industrial Applications
- as pre-cleaner
- first stage PM control for sinter plants,
roasters, kilns and furnaces
IV. Efficiency
- increases linearly with: particle density,
gas stream velocity and rotational
passes
- linear decrease with fluid velocity
I. Theory of Operation
- Theory: particle enlargement
- remove particulate matter from gas
streams by incorporating the particles
into liquid droplets directly
- on contact
- either inertial impingement or
interception during gravitational settling
maybe the contact mechanism
II. Applicable pollutants
- particulate matter less than or equal to
10 microns
- hazardous pollutants that are in
particulate form like metals
III. Industrial Applications
- as pre-cleaner
- iron foundries, petroleum refineries,
paper mills, control of SO2 emissions
IV. Efficiency
- depends on energy consumed in the
contact process
- 90- 99 depending on type of scrubber
V. Advantages
- simultaneous gas absorption and
particulate removal
 - ability to cool and clean high
temperature moisture laden gases
- reduced dust explosion risk
- efficiency can be varied
VI. Disadvantages
- Prone to corrosion/erosion problems
- added cost of wastewater treatment
- contamination of effluent stream by
liquid entrainment
- reduction in buoyancy and plume rise
- water vapor contributes to visible plume
under some atmospheric conditions
VII. Variations
i. Packed Wet Scrubber
- -
- Improves contact process
- Provides more surfaces for contact
- Problem: CLOGGING
ii. Fluidized Bed Wet Scrubber
- V.
- gas fed at high pressure
- Problems:
- higher operating cost
- prone to corrosion
- formation of mist
iii. Venturi Scrubber
- -
- Most efficient
- Sudden decrease in SA
- Provides more turbulence → improves
contact process
- Problem: HIGHEST pressure drop among
scrubber types
3. FIBER FILTERS
a. BAGHOUSE FILTERS
- INSERT
I. Theory of Operation
- dry particulates are trapped on filters
made of cloth, paper or similar materials
- particles are shaken or blown from the
filters down into a collection hopper
II. Applicable pollutants
- For powder (powdered milk, baby
powder) together with spray dryer
- particulate matter less than or equal to
10 microns
hazardous pollutants that are in
particulate forms like metals
III. Industrial Applications
- in most process where dust is generated
and can be collected and ducted to a
central location
- industrial boilers, iron and steel
production, steel foundries, cement
manufacturing, quarrying and grain
milling
IV. Efficiency
- depends on fabric chosen, cleaning
frequency and methods and particulate
characteristics
Advantages
- high collection efficiencies
- collection of small particle possible
- dry collection
- decrease of performance is noticeable
VI. Disadvantages
- Not for wet, corrosive and hot
particulates → destroys the filters
- Increase in pore size increases pressure
drop
- over- temperature limitations
- sensitivity to filtering velocity
- affected by relative humidity
susceptibility of fabric chemical attack
VII. Variations
i. Mechanical Shaker Baghouse
 - Non-ferrous metallurgy (smelters and
furnaces)
- petroleum refineries (sludge
incinerators)
- cement manufacturing (kilns)
- Kraft paper mills ( recovery furnaces)
- acid manufacture (thermal processes)
- IV. Efficiency
- - typical designs efficiencies bet 99 and
ii. Reverse Air Baghouse 99.9
- equipment size
- varies with electric field strength
- Dependent on gas temperature, dust
- resistivity, chemical composition of the
dust and gas, particle size distribution
V. Advantages
- 99 + % efficiency obtainable
- For high temperature feed
- very small particles can be collected
- - particles maybe collected wet or dry
- Has cleaning and working mode
- pressure drops and power requirements
iii. Reverse Jet Baghouse
are small compared with other high
efficiency collectors
- maintenance is nominal unless corrosive
or adhesive materials are handled
- few moving parts
- can be operated at high temperatures
o
(300-450 C)
- VI. Disadvantages
- relatively high initial cost
3. ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS - subject to clogging in the hopper
- precautions are required to safeguard
personnel from high voltage
VII. Others

I. Theory of Operation
- Theory: Electrostatic Repulsion
- uses electrical forces to move particles
entrained within an exhaust stream onto
collection surfaces
- entrained particles are given an
electrical charge when they pass thru a
corona
- particles once charged are attracted to a
collector which assumes a charge
opposite that of entrained particles
- particles are removed from the collector
plates by “rapping”
II. Applicable pollutants
- PM > 1 micron
- High temperature gases B. GASEOUS CONTAMINANT CONTROL
III. Industrial Applications
PRINCIPAL GASES OF CONCERN
 - SOx, NOx, carbon oxides, organic and - recovering Hg, SO2 and NOx
inorganic acid gases and HC’s emissions

CURRENT TREATMENT PROCESSES

1. Sorption Techniques
a. Adsorption
i. Physical Adsorption
ii. Desorption
iii. Chemical Adsorption
b. Absorption
i. Spray towers
ii. Packed towers V. Others
iii. Venturi scrubbers
2. Condensation
3. Combustion
a. Thermal Oxidizer
i. Direct Combustion
ii. Recuperative
iii. Catalytic
iv. Recuperative Catalytic
v. Regenerative Thermal Oxidizer
4. Bio-filtration

1. SORPTION TECHNIQUES
a. ADSORPTION
I. Theory of Operation
- involves passing a stream of effluent gas
through solid porous material
(adsorbent) b. ABSORPTION
- surfaces of the porous solid material
attract and hold the gas (adsorbate) by
either physical or chemical adsorption
II. Types
i. Physical adsorption
- due to van der Waal’s forces
ii. Desorption
- done by raising temperature or
lowering pressure
- Process in which a gaseous
iii. Chemisorption
pollutant is dissolved in a liquid
- gas molecule forms chemical
I. Theory of Operation
bond with adsorbent
- involves bringing contaminated effluent
III. Characteristics/Advantages
gas (absorbate or solute) into contact
- affinity to specific substances
with liquid absorbent (solvent)
- high surface area to volume ratio
- one or more constituents of the effluent
- easy to regenerate
gas are removed, treated or modified by
IV. Adsorbents the liquid absorbent
1. Activated carbon - used primarily in control of gases such as
- eliminating odors, purifying SO2, NOx, H2S and some HC’s
gases, recovering solvents -
2. Silica gel
II. Types
- drying and purifying gases
iv. Reactive
3. Alumina
-
- drying air and gases
v. Non-Reactive
4. Molecular sieves – controlling and
-
 III. Efficiency (depends on)
- properties of gas and solvent
- pressure of gas above the solution
- temperature of the system
- turbulence
- packing medium used
IV. Types of Absorption Units
i. spray towers
ii. Contact Condensers

Choice depends on:

- mount and type of coolant used
- waste liquid disposal problems that will
ii. packed towers result
- amount of compound that must be
recovered
III. Applicability
- used primarily for hydrocarbons
- Generally applicable to relatively
concentrated streams ( > 1000 ppm)
- Typically employed when product
recovery is desired
- Typical applications are in degreasers,
gasoline vapor recovery systems and
iii. venturi scrubbers coating operations
IV. Applications
- as pretreatment devices
- used ahead of adsorbers, absorbers, and
incinerators
- used primarily for hydrocarbons

3. COMBUSTION
- for hydrocarbons
V. Packings a. THERMAL OXIDIZERS
- Raschig Rings, Pall Ring, Tallerette,
Berl Saddle, Intalox Saddle I. Theory of Operation
- pollutants react with oxygen under high
2. CONDENSATION temperature
- Condensation is the process of converting a - reaction
gas or vapor to liquid CxHy + O2→ CO2 + H2O
I. Methods - Cl2 gas maybe a product if HC is
i. Lowering the temperature chlorinated
ii. Increasing the pressure - reaction happens by raising temperature
II. Types to flame temperature or pre-heating the
i. Surface Condensers gas and exposing it to catalyst
II. Applications
- for control of emissions that require
destruction of pollutants such as toxic or
hazardous gases
 - industries include painting, chemical,
printing and pharmaceutical industries
III. Types
i. Direct Combustion
Fig. Dried Flame Combustion Chamber

V. Advantages
- 99 + % efficiency obtainable
ii. Recuperative
- very small particles can be collected
iii. Catalytic
- particles maybe collected wet or dry
- pressure drops and power requirements
are small compared with other high
efficiency collectors
- maintenance is nominal unless corrosive
or adhesive materials are handled
- few moving parts
- can be operated at high temperatures
o
(300-450 C)

3. BIOFILTRATION
- Process by which gaseous pollutants are
removed from process gas stream by aerobic
digestion or consumption by microbe
- Effective on certain VOC’s ( alcohol, ketones,
and many aliphatic and aromatic HC’s) and
some inorganic compounds
- Viable in treating large volumes of gas with
low levels of contaminants
- Equipment is called biofilter
iv. Recuperative Catalytic
I. BIOFILTER
v. Regenerative Thermal Oxidizer
- Consists of simple bed of material
that is conducive to the support of
microbe growth thru which the gas
passes at low velocity.
- Bed is usually kept moist and gas is
humidified before entry in the filter
- Bed maybe made of compost, peat,
wood chips, soil, polystyrene,
fiberglass wool, clay or granulated
activated carbon.
IV. Selection
II. Efficiency
- for HC’s : 50- 100 g/(h-m3)
III. Maintenance
- mineralization causes bed to
collapse which will increase
pressure drop
- presence of “poisons” like
halogens and toxic metals can
impair or kill microorganisms

IV. Disadvantages
- problems on humidity →
microorganism need water to
survive
- solved by the humidification
chamber