CHAPTER

5
RESPONSE
TO IMPULSIVE
LOADING

5-1 GENERAL NATURE OF IMPULSIVE LOADING

Another special class of dynamic loading of the SDOF system will now be
considered, the impulsive load. Such a load consists of a single principal impulse of
arbitrary form, as illustrated in Fig. 5-1, and generally is of relatively short duration.
Impulsive or shock loads frequently are of great importance in the design of certain
classes of structural systems, e.g., vehicles such as trucks or automobiles or traveling
cranes. Damping has much less importance in controlling the maximum response of a
structure to impulsive loads than for periodic or harmonic loads because the maximum
response to a particular impulsive load will be reached in a very short time, before the
damping forces can absorb much energy from the structure. For this reason only the
undamped response to impulsive loads will be considered in this chapter.

p(t)

t FIGURE 5-1
Arbitrary impulsive loading.

73
74 DYNAMICS OF STRUCTURES

p(t)

p0

t
t1 
t = t − t1 FIGURE 5-2
Phase I Phase II Half-sine-wave impulse.

5-2 SINE-WAVE IMPULSE

For impulsive loads which can be expressed by simple analytical functions,
closed form solutions of the equations of motion can be obtained. For example,
consider the single half-sine-wave impulse shown in Fig. 5-2. The response to such an
impulse will be divided into two phases as shown, the first corresponding to the forced-
vibration phase in the interval during which the load acts and the second corresponding
to the free-vibration phase which follows.
Phase I — During this phase, the structure is subjected to the single half-sine-
wave loading shown in Fig. 5-2. Assuming  the system starts from rest, the undamped
response-ratio time-history R(t) ≡ v(t) (p0/k), including the transient as well as
the steady-state term, is given by the simple harmonic load expression, Eq. (3-12).
 the nondimensional time parameter α ≡ t/t1 so that ω t = π α and
Introducing
ω t = π α β, this equation can be written in the form
 h
1 π αi
R(α) = sin π α − β sin 0≤α≤1 (5-1)
1 − β2 β
 
where β ≡ ω ω = T 2t1 . This equation is, of course, valid only in Phase I
corresponding to 0 ≤ α ≤ 1. Since it is indeterminate for β = 1, L’Hospital’s rule
must be applied to obtain a useable expression for this special case. Taking this action,
one obtains [by analogy with Eq. (3-38)]

1h i
R(α) = sin πα − πα cos πα β=1 0≤α≤1 (5-2)
2

Phase II — The free-vibration motion which occurs during this phase, t ≥ t1 ,

depends on the displacement v(t1 ) and velocity v̇(t1 ) existing at the end of Phase I; in
other words, in terms of the response ratio, it depends on the values of R(1) and Ṙ(1)
given by Eq. (5-1) and its first time derivative expression, respectively. Thus, using
 RESPONSE TO IMPULSIVE LOADING 75

Eq. (2-33) in its response-ratio form this free-vibration response is shown to be

  (     )
−β π π π π
R(α) = 1 + cos sin (α − 1) + sin cos (α − 1)
1 − β2 β β β β

α≥1 (5-3)

in which πβ (α − 1) = ω (t − t1 ). This expression, like Eq. (5-1), is indeterminate

 

for β = 1, requiring once again the use of L’Hospital’s rule leading to

π h i
R(α) = cos π (α − 1) β=1 α≥1 (5-4)
2

Using Eqs. (5-1) and (5-2) for Phase I and Eqs. (5-3) and (5-4) for Phase II,
response-ratio time-histories can be generated for discrete values of β as illustrated
by the solid lines in Fig. 5-3. The values of β selected
 for this figure are 1/4, 1/3,
1/2, 1, and 3/2 which correspond to values of t1 T equal to 2, 3/2, 1, 1/2, and
1/3, respectively. Also shown forcomparison is the dashed line representing the
quasi-static response ratio [p(t)/k]
 (p0/k) = p(t) p0 which has a peak value equal
to unity. Notice that for t1 T = 1/2 (β = 1), the maximum  response at Point d
occurs exactly at the end of Phase I. For any value of t1 T less than 1/2 (β > 1),
the maximum response will occur in Phase II; while for any value of t1 T greater
than 1/2 (β < 1), it will occur in Phase I. Clearly, the maximum value of response
depends on the ratio  of the load duration to the period of vibration of the structure,
i.e., on the ratio t1 T = 1/2 β.
While it is very important to understand the complete time-history behavior as
shown in Fig. 5-3, the engineer is usually only interested in the maximum value of

pt. a b c d e

β 1
 1
 1
 1 3

4 3 2 2
R(α) t 3 1 1
1 2  1  
T 2 2 3
2 1 2
Response ratio R(α)

α    1
5 2 3
2 c Rmax 1.27
3
 1.73 1.57 1.20
b d 2

a e
1 h
g
f t
α=
t1
1 2 3

t1

Phase I Phase II

FIGURE 5-3
Response ratios due to half-sine pulse.
76 DYNAMICS OF STRUCTURES

response as represented by Points a, b, c, d, and e. If a maximum value occurs in Phase

I, the value of α at which it occurs can be determined by differentiating Eq. (5-1) with
respect to α and equating to zero, thus obtaining
 h
d R(α) π πα i
= cos πα − cos =0 (5-5)
dα 1 − β2 β

from which
πα
cos πα = cos (5-6)
β
This equation is satisfied when
πα
πα = ± + 2 πn n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, · · · (5-7)
β

Solving for α gives

2β n
α= n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, · · · (5-8)
(β ± 1)

which is valid, of course, only when the resulting values of α fall in Phase I, i.e., in the
range 0 ≤ α ≤ 1. As previously shown, this condition is met only when 0 ≤ β ≤ 1.
To satisfy both of these conditions, it is necessary that the positive and negative values
of n be used along with the plus and minus signs, respectively, in Eq. (5-8). Note that
the zero value of n can be dropped from consideration as it yields α = 0 which simply
confirms that the zero-velocity initial condition has been satisfied.
To develop an understanding of the use of Eq. (5-8), let us consider the cases
shown in Fig. 5-3. For the limit-value case β = 1, using the plus sign and n = +1,
one obtains α = 1 which when substituted into Eq. (5-2) yields R(1) = π/2. This
corresponds to Point d in Fig. 5-3. When β = 1/2, Eq. (5-8) has only one valid
solution, namely the solution using the plus sign and n = +1. The resulting α value
is 2/3 which when substituted into Eq. (5-1) gives R(2/3) = 1.73 as shown by Point
c. For β = 1/3, the plus-sign form of Eq. (5-9) gives α = 1/2 and 1 when n = +1
and +2, respectively; when substituted into Eq. (5-1) these yield R(1/2) = 3/2 and
R(1) = 0, as shown in Fig. 5-3 by Points b and f . Note that because Ṙ(1) is zero
in this case, there is no free vibration in Phase II. For the case β = 1/4, two maxima
(Points a and h) and one minimum (Point g) are clearly present in Phase I. Points
a and h correspond to using the plus sign along with n = +1 and +2, respectively,
giving α = 2/5 and 4/5, while Point g corresponds to using the minus sign along
with n = −1 giving α = 2/3. It is now clear that using the plus sign in Eq. (5-8)
along with positive values of n yields α-values for the maxima, while using the minus
sign along with the negative values of n yields α-values for the minima. Substituting
the above values of α into Eq. (5-1) gives R(2/5) = 1.268, R(4/5) = 0.784, and
R(2/3) = 0.693 corresponding to Points a, h, and g, respectively. If one examined
 RESPONSE TO IMPULSIVE LOADING 77

additional cases by further reducing the value of β, the numbers of maxima and minima
will continue to increase in Phase I with the largest of the maxima changing from the
first (as in the case of β = 1/4) to the second, then to the third, etc. In the limit, as
β → 0, the response-ratio curve will approach the quasi-static response curve shown
by the dashed line in Fig. 5-3 and Rmax will approach unity.
Finally, consider the case β = 3/2 which has its maximum response in Phase II
as indicated by Point e. It is not necessary in this case of free vibration to determine the
value of α corresponding to maximum response because the desired maximum value
is obtained directly by simply taking the vector sum of the two orthogonal components
in Eq. (5-3) giving

   2  2 1/2
−β π π
Rmax = 1 + cos + sin
1 − β2 β β
   1/2
−β π
= 2 1 + cos
1 − β2 β

h
i1/2
Finally using the trigonometric identity 2 1 + cos πβ π
≡ 2 cos 2β this may be
written in the following simplified form:
 
−2β π
Rmax = cos (5-9)
1 − β2 2β

For the above case of β = 3/2, this expression gives Rmax = 1.2.

5-3 RECTANGULAR IMPULSE

A second example of the analysis of the response to an impulse load will now
make use of the rectangular loading shown in Fig. 5-4. Again the response will be
divided into the loading phase and the subsequent free-vibration phase.

p(t)

p0

t

t1 t = t − t1
FIGURE 5-4
Phase I Phase II Rectangular impulse.
78 DYNAMICS OF STRUCTURES

Phase I — The suddenly applied load which remains constant during this phase
is called a step loading. The particular solution to the equation of motion for this case
is simply the static deflection

vp = p0 k Rp = 1 (5-10)

Using this result, the general response-ratio solution, in which the complementary free-
vibration solution constants have been evaluated to satisfy the at-rest initial conditions,
is easily found to be
h t  i
1
R(α) = 1 − cos 2 π α 0≤α≤1 (5-11)
T
 
where again α ≡ t t1 sothat ω t = 2 π (t1 T ) α. The first maximum of this
expression occurs when (t1 T ) α = 1/2. If it is to occur exactly at the end of Phase
I, i.e., α = 1, then the ratio t1 T must equal 1/2; in this case, from Eq. (5-11),
R(1/2) = 2. As t1 T continues to increase above  1/2, additional maxima will appear
in Phase I each having the value Rmax = 2. As t1 T decreases from 1/2, no maximum
can occur in Phase I in accordance with Eq. (5-11); instead the maximum response
will occur in Phase II under the free-vibration condition.
Phase II — Using Eq. (2-33) in its response-ratio form and applying Eq. (5-11)
to find R(1) and Ṙ(1), the free vibration in this phase is given by
 t1  h t1 i
R(α) = 1 − cos 2 π cos 2 π (α − 1)
T T
 t1  h t1 i
+ sin 2 π sin 2 π (α − 1) α≥1 (5-12)
T T

in which 2 π tT1 (α − 1) = ω (t − t1 ). Taking the vector sum of the two orthogonal

 

components in this expression gives

 2  2 1/2
t1 t1
Rmax = 1 − cos 2π + sin 2π
T T
  1/2
t1 t1
= 2 1 − cos 2π = 2 sin π (5-13)
T T

showing that
 the maximum response to the rectangular impulse varies as a sine function
for 0 ≤ t1 T ≤ 1/2.

5-4 TRIANGULAR IMPULSE

The last impulse loading to be analyzed in detail is the decreasing triangular
impulse shown in Fig. 5-5.
 RESPONSE TO IMPULSIVE LOADING 79

p(t)

p0

t

t1 t = t − t1 FIGURE 5-5
Phase I Phase II Triangular impulse.

Phase I — The loading during this phase is p0 1 − tt1 for which it is easily

demonstrated that the particular solution to the equation of motion, in its response-ratio
form, is
Rp (t) = (1 − α) 0≤α≤1 (5-14)
in which α = tt1 . Combining this solution with the complementary free-vibration
solution and evaluating its constants to satisfy the zero initial conditions, one finds
 1  t1 t1
R(α) = sin 2π α − cos 2π α − α + 1 0≤α≤1 (5-15)
2π tT1 T T

Taking the first time derivative of this expression and setting it to zero, one can show
 the first maximum will occur exactly at the end of Phase I (i.e., at α = 1), when
that
t1 T = 0.37101.  Substituting this value into Eq. (5-15) gives R(0.37101) = 1.
For values of t1 T > 0.37101, the maximum response will be in Phase I and can
be obtained from Eq. (5-15) upon substitution of the proper α-value representing the
zero-velocity condition.

Phase II — When t1 T < 0.37101, the maximum response will be the free-
vibration amplitude in Phase II. It is found in the same manner as in the previous cases
by substituting R(1) and Ṙ(1) obtained from Eq. (5-15) and its first time derivative
expression, respectively, into the response-ratio form of the free-vibration response
given by Eq. (2-33). The maximum response is then the vector sum of the two
orthogonal components in the resulting free-vibration equation.

5-5 SHOCK OR RESPONSE SPECTRA

In the expressions derived above, the maximum response produced in an un-
damped SDOF structure by each type of impulsive loading depends only on the ratio 
of the impulse duration to the natural period of the structure, i.e., on the ratio t1 T .
Thus, it is useful to plot the maximum value of response ratio Rmax as a function of
80 DYNAMICS OF STRUCTURES

2.4

Rectangular
2.0
Half sine wave
Triangular
Maximum response ratio Rmax

1.6

1.2

0.8

0.4

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
t Impulse duration
Ratio 1 = 
T Period

FIGURE 5-6
Displacement-response spectra (shock spectra) for three types of impulse.


t1 T for various forms of impulsive loading. Such plots, shown in Fig. 5-6 for the
three forms of loading treated above, are commonly known as displacement-response
spectra, or merely as response spectra. Generally plots like these can be used to
predict with adequate accuracy the maximum effect to be expected from a given type
of impulsive loading acting on a simple structure.
These response spectra also serve to indicate the response of the structure to
an acceleration pulse applied to its base. If the applied base acceleration is v̈ g (t),
it produces an effective impulsive loading peff = −m v̈g (t) [see Eq. (2-17)]. If the
maximum base acceleration is denoted by v̈g0 , the maximum effective impulsive load
is p0,max = −m v̈g0 . The maximum response ratio can now be expressed as
 
 vmax 
Rmax = 
   (5-16)
m v̈ k g0

in which only the absolute magnitude is generally of interest. Alternatively, this

maximum response ratio can be written in the form
 . 
 t
Rmax =  v̈max v̈g0  (5-17)


t
where v̈max is the maximum total acceleration of the mass. This follows from the fact
that in an undamped system, the product of the mass and the total acceleration must
 RESPONSE TO IMPULSIVE LOADING 81

be equal in magnitude to the elastic spring force k vmax . Accordingly, it is evident

that the response spectrum plots of Fig. 5-6 can be used to predict the maximum
acceleration response of mass m to an impulsive acceleration as well as the maximum
displacement response to impulsive loads. When used to predict response to base
acceleration, the plots are generally referred to as shock spectra.

Example E5-1. As an example of the use of the above described response

(or shock) spectra in evaluating the maximum response of a SDOF structure to
an impulsive load, consider the system shown in Fig. E5-1, which represents a
single-story building subjected to the triangular blast load. For the given weight
and column stiffness of this structure, the natural period of vibration is
s s
2π W 600
T = = 2π = 2π = 0.079 sec
ω kg 10, 000 (386)

The ratio of impulse duration to natural period becomes

t1 0.05
= = 0.63
T 0.079
and from Fig. 5-6, the maximum response ratio is Rmax = 1.33. Thus, the
maximum displacement will be
p   1, 000 
0
vmax = Rmax = 1.33 = 0.133 in [0.338 cm]
k 10, 000

and the maximum total elastic force developed is

fS ,max = k vmax = 10, 000 (1.33) = 1, 330 kips [603, 300 kg]

Total weight = 600 kips

p(t)
Blast load p(t)

Total lateral
stiffness:
k = 10,000 kips ⁄ in 1,000 kips

t1 = 0.05 sec
Elastic resistance
fS = kv

FIGURE E5-1
SDOF building subjected to blast load.
82 DYNAMICS OF STRUCTURES

If the blast-pressure impulse had been only one-tenth as long  (t1 =

0.005
sec), the maximum response ratio for this impulse duration t1 T =
0.063 would be only Rmax = 0.20. Thus for an impulse of very short-
duration, a large part of the applied load is resisted by the inertia of the structure,
and the stresses produced are much smaller than those produced by loadings of
longer duration.

It should be kept in mind that although the response (or shock) spectra described
above have been developed for the undamped SDOF system, they can be used for
damped systems as well since damping in the practical range of interest has little
effect on the maximum response produced by short-duration impulsive loads.

5-6 APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF IMPULSIVE-LOAD

RESPONSE
From a study of the response spectra presented in Fig. 5-6 and similar spectra
for other forms of loadings, two general conclusions may be drawn concerning the
response of structures to impulsive loadings:

(1) For long-duration loadings, for example, t1 T > 1, the dynamic magnification
factor depends principally on the rate of increase of the load to its maximum
value. A step loading of sufficient duration produces a magnification factor of
2; a very gradual increase causes a magnification factor of 1.

(2) For short-duration loads, for example, t1 T < 1/4, the maximum displacement
R t vmax depends principally upon the magnitude of the applied impulse
amplitude
I = 0 1 p(t) dt and is not strongly influenced by the form of the loading
impulse. The maximum response ratio Rmax is, however, quite dependent upon
the form of loading because it is proportional to the ratio of impulse area to
peak-load amplitude, as may be noted by comparing the curves of Fig. 5-6 in
the short-period range. Thus vmax is the more significant measure of response.
A convenient approximate procedure for evaluating the maximum response to
a short-duration impulsive load, which represents a mathematical expression of this
second conclusion, may be derived as follows. The impulse-momentum relationship
for the mass m may be written
Z t1  
m △v̇ = p(t) − k v(t) dt (5-18)
0

in which △v̇ represents the change of velocity produced by the loading. In this
expression it may be observed that for small values of t1 the displacement developed
during the loading v(t1 ) is of the order of (t1 )2 while the velocity change △v̇ is of
 RESPONSE TO IMPULSIVE LOADING 83

the order of t1 . Thus since the impulse is also of the order of t1 , the elastic force term
k v(t) vanishes from the expression as t1 approaches zero and is negligibly small for
short-duration loadings.
On this basis, the approximate relationship may be used:
Z t1
.
m △v̇ = p(t) dt (5-19)
0

or
t1
1
Z
△v̇ = p(t) dt (5-20)
m 0

The response after termination of loading is the free vibration

v̇(t1 )
v(t) = sin ωt + v(t1 ) cos ωt
ω

in which t = t − t1 . But since the displacement term v(t1 ) is negligibly small and the
velocity v̇(t1 ) = △v̇, the following approximate relationship may be used:
Z t1 
. 1
v(t) = p(t) dt sin ωt (5-21)
mω 0

Example E5-2. As an example of the use of this approximate formula,

consider the response of the structure
q shown in Fig. E5-2 to the impulsive loading
 Rt
indicated. In this case, ω = kg W = 3.14 rad/sec and 0 1 p(t) dt =
10 kip · sec. The response then is approximately

10 (386)
v(t) = sin ωt
2, 000 (3.14)

p(t)

W= p0 = 50 kips
2,000 kips
p(t)
51.1 kips ⁄ in
t, sec
t1
0.1 0.1 0.1

FIGURE E5-2
Approximate impulse-response analysis.
84 DYNAMICS OF STRUCTURES

in which the acceleration of gravity is taken as g = 386 in/sec2

[980.7 cm/sec2 ]. The maximum response results when sin ωt = 1, that is,
.
vmax = 0.614 in [1.56 cm]

The maximum elastic force developed in the spring, which is of major concern
to the structural engineer, is

fS ,max = k vmax = 51.1 (0.614) = 31.4 kips [14, 240 kg]

Since the period of vibration ofthis system is T = 2π/ω = 2 sec, the ratio
of load duration to period is t1 T = 0.15; thus, the approximate analysis in
this case is quite accurate. In fact, the exact maximum response determined by
direct integration of the equation of motion is 0.604 in [1.53 cm], and so the
error in the approximate result is less than 2 percent.

PROBLEMS
5-1. Consider the basic dynamic system of Fig. 2-1a with the following properties:
W = 600 lb (m = W/g) and k = 1, 000 lb/in. Assume that it is subjected
to a half sine-wave impulse (Fig. 5-2) of amplitude p0 = 500 lb and duration
t1 = 0.15 sec. Determine:
(a) The time at which the maximum response will occur.
(b) The maximum spring force produced by this loading; check this result
with that obtained by use of Fig. 5-6.
5-2. A triangular impulse that increases linearly from zero to the peak value is
expressed as p(t) = p0 (t/t1 ) (0 < t < t1 ).
(a) Derive an expression for the response of a SDOF structure to this laoding,
starting from “at rest” conditions.
(b) Determine the maximum response ratio
vmax
Rmax =
p0 /k

resulting from this loading if t1 = 3π/ω.

5-3. A quarter cosine-wave impulse is expressed as
π
p(t) = p0 cos ωt 0<t<
2ω
(a) Derive an expression for the response to this impuse, starting from rest.
(b) Determine the maximum response ratio
vmax
Rmax = if ω=ω
p0 /k
 RESPONSE TO IMPULSIVE LOADING 85

5-4. The basic SDOF system of Fig. 2-1a, having the following properties, k =
20 kips/in and m = 4 kips · sec2 /in, is subjected to a triangular impulse of
the form of Fig. 5-5 with p0 = 15 kips and t1 = 0.15 T .
(a) Using the shock spectra of Fig. 5-6, determine the maximum spring force
fSmax .
(b) Using Eq. (5-21), compute approximately the maximum displacement and
spring force; compare with the result of part a.
5-5. The water tank of Fig. P5-1a can be treated as a SDOF structure with the
following properties: m = 4 kips · sec2 /in, k = 40 kips/in. As a result of an
explosion, the tank is subjected to the dynamic-load history shown in Fig. P5-
1b. Compute approximately the maximum overturning moment M0 at the base
of the tower using Eq. (5-21) and evaluating the impulse integral by means of
Simpson’s rule:
Z
△t
p dt = (p0 + 4p1 + 2p2 + 4p3 + p4 )
3

p(t)
m
p(t)
50 kips

35 kips
150 ft
15 kips

t, sec
0 1 2 3 4
0 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

(a) (b)

FIGURE P5-1