FACULTY OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

BNJ 20903 SOLID MECHANIC

SECTION 1
PROJECT: STRAW LOADING BEARING TOWER

LECTURER: Ts. Dr. NORAINI BINTI MASRI

GROUP 8
NAME MATRIC NUMBER
LAI SWEE YONG CN190006
NIK NUR AMYRA ADILLA BINTI AN190012
NOOR KHAIRULLAH
AMIRUL HAFIZI BIN AHMAD SABRI AN190135
MUHAMMAD AIDIL SAFWAN BIN AN190016
ABDUL AZIZ

TOTAL
MARKS

1
TABLE OF CONTENT

NO TITTLE Page
3-6
1 Students Details

7-10
2 Introduction

11-15
3 Literature Review

16-21
4 Methodology

22-26
5 Calculation

27-28
6 Discussion and Calculation

29
7 Appendix

8 Minutes of meeting 30-34

2
STUDENT DETAILS

NAME LAI SWEE YONG

IC NUMBER 950707-13-5355

MATRIX CARD CN190006

NUMBER
PHONE NUMBER 0167155306

EMAIL rayyong55gmail.com

COURSE 2BNG (IJAZAH SARJANA MUDA KEJURUTERAAN

MEKANIKAL AUTOMOTIF)
ADDRESS GT PLYWOOD. INDUSTRIES. SDN. BHD, LOT 2389, BLOK
B2, JALAN KEMENA, 97000 BINTULU, SARAWAK
PAK DR IZUAN AMIN BIN ISHAK

3
 NAME NIK NUR AMYRA ADILLA BINTI NOOR KHAIRULLAH

IC NUMBER 000122-07-0868

MATRIX CARD AN190012

NUMBER
PHONE NUMBER 0184690114

EMAIL nikamyra2@gmail.com

COURSE 2BNG (IJAZAH SARJANA MUDA KEJURUTERAAN

MEKANIKAL AUTOMOTIF)
ADDRESS NO 9, LORONG SELAYANG INDAH 8, TAMAN SELAYANG
INDAH, SUNGAI PUYU, 13020 BUTTERWORTH, PULAU
PINANG
PAK PUAN RAHMAH BINTI MAHMUDIN

4
 NAME MUHAMMAD AIDIL SAFWAN BIN ABDUL AZIZ

IC NUMBER 000204-10-0741

MATRIX CARD AN190016

NUMBER
PHONE NUMBER 01111258700

EMAIL aidilsaf14@gmaail.com

COURSE 2BNG (IJAZAH SARJANA MUDA KEJURUTERAAN

MEKANIKAL AUTOMOTIF)
ADDRESS NO.56, LORONG NALURI SUKMA, 8/17, FASA 2, BANDAR
PUNCAK ALAM, 42300, SELANGOR
PAK DR IZUAN AMIN BIN ISHAK

5
 NAME AMIRUL HAFIZI BIN AHMAD SABRI

IC NUMBER 001030-08-0529

MATRIX CARD AN190135

NUMBER
PHONE NUMBER 0189512710

EMAIL amirulhafizi3785@gmail.com

COURSE 2BNG (IJAZAH SARJANA MUDA KEJURUTERAAN

MEKANIKAL AUTOMOTIF)
ADDRESS NO 70, PERSIARAN TAWAS BARU 1, TAMAN TASEK
MEWAH, 30010 IPOH, PERAK.
PAK Ir. Ts. SHAIFUL FADZIL BIN ZAINAL ABIDIN

6
 1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this project we were assigned to construct a tower by using straws and then carry out a full
structure analysis when a certain amount of load being applied upon it. The tower must
follow certain rules such as the range of length, width, and height must not exceed 25 cm, 25
cm and 30 cm respectively. The model must also must not weight more than 700 g. Whereas
for the structural analysis, the data needed to be calculated were highest load/force applied
onto the tower, stress-strain value, deformation and deflection of the beam, torsion, thin
cylinder, strain and stress transformation, column, strain energy and lastly, the theory behind
the failure involved on the model of the tower.
Structural analysis is that the determination of the consequences of loads on physical
structures and their components. Structures subject to the present sort of analysis include all
that has got to withstand loads, like buildings, bridges, vehicles, machinery, furniture, attire,
soil strata, prostheses and biological tissue, well for this project, the group members analyzed
certain value while referring to the tower model constructed by the group themselves.
Structural analysis employs the fields of applied mechanics, materials science and applied
math to compute a structure's deformations, internal forces, stresses, support reactions,
accelerations, and stability. The results of the analysis are wont to verify a structure's fitness
to be used, often precluding physical tests. Structural analysis is thus a key part of the
engineering design of structures.
Through a series of meetings, the group has come out with a rectangular shaped tower
with a large base and consists of 3 levels, which towers in 29 cm. the measurement of each
level are as follows, for the base of the tower the width length and height were, 16.5 cm, 16.5
cm respectively. For the middle part, 11 cm, 11 cm and 11.5 cm. And lastly for the top was
11cm by 11 cm. As for the weight, the model ends up with a staggering 40 g. These choices
also serve the purpose of carrying out structural analysis with ease thus helping the group on
completing the calculation for each value assigned.
The project conducted results in a lot of benefits towards the group members, for an
example able to cooperate successfully between the group members in completing the project
with ease. Not only that, able to apply all of the knowledge gained through the semester
regarding the project which can help the group member for the upcoming years. Last but not
least, this project exposes our thinking which urge us to think outside the box to use and
apply what the groups had learned and apply it to get the desired results.

1.1 NAME OF THE PROTOTYPE

 Straws of Justice

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

 Using straws as the material of building a strong enough structure/tower to hold
certain amount of load applied to it, within the range desired by the instruction of the
project.
 Applying the chapters learned throughout the course studies of Solid Mechanic in
calculation process to obtain preferred values and results.

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  Building the most stable tower whilst having the strongest structure on every part of
the tower to make it sturdy as possible.

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF PROJECT

 To have a better understanding regarding the structure of buildings around us, and
how it can withstand large amount of load through a smaller scale project.
 To make use of the knowledge learned in Solid Mechanic and applied it when needed
especially for future use.
 Learn the complexity of the buildings structure around us.
 Increase the skills of using suitable engineering software to generate the model in
digital form.

1.4 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

Buckling of Columns
Buckling of Columns may be a shape of distortion as a result of hub- compression powers.
This leads to bowing of the column, due to the flimsiness of the column. This mode of
disappointment is fast, and thus unsafe. Length, quality and other components decide how or
in case a column will buckle. Long columns compared to their thickness will involvement
flexible buckling comparable to bowing a Maggie. This will happen at stretch level less than
the extreme stretch of the column.

The Euler condition, Euler’s clarifies this phenomenon.

Euler hypothesis for flexible buckling

The ‘L’ in this condition symbolizes length and ‘P’ symbolizes the passable stack
some time recently buckle. As the length increments, the admissible stack diminishes. With
shorter columns compared to its thickness, one can induce from the same condition over that
the passable stretch on a column some time recently buckling increments as length
diminishes. The sort of conclusion associations for the column is another imperative figure in
deciding buckling stress. From pinned-pinned to fixed-fixed to fixed-pinned association, they
are each spoken to within the Euler condition with diverse values of ‘n’. The fixed-fixed
association increments the passable push some time recently buckling more than any of the
other conclusion associations. In development, it happens in an unexpected way for diverse
materials.
This figure of fabric is captured within the Euler’s condition with ‘E” and ‘I,’ diverse
fabric properties. In steel columns, this happens flexibly. This differs for strengthened
concrete. Within the picture underneath, the steel reinforcing bar is bowed outward and the
concrete is broken separated. With a more fragile fabric, the marvel is more sudden.

8
Euler’s Theory

The Euler’s hypothesis states that the stretch within the column due to coordinate loads is
little compared to the push due to buckling disappointment. Based on this explanation, a
equation inferred to compute the basic buckling stack of column. So, the condition is based
on bowing stretch and ignores coordinate stretch due to coordinate loads on the column.

P: Critical buckling load

E: Modulus of elasticity
I: Moment of inertia which is equal to cross-sectional area multiply radius of gyration.
L: Length of the slender column
K: Effective length factor which is based on the support conditions of the column

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The Truss Failure Theory

The truss disappointment hypothesis, a key fixing of the way better known floor hotcake
hypothesis, was supported by FEMA in its 2002 World Exchange Center Building Execution
Consider. It welcomes us to assume the floors congregations withdrawing from their
associations to the columns of the center and border dividers, accelerating a chain response of
floors falling on one another. Without the sidelong back of the floors, the columns, FEMA
tells us, buckled and accelerated add up to building collapse.
The truss-failure/pancake hypothesis advertised a way around the self-evident issue
with the column disappointment hypothesis: the require for all the columns to be warmed to
800º C. It advertised instep prerequisite conditions that were distant less improbable: that
trusses holding up the floor chunks were warmed to that temperature, and started to
involvement a few combinations of development and drooping. Floor trusses are much less
demanding to warm since, not at all like the columns, they are not well thermally coupled to
the rest of the steel structure.
The Truss Failure Theory was deserted by NIST's examination in 2004 since NIST
was incapable to induce floor congregations to fall flat as required by the hypothesis.
Documentaries that had advanced the truss disappointment hypothesis got to be out of date,
and were discreetly supplanted with upgraded forms.

Collapse Theories

The term “collapse theory” alludes to a whole course of quantum speculations that supplant
the Schrödinger condition by a non-linear time advancement for the wave work so that the
superposition rule, which leads to the estimation issue, is now not substantial. For little
frameworks, like single particles, the infringement of the superposition rule is scarcely
recognizable. On the other hand, superpositions of plainly visible wave capacities, such as for
Schrödinger’s cat, ended up for all intents and purposes inconceivable, or, more absolutely,
collapse so rapidly that they can never be watched. Simply put, the wave work subsequently
collapses naturally with the correct (that’s, quantum mechanical) probabilities onto one of the
localized wave bundles related with a well-defined plainly visible state. This prepare is
additionally called spontaneous localization. It is supportive to review our talk of the
estimation issue, where we as of now specified the plausibility of such a hypothesis
understanding the estimation issue.

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 2.0 TECHNICAL OF LITERATURE REVIEW (ABSTRACT)

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

A tower is a tall building, taller than it is high, sometimes by a significant factor. Towers are
differentiated from masts by their lack of guy-wires and are thus, along with tall buildings,
self-supporting structures.
In particular, towers are distinct from "buildings" in that they are not designed to be
habitable but to serve other purposes. The primary purpose is to use their height to visibility
of other features attached to the tower, such as clock towers; as part of a bigger framework or
system to enhance the visibility of the area for defensive purposes, such as in a fortified
building, such as a castle; as an observation structure for recreational purposes; or as a
telecommunications structure. Towers may be individual buildings or supported by
surrounding buildings or a structure on top of a large building or structure.

Figure 1: Example of tower

HISTORY
Towers have been used since ancient times by mankind. The circular stone tower in
the Neolithic walls of Jericho may be the oldest known (8000 BC). Some of the earliest
towers were ziggurats, which have existed since the 4th millennium BC in Sumerian
architecture. The Sumerian Ziggurat of Ur, founded in the 3rd century BC, and the
Etemenanki, one of the most famous examples, are the most common ziggurats. During the
2nd millennium BC, the latter was built in Babylon and was considered the tallest tower in
the ancient world.
The Broch structures in northern Scotland, which are conical tower houses, are some
of the oldest remaining examples. The use of a tower in fortification and sentinel positions

11
was emphasized by these and other examples from Phoenician and Roman cultures. The
name of the Moroccan city of Mogador, built in the first millennium BC, is derived, for
instance, from the Phoenician word 'migdol' for watchtower.
The Romans used octagonal towers as components of the Diocletian's Palace in
Croatia, a monument dated from about 300 AD, while square ones were featured in the
Servian Walls (4th century BC) and the Aurelian Walls (3rd century AD). In 210 BC, during
the Qin Dynasty, the Chinese used towers as integrated components of the Great Wall of
China. Towers were an important feature of castles as well.
The Leaning Tower of Pisa in Pisa, Italy, constructed from 1173 to 1372, and the Two
Towers in Bologna, Italy, built from 1109 to 1119, are other well-known towers. The
Himalayan Towers are stone towers constructed between the 14th and 15th centuries,
primarily in Tibet.

MECHANICS
With a supporting framework with parallel sides, a tower can be created up to a
certain height. Over a certain height, however, the material's compressive load is surpassed
and the tower may collapse. This can be avoided if the support system of the tower tapers the
building up.
A second limit is that of buckling. To avoid breaking under the loads it faces,
particularly those due to winds, the structure needs adequate stiffness. At the perimeter of the
building, several very tall buildings have their support systems, which significantly enhances
the general stiffness.
A third limit is dynamic; varying waves, vortex shedding, seismic disturbances etc.
are subject to a tower. These are often handled by a mixture of basic strength and stiffness, as
well as tuned mass dampers to damp out movements in certain instances. Variating or
tapering the height of the outer portion of the tower prevents vibrations due to vortex
shedding occurring in the entire building simulator.

FUNCTIONS
Many modern high-rise buildings (in particular skyscrapers) have 'tower' in their
name, although not correctly described as towers, or are colloquially called 'towers'.
Skyscrapers are known as 'buildings' more appropriately. Tall domestic structures are referred
to in the United Kingdom as tower blocks. The original World Trade Center was called the
Twin Towers in the United States, a name shared by the Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala
Lumpur. Moreover, some of the structures listed below do not comply with the strict criteria
used in the Tallest Towers list.
1. Strategic Advantages
The tower has given its users an advantage throughout history in surveying
defensive positions and having a clearer view of the surrounding areas, including
battlefields. They were built on defensive walls or rolled close to a goal (see siege

12
 tower). Strategic-use towers are still used today in prisons, military camps, and
perimeter defenses.

2. Potential Energy
A tower can be used to store products or liquids such as a storage silo or a
water tower, or target an object such as a drilling tower into the earth by using gravity
to drive objects or substances downwards. Ski-jump ramps use the same concept,
which can be human-made in the absence of a natural mountain slope or hill.

3. Communication Enhancement
In history, simple towers were used to transmit information over larger
distances, such as lighthouses, bell towers, clock towers, signal towers and minarets.
Radio masts and cell phone towers have enabled communication in recent years by
extending the transmitter's range. The CN Tower was built as a communications
tower in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, with the capacity to serve as both a transmitter
and a repeater. The architecture also included features to make it a tourist attraction,
including the highest observation deck in the world at 147 stories.

4. Transportation Support
Towers can also be used to support bridges, and can achieve heights that
compete with some of the highest above-water structures. Their use in suspension
bridges and cable-stayed bridges is most prevalent. The use of the pylon, a basic
structure of the tower, has also helped to construct bridges, mass transit networks, and
harbors for railways.

TYPES OF TOWER
Two nodes of the power supply grid are connected by an overhead transmission cable. The
itinerary, the line has as few lateral shifts as possible. Depending on their role in the line is
made up of different types of towers, such as suspension towers, angle towers and many
more.
Tension towers act as rigid points that are able to prevent the entire line from
gradually collapsing. They can also be built to act as corner towers. Special towers
appropriate for the branching of two or more lines should be added to the styles mentioned
above.

LOADS ON TOWER, LOADING CASES

The loads acting on a transmission tower are:
• Dead load of tower.
• Dead load from conductors and other equipment.
• Load from ice, rime or wet snow on conductors and equipment.
• Ice load, etc. on the tower itself

13
• Erection and maintenance loads.
• Wind load on tower.
• Wind load on conductors and equipment.

It is necessary to recognize that the majority of the load comes from the conductors and that
the conductors act like chains that are only capable of resisting tensile forces. As a
consequence, the dead load of the conductors is determined using the so-called weight length,
which can vary substantially from the wind duration used in combination with the wind load
calculation. The presence of ice, etc., leads to the weight of the parts covered and this raises
the region that is exposed to the wind. Often, underestimation of these conditions has led to
damage and failure. It is, therefore, very important to carefully choose the design details.
The size of the ice load and its distribution depend on the climate and the local
conditions. The ice load on all spans is also taken as the uniformly distributed load. It is clear,
however, that in adjacent spans, there are likely to be distinct load intensities. Longitudinal
forces acting on towers, in example, acting in the direction of the line, result from such
variations in load. It is generally believed that the wind force operates horizontally. The
sloping direction may have to be considered, however, depending on local conditions. Often,
for the conductors as well as for the tower itself, multiple wind directions (in the horizontal
plane) must be taken into account. The maximum wind speed does not occur concurrently
over the entire span and, thus, the coefficients of reduction are applied in the measurement of
the load transferred to the towers.
In the line directions, the tensile forces in the conductors act on the two faces of the
tower. If they are balanced, no longitudinal force acts on a straight line suspending a tower.
They result in forces in the angle bisector plane for angle towers, and they generate strong
longitudinal forces for terminal towers. As the tensile forces differ with the external loads, as
stated earlier, longitudinal forces affect even suspension towers on a straight line. The
possibility of mechanical failure of one or more of the conductors has to be weighed for all
kinds of towers.

OVERALL DESIGN AND TRUSS CONFIGURATION

There are three general requirements needed to construct a tower structure.
1. The cross arms or bridges.
2. The peaks.
3. The tower’s body.

Towers usually behave like cantilevers or frames, in some cases with supplementary stays.
Structures is nearly always found advantageous because they are:
1. Easily adaptable to any shape or height of tower.

14
 2. Easily divisible in sections suitable for transport and erection.
3. Easy to repair, strengthen and extend.
4. Durable when consideration of preventing from corrosion.

By far the most common structure is a four-legged tower body cantilevering from the
foundation, the advantages of this design are:
1. The tower occupies a relatively small area at ground level.
2. Two legs share the compression from both transverse and longitudinal loads.
3. The square or rectangular cross-section is superior to a triangular tower.
4. The cross-section is very suitable for the use of angles, as the connections can be
made very simple.

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 3.0 METHODOLOGY

Methodology is a list of method used throughout conducting the project thus obtaining all the
desired value and answers. The project was carried out by following the flow chart made to
make sure that there was progress made, thus preventing us from wasting time. There were a
few different methods used to help us complete the project such as, surfing the internet,
observing and analyzing the problems and many more. Without the help of these
methodology, we will be facing a very hard time in completing this project.
A flowchart was also made to help understanding the step-by-step process made
throughout completing the project. It was made in flowchart form because it is easier to
understand as it has different shapes which has its own meaning. A series of task were
inserted into the flowchart and was arranged correctly as what has been executed.
This chapter will cover all of the method used, with detailed explanation on each
method, during our time of conducting this project. The purpose of having a list of
methodology is to help other people to take advantage of it thus improving their knowledge
for their own upcoming projects.

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 Figure 2: PORJECT FLOW CHART

A) SURFING THE INTERNET

With the aid of the internet, a few information was gathered through a number of websites
which provides the wanted information in completing the report. The information gathered
were through the process of reviewing each reading material such as past report, article,
journal, thesis and many more. All of these materials were not copied and pasted blatantly
into the project report to avoid plagiarism. The group members played their roles in
reviewing the reading material that they had found and came out with the wanted information
need to fill in the report with supported details. This method also covers the part where the
group members analyze video through YouTube on how to carry out the project to obtain the
desired values for the calculation.

B) PLANNING
Through a series of meetings, by using google meet due to this pandemic season, the group
members had come out with a step-by-step planning in completing both, report writing and
also the project model making. The planning was made with a flow chart which then was
followed amongst group members in completing the project. This method was very crucial

17
 for the project as it prevents the group from stalling any time thus completing the project as
fast as possible.

C) REFERING LECTURER
In completing the project, the lecturer, Ts. Dr Noraini Bint Masri plays a very important role
in completing the task for the project. All of the inputs given by the lecturer were highly
prioritize as it guides the group members to carry out all of the task needed to be complete the
project. Other than that, the guidance given also gave the chance for the group members to
execute the task thus obtaining higher marks as it follows all the marking scheme for the
project.

3.1 FABRICATION OF THE PROTOTYPE

BEAMS AND COLUMN: Beams are

the horizontal part of the structure
whereas column is the vertical part
of the structure. These structures
corelates with each other as it is
connected thus forming a towering
structure.

18
 MATERIAL: The straws used as the
structure was different than the
ordinary one, usually in white, as it
proven to a lot sturdier than the
other.

BASE: The base of the model was REINFORCEMENT: The material used
purposely made slight wider than to bind/connect the beam together
the middle and top part as it was the black-colored tape.
improves the stability of the model

Figure 3: Final prototype of the model

Sketch: a rough sketch was made to

get an idea of the model that was
going to be built

The exact measurement of the

model were measured and inserted
to ease the process of making the
model

Figure 4: Final sketching of the model

3.2 DEVELOPMENT OF EACH STAGE OF DESIGN

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NO DIAGRAM EXPLANATION
1. Sketch different models

A few sketches of the model were made

where the best one was then chosen as it
fulfills the requirement of the project
wanted. It gives the group members
flexibility to choose the wanted model as it
1 has different choices for the model making
process.

 Different sketches with precise

measurement were made to ease the
Figure 4: Material used process of building the model.

2. Collect the material needed.

A total of 4 straws were used as the base of

the model and 4 were attached on each
corner to connect it to the middle part and
also the top part of the model. The beam
and column were connected with tape to
keep it shape to form the structure
sketched.

 The base structure was built with

2 the sketched model as the reference

 The base only requires 4 straws as

the straws used were very sturdy.

Figure 5: Material used

3. Base

A total of 4 straws were cut into 16.5cm

each to form the base of the model.

 The cut straws were then arranged

to form a rectangular-shaped base

20
  The corners of the base were then
connected into one piece of
structure forming the base of the
3 model with using tape

 The tape was used quite a lot to

make sure that it maintains it shape.

 At each corner of the base, a straw

was placed onto each of them to
form the column part of the model.

Figure 6: Base structure

4. Middle and top

The middle part starts off with making a

square shape structure which then being
connected with tape. On each corner of the
square, a straw was connected to form a
column. The length, width and height were,
11cm, 11cm and 11.5cm respectively.
4
 As for the top part, it only requires
a square-shaped structure as it is
connected with the column made on
the middle part

 The middle part and the top part

were than connected together and
been reinforced together with tape.

Figure 7: Middle and top part of the model

21
 5. Final product of the model made

The base columns were connected with the

middle-top structure made earlier to form a
complete structure of tower model.

 The base and middle-top structure

5 were connected with tape

 The final model was formed

 Carry out the load bearing process

to obtain reading for the calculation
Figure 8: Final product of the model part.

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 4.0 CALCULATION

4.1 Stress and Strain Calculation:

23
4.2 Column Calculation:

24
4.3 Stress Transformation:

25
4.4 Calculation Findings:

In the testing of the project, our tower can load up to 1.04 kg. Thus, in determine the
stress value we used load value of 0.48 kg, 0.56 kg, and 1.04 kg. In this calculation, the stress
value was defined as stress, σ equal to force, P over area, A.

P
σ=
A

where, σ = stress (Pa), P = force (N), and A = area (mm2 ). The result of the stress values was :

Load 1 2 3
Mass (kg) 0.48 0.56 1.04
Stress (Pa) 173.125 201.985 375.074
Table 4.1(a): Stress value

The results from the table 4.1(a) show that the stress values are proportional to the mass
of the loads. Therefore, we can conclude that the higher the mass of the loads put on the
tower, the higher the stress applied on the tower.

Next, the calculation that have been used is to calculate the strain values of the tower.
When a thing undergoes stress, it also will undergo the strain. Strain can be defined as the
stress value over the Young’s Modulus of the materials. In this project, we used the plastic
straw to build the tower and the Young’s Modulus value that were taken is 1. 5 GPa.

σ
ε=
E

where, ε = strain, σ = stress (Pa), and E = Young’s Modulus (1.5 GPa). The result of the
strain values was:

Load 1 2 3
Mass (kg) 0.48 0.56 1.04
Strain 0.115(10−6 ) 0.135(10−6 ) 0.250(10−6 )
Table 4.1(a): Strain value

The strain results are also same as the stress values were the strain values are directly
proportional to the load. This is because the strain value are depending to the stress value,
thus it means that the strain values also proportional to the stress values.

26
 By using the Young’s Modulus of 1.5 GPa, we also can calculate the column value of the
project. Column can be defined as :

π 2 EI
P=
( KL )2

where, P = force to buckle (N), E = Young’s Modulus (Pa), I = section moment of inertia (m 4
), K = constant depends on the end of support types, L = length of the model (m). The value
of the calculation is 2.72 MN.

For the last calculation, we used the Mohr Circle calculation on the stress transformation.
But, before proceed to the stress transformation we need the values of
the horizontal stress, σ x and vertical stress, σ y. To get those values we used the bending
moment calculation that is :

Mc
σ m=
I

where, σ m= stress values depends on the axis (Pa), M = bending moment (N.m), c = radius of
the objects, and I = section moment of inertia (m 4 ). The stress values depends on the axis
after calculation:

σ x = 62.74 kPa, σ y = 340.64 kPa

Proceeding to the Mohr Circle calculation, we need the value of shear stress, so that the
steps can be followed. Thus, we make assumption of value of the shear stress
that is 200 kPa. The steps of the Mohr Circle can be observed in the calculation and at
the end of the calculation, we can see that the values of the stress transformation is:

σ 1 = 445.22 kPa, σ 2 = -41.84 kPa

27
 5.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

5.1 DISCUSSION
For the project, each group were assigned to build a model of loading tower by using straws
as the material. The project was executed successfully as all of the objectives were achieved
and the values asked in the calculation part were calculated successfully with using the right
formula for each question. The model towers in 26 cm whereas the length and width of the
base was 16.5cm by 16.5cm. The tower length and width of the middle and to part was 11cm
by 11cm. The weight of the model was 40g as the group members tried to avoid from
avoiding it from exceeding the required weight which was 0.7kg. The group members
purposely built the base of the model slightly wider than the middle and top part. This is to
ensure that the model does not fall of easily thus having a more stable structure for the model.
The straws used in making the model was no commonly used straws as it bends easily. The
group members used the straws called Quality Hygienic Straw with the diameter of 1cm. The
material of the straw was a lot sturdier and the larger diameter also contribute on having more
stable structure for the model. It also helps the columns and beams to keep it shape when
certain number of loads were applied onto it.
The group members had carried out a few tests to obtain the highest load the model
can hold. A few household items were used with known weight and then was put on top of
the model. The items used was pencil box, milk tin and a sack of flour. For the pencil box and
the milk tin, the model can hold its shape even when a little shake was applied, where the
weight of the pencil box and milk tin was 480g and 560g respectively. As for the sack of
flour, which weigh in 1040g, the model could not withstand the weight and collapse. Thus,
the group members came to the conclusion where the highest amount of load it can stand was
1040g.

5.2 RECCOMENDATION
After the group members carried out the test, they had discovered a few flaws, that can be
considered by future students to help them on carrying out their task in completing the
project. Firstly, lack of presence of V bracing on the beam of the model. V-bracing should be
considered because in construction building, it serves the purpose of to provide stability and
resist lateral loads, either from diagonal steel members or from a concrete ‘core’. This means
that it could simply help the model made to support a higher amount of load that it can at the
moment. Next, consider hot glue, or any glue as the reinforcement rather than fully rely on
tape. This can help the model to be in shape when a higher amount of load was to applied
onto it. Lastly, use the cut-out pieces and bind it together to make a much stronger beams and
column which can results in having the ability to withstand larger amount of load.

28
5.3 CONCLUSION
With the calculation and observation made, the final result of the model made were
considered successful as the objectives was achieved and the model specifications such as the
height, weight and material used did not break the requirement stated for the project. With the
model made, it is able to sustain a significant amount of load for the size of it.
The group member had learned to fully analyze a tower which is very useful because
it can later be used in the future of each members. The members also successfully used all of
the concept and theory learned and applied it in the calculation part. Lastly, the designs
sketched were compared to obtain the best sketch to be made as the project model with the
purpose of minimizing the risk of failure when conducting the model building.
Next, for the recommendation here, what makes the model to remain intact even when
certain amount of load was applied? Which types of straws are the most suitable type to be
used to make the model? Does the base of the model have any effects towards the stability of
the model built? What is the best arrangement of columns and beams that contributes towards
the sturdiness of the model? What is the best material should be use as the “reinforcement” to
hold the model in shape and also holds different parts of the model together? Does the shape
of the model have effects toward the physical features of the model?
In this project, the structure of the model was made with connecting the straws to
form the columns and beams thus forming the base or foundation, the middle part and lastly
the top part. Each part of the model was then connected thus forming a “tower” model. The
stability factor for the model was considered during the sketching process to avoid
complication when building the model. During the testing process, any parts that shows
leaning was observed as it is cause by extra downward forces that contributes to tipping force
thus collapsing the model.
Lastly, the strength of the structure of the model is only as strong as the weakest link
of the structure. This means that, even when using the strongest material as the column of the
model, if one of the columns placed on each corner of the base was ever so slightly shorter
than the other, it can contribute to becoming one of the biggest flaws for the model without
even being noticed. This shows that it is important for the dimension and the cutting process
to be precise when sketching and building the model. If a vertical structural member bow or
bends under the load, it will cause torque on the structure.

29
6.0 APPENDIX

30
REFERENCES

 Bwail, K. (2019, July 23). How Bracing Plans Ensure the Structural Fitness of a
Building. Retrieved January 07, 2021, from https://medium.com/@xscad/how-
bracing-plans-ensure-the-structural-fitness-of-a-building-607061eff16c#:~:text=The
%20primary%20function%20of%20bracing,from%20a%20concrete
%20'core'.&text=To%20transfer%20horizontal%20forces%20safely,column%20lines
%2C%20in%20vertical%20planes.

 Noah Moscovitch (2020, December 31). What are Beams & Columns in Structures?
Retrieved January 07, 2021, from https://structuralengineeringbasics.com/what-are-
beams-and-columns-building-construction/#:~:text=Beams%20and%20columns
%20are%20two,foundations%20and%20into%20the%20ground.&text=Beams
%20are%20usually%20horizontal%20structural,perpendicular%20to%20their
%20longitudinal%20direction.

 Hibbeler, R. C. (2003). Mechanics of materials. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson

Education. P661

 Hibbeler, R. C. (2003). Mechanics of materials. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson

Education. P541

 Euler's Theory of Column Buckling. (2020, January 18). Retrieved January 07, 2021,
from https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/euler-theory-column-
buckling/37341/#:~:text=The%20Euler's%20theory%20states%20that,critical
%20buckling%20load%20of%20column.

 Paul, A. (2017, March 16). Buckling of Columns - Euler Theory for Elastic Buckling.
Retrieved January 07, 2021, from https://civildigital.com/buckling-columns-euler-
theory-elastic-buckling/#:~:text=Buckling%20of%20Columns%20is%20a,is
%20quick%2C%20and%20hence%20dangerous.&text=This%20will%20occur%20at
%20stress,ultimate%20stress%20of%20the%20column.

31
MINUTES OF MEETING
Date : 20 December 2020
Time : 9.00pm – 10.30pm
Location : Students’ home, through Whatsapp
Attendance : 4/4
1. Amirul Hafizi bin Ahmad Sabri
2. Lai Swee Yong
3. Muhammad Aidil Safwan bin Abdul Aziz
4. Nik Nur Amyra Adilla binti Noor Khairullah

Agenda :
1. Assigning group leader
 All of us chose Lai Swee Yong as our group leader

2. Points had been discussed

 Listing up what to do and group members picked up which part they
wanted: report, design, sketching, video preparation and building up the
model

3. Closure
 Another meeting will be held very soon, and progresses are needed to be
shown

Prepared by, Verified by,

Nikamyra Laisweeyong
(Nik Nur Amyra Adilla binti Noor (Lai Swee Yong)
Khairullah)
Secretary Group Leader

32
MINUTES OF MEETING 2

Date : 28 December 2020

Time : 9.00pm – 10.30pm
Location : Students’ home, through google meet
Attendance : 3/4
1. Amirul Hafizi bin Ahmad Sabri
2. Lai Swee Yong
3. Nik Nur Amyra Adilla binti Noor Khairullah
Absence :
1. Muhammad Aidil Safwan bin Abdul Aziz (due to line problem)

Agenda :
1. Points had been discussed
 All of us showed the progress that we made
 Each one of us corrected one another
 First design had been chosen
 Planning on what kind of straw that is sturdy enough

2. Closure
 Another meeting will be held soon, and progresses are needed to be
shown
 Hoping that all of the planning will go as planned

Prepared by, Verified by,

Nikamyra Laisweeyong
(Nik Nur Amyra Adilla binti Noor (Lai Swee Yong)
Khairullah)
Secretary Group Leader

33
34
MINUTES OF MEETING 3

Date : 2 January 2021

Time : 9.00pm – 10.30pm
Location : Students’ home, through Whatsapp
Attendance : 4/4
5. Amirul Hafizi bin Ahmad Sabri
6. Lai Swee Yong
7. Muhammad Aidil Safwan bin Abdul Aziz
8. Nik Nur Amyra Adilla binti Noor Khairullah

Agenda :
1. Points had been discussed
 Checking up for the last time: report, design, sketching, video preparation,
and the model
 The design chose was too complicated to build. Switched up to another
design that is much simpler and easy to build
 Another sketching has to be made
 Video preparation: everyone has to be in it. Picking up which part to be
talked about by each one of us

2. Closure
 Any problem after will be discussed in Whatsapp

Prepared by, Verified by,

Nikamyra Laisweeyong
(Nik Nur Amyra Adilla binti Noor (Lai Swee Yong)
Khairullah)
Secretary Group Leader

35