CHAPTER

Series Solutions of ODEs.

Special Functions

Chapter 5 p1
 Power Series Method

Section 5.1 p2
The power series method is the standard method for
solving linear ODEs with variable coefficients.
It gives solutions in the form of power series.
These series can be used for computing values, graphing
curves, proving formulas, and exploring properties of
solutions. In this section we begin by explaining the idea of
the power series method.

Section 5.1 p3
From calculus we remember that a power series (in powers
of x − x0) is an infinite series of the form

(1)  m       
m 2
a ( x x0
) a0
a1
( x x0
) a 2
( x x 0
) .
m 0
Here, x is a variable. a0, a1, a2, … are constants, called the
coefficients of the series. x0 is a constant, called the center
of the series. In particular, if x0 = 0, we obtain a power series
in powers of x


(2) m
a
m0
x m
 a0
 a1
x  a 2
x 2
 a 3
x 3
 .
We shall assume that all variables and constants are real.
 Power Series Method

We note that the term “power series” usually refers to a

series of the form (1) [or (2)] but does not include series of
negative or fractional powers of x.
We use m as the summation letter, reserving n as a standard
notation in the Legendre and Bessel equations for integer
values of the parameter.

Section 5.1 p6
Idea and Technique of the Power Series Method
For a given ODE
(4) y” + p(x)y’ + q(x)y = 0
we first represent p(x) and q(x) by power series in powers of
x (or of x − x0 if solutions in powers of x − x0 are wanted).
Often p(x) and q(x) are polynomials, and then nothing needs
to be done in this first step. Next we assume a solution in
the form of a power series (2) with unknown coefficients
and insert

it as well as (3) and (5) into the ODE (4).
(2)  am x m  a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x 3  .
m0

(3) y  a1  2 a2 x  3a3 x 2
  mam x m1
m1

(5) y  2 a2  3  2 a3 x  4  3a4 x 2    m( m  1)am x m2
m 2
Idea and Technique of the Power Series Method
(continued)

Then we collect like powers of x and equate the sum of the

coefficients of each occurring power of x to zero, starting
with the constant terms, then taking the terms containing x,
then the terms in x2, and so on.
This gives equations from which we can determine the
unknown coefficients of (3) successively.
Example : Solve the DE y '  y  0
Solution : In the first step we insert
Example
Add terms of like powers of x

This gives the solution

 5.1 Power Series Method

Theory of the Power Series Method

The nth partial sum of (1) is

(6) sn ( x)  a0  a1 ( x  x0 )  a2 ( x  x0 )2   an ( x  x0 )n
where n = 0, 1, … .
If we omit the terms of sn from (1), the remaining expression
is
(7) R n (x)=a n+1 (x-x0 )n+1 +an+2 (x-x0 )n+2 + .
This expression is called the remainder of (1) after the term
an(x − x0)n.

Section 5.1 p12

Theory of the Power Series Method (continued)

In this way we have now associated with (1) the sequence of

the partial sums s0(x), s1(x), s2(x), …. If for some x = x1 this
sequence converges, say,
lim sn ( x1 )  s( x1 ),
n
then the series (1) is called convergent at x = x1, the number
s(x1) is called the value or sum of (1) at x1, and we write

s( x1 )   am ( x1  x0 )m .
m0
Then we have for every n,
(8) s( x1 )  sn ( x1 )  Rn ( x1 ).
If that sequence diverges at x = x1, the series (1) is called
divergent at x = x1.
Theory of the Power Series Method (continued)

Where does a power series converge? Now if we choose

x = x0 in (1), the series reduces to the single term a0 because
the other terms are zero. Hence the series converges at x0.
In some cases this may be the only value of x for which (1)
converges. If there are other values of x for which the series
converges, these values form an interval, the convergence
interval. This interval may be finite, as in Fig. , with
midpoint x0. Then the series (1) converges for all x in the
interior of the interval, that is, for all x for which
(10) |x − x0| < R
and diverges for |x − x0| > R. The interval may also be
infinite, that is, the series may converge for all x.
Theory of the Power Series Method (continued)

Fig. Convergence interval (10) of a power series with center x0

The quantity R in Fig. 105 is called the radius of

convergence (because for a complex power series it is the
radius of disk of convergence).
Theory of the Power Series Method (continued)

If the series converges for all x, we set R = ∞ (and 1/R = 0).

The radius of convergence can be determined from the
coefficients of the series by means of each of the formulas
am  1
(11) (a) R  1 lim am m (b) R  1 lim
m  m a
m

provided these limits exist and are not zero. [If these limits
are infinite, then (1) converges only at the center x0.]
Example
Theory of the Power Series Method (continued)
When do power series solutions exist?
Answer: if p, q, r in the ODEs
(12) y” + p(x)y’ + q(x)y = r(x)
have power series representations (Taylor series). More
precisely, a function f(x) is called analytic at a point x = x0 if
it can be represented by a power series in powers of x − x0
with positive radius of convergence.
Using this concept, we can state the following basic
theorem, in which the ODE (12) is in standard form, that is,
it begins with the y”. If your ODE begins with, say, h(x)y”,
divide it first by h(x) and then apply the theorem to the
resulting new ODE.
Theorem 1
Existence of Power Series Solutions
If p, q, and r in (12) are analytic at x = x0, then every solution of
(12) is analytic at x = x0 and can thus be represented by a power
series in powers of x − x0 with radius of convergence R > 0.
Further Theory: Operations on Power Series
In the power series method we differentiate, add, and
multiply power series, and we obtain coefficient recursions
(as, for instance, in Example 3) by equating the sum of the
coefficients of each occurring power of x to zero. These four
operations are permissible in the sense explained in what
follows.
Further Theory: Operations on Power Series (continued)

1. Termwise Differentiation.
A power series may be differentiated term by term.
More precisely: if 
y( x )   a m ( x  x 0 ) m
m0

converges for |x − x0| < R where R > 0, then the series

obtained by differentiating term by term also converges for
those x and represents

the derivative y’ of y for those x:
y( x)   mam ( x  x0 )m1 ( x  x0  R).
m1
Further Theory: Operations on Power Series (continued)

2. Termwise Addition.
Two power series may be added term by term. More precisely:
if the series
 
(13)  a m ( x  x0 )
m 0
m
and m
b (
m 0
x  x 0
) m

have positive radii of convergence and their sums are f(x)

and g(x), then the series


 m m
( a
m 0
 b )( x  x 0
) m

converges and represents f (x) + g(x) for each x that lies in

the interior of the convergence interval common to each of
the two given series.
Further Theory: Operations on Power Series (continued)

3. Termwise Multiplication.
Two power series may be multiplied term by term. More
precisely: Suppose that the series (13) have positive radii of
convergence and let f(x) and g(x) be their sums. Then the
series obtained by multiplying each term of the first series
by each term of the second series and collecting like powers
of x − x0, that is,
a0 b0  ( a0 b1  a1b0 )( x  x0 )  ( a0 b2  a1b1  a2 b0 )( x  x0 )2 

  ( a0 bm  a1bm1   amb0 )( x  x0 )m
m0

converges and represents f(x)g(x) for each x in the interior of

the convergence interval of each of the two given series.
Further Theory: Operations on Power Series (continued)

4. Vanishing of All Coefficients

(“Identity Theorem for Power Series.”)
If a power series has a positive radius of convergent convergence
and a sum that is identically zero throughout its interval of
convergence, then each coefficient of the series must be zero.
Legendre’s Equation.
Legendre Polynomials Pn(x)
Legendre’s differential equation
(1) (1 − x2)y” − 2xy’ + n(n + 1)y = 0 (n constant)
is one of the most important ODEs in physics. It arises in
numerous problems, particularly in boundary value
problems for spheres.
The equation involves a parameter n, whose value
depends on the physical or engineering problem.
So (1) is actually a whole family of ODEs. For n = 1
we solved it in Example (look back at it).
Any solution of (1) is called a Legendre function.
The study of these and other “higher” functions not
occurring in calculus is called the theory of special
functions.
 Dividing (1) by 1 − x2, we obtain the standard form
needed in Theorem 1 of Sec. 5.1 and we see that the
coefficients −2x/(1 − x2) and n(n + 1)/(1 − x2) of the new
equation are analytic at x = 0, so that we may apply the
power series method. Substituting


(2) y( x )   a m x m
m 0
and its derivatives into (1), and denoting the constant
n(n + 1) simply by k, we obtain
  
(1  x )  m( m  1)am x
2 m 2
 2 x mam x m1
 k  am x m  0.
m 2 m1 m0
By writing the first expression as two separate series we
have

the equation   

 m
m 2
( m  1) a m
x m 2
  m(
m 2
m  1) a m
x m
  m  m  0.
2 ma x m

m1
 ka x m

m 0
 To obtain the same general power xs in all four series, set
m − 2 = s (thus m = 2 + s) in the first series and simply write
s instead of m in the other three series. This gives
   

 (
s0
s  2)( s  1) a s
s 2
x 
s 2
 s( s s
1) a s
s1
x s
 s  s  0.
2 sa
s0
x  ka x s

Now x 0 occurs in the first and fourth series only

We obtain the general formula
(n  s)(n  s  1)
(4) as2   as ( s  0,1, ).
( s  2)( s  1)
By inserting these expressions for the coefficients into (2) we
obtain
(5) y(x) = a0y1(x) + a1y2(x)
where
n(n  1) 2 (n  2)n(n  1)(n  3) 4
(6) y1 ( x)  1  x  x 
2! 4!

(n  1)(n  2) 3 (n  3)(n  1)(n  2)(n  4) 5

(7) y2 ( x)  x  x  x 
3! 5!
These series converge for |x| < 1.
Polynomial Solutions. Legendre Polynomials Pn(x)
The reduction of power series to polynomials is a great
advantage because then we have solutions for all x,
without convergence restrictions. For special functions
arising as solutions of ODEs this happens quite frequently,
leading to various important families of polynomials.
For Legendre’s equation this happens when the parameter
n is a nonnegative integer because then the right side
of (4) is zero for s = n, so that an+2 = 0, an+4 = 0, an+6 = 0, ….
Hence if n is even, y1(x) reduces to a polynomial of degree
n. If n is odd, the same is true for y2(x).
These polynomials, multiplied by some constants, are
called Legendre polynomials and are denoted by Pn(x).
Polynomial Solutions. Legendre Polynomials Pn(x)
(continued)

The standard choice of such constants is done as follows.

We choose the coefficient of the highest power xn as
(2n)! 1  3  5 (2n  1)
(8) an  n 2
 (n a positive integer)
2 (n !) n!
(and an = 1 if n = 0). Then we calculate the other
coefficients from (4), solved for as in terms of as+2, that is,
( s  2)( s  1)
(9) as   as2 (s ≤ n − 2).
(n  s)(n  s  1)
The choice (8) makes pn(1) = 1 for every n (see Fig. ); this
motivates (8).
With n=s-2 we obtain
Polynomial Solutions. Legendre Polynomials Pn(x)
(continued)

The resulting solution of Legendre’s differential equation

(1) is called the Legendre polynomial of degree n and is
denoted by Pn(x).
From (10) we obtain
M
(2n  2 m)!
Pn ( x)   ( 1) n m
x n 2 m
(11) m0 2 m !(n  m)(n  2m)!
(2n)! n (2n  2)! n 2
 n x  x 
2 (n !) 2
2 1!(n  1)(n  2)!
n

where M = n/2 or (n − 1)/2, whichever is an integer.

Polynomial Solutions. Legendre Polynomials Pn(x)
(continued)

The first few of these functions are (Fig. 107)

P0 ( x)  1, P1 ( x)  x
1 1
P2 ( x)  (3x  1),
2
P3 ( x)  (5 x 3  3 x)
2 2
1 1
P4 ( x)  (35x 4  30 x 2  3), P5 ( x)  (63 x 5  70 x 3  15 x)
8 8
and so on.
The Legendre polynomials Pn(x) are orthogonal on the
interval −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
Polynomial Solutions. Legendre Polynomials Pn(x)
(continued)

Fig. Legendre polynomials

 Extended Power Series Method:
Frobenius Method

Section 5.3 p38

 Extended Power Series Method: Frobenius Method

Theorem 1
Frobenius Method
Let b(x) and c(x) be any functions that are analytic at x = 0. Then
the ODE
b( x) c( x)
(1) y   
y  2 y0
x x
has at least one solution

that can be represented in the form
(2) y( x)  x r  am x m  x r ( a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  ) ( a0  0)
m0
where the exponent r may be any (real or complex) number
(and r is chosen so that a 0 ≠ 0).
The ODE (1) also has a second solution (such that these two
solutions are linearly independent) that may be similar to (2)
(with a different r and different coefficients) or may contain a
logarithmic term. (Details in Theorem 2 below.)
Section 5.3 p39
 Extended Power Series Method: Frobenius Method

Regular and Singular Points.

The following terms are practical and commonly used.
A regular point of the ODE
y” + p(x)y’ + q(x)y = 0
is a point x0 at which the coefficients p and q are analytic.
Similarly, a regular point of the ODE
h( x) y  p( x) y( x)  q( x) y  0
is an x0 at which h , p , q are analytic and h( x0 )  0 (so that
we can divide by h and get the previous standard form).
Then the power series method can be applied. If x0 is not a
regular point, it is called a singular point.

Section 5.3 p40

 Extended Power Series Method: Frobenius Method

Indicial Equation. Indicating the Form of Solutions

We shall now explain the Frobenius method for solving
(1). Multiplication of (1) by x2 gives the more convenient
form
(1’) x2y” + xb(x)y’ + c(x)y = 0.
We first expand b(x) and c(x) in power series,
b(x) = b0 + b1x + b2 x2 + … , c(x) = c0 + c1x + c2 x2 + …
or we do nothing if b(x) and c(x) are polynomials. Then we
differentiate (2) term by term, finding

y( x)   ( m  r )am x mr 1  x r 1[ra0  (r  1)a1x  ]
m0

(2*) y( x)   ( m  r )( m  r  1)am x mr 2
m0
r 2
 x [r(r  1)a0  (r  1)ra1x  ].
Section 5.3 p41
 Extended Power Series Method: Frobenius Method

Indicial Equation. Indicating the Form of Solutions

(continued)

By inserting all these series into (1’) we obtain


x 2 x r  2 r (r  1)ao  (r  1)ra1 x  ...

 x(bo  b1  ...) x r 1 rao  (r  1)a1 x  ... 
 (co  c1  ...) x r (ao  a1 x  ...)  0

xr [r(r  1)a0  ]  (b0  b1x  )xr (ra0  )

(3)
 (c0  c1 x  )xr ( a0  a1x  )  0.

Section 5.3 p42

 Extended Power Series Method: Frobenius Method

Indicial Equation. Indicating the Form of Solutions

(continued)

We now equate the sum of the coefficients of each power

x’, x’r + 1, x” r + 2, … to zero. This yields a system of
equations involving the unknown coefficients am. The
smallest power is xr and the corresponding equation is
[r(r − 1) + b0r + c0]a0 = 0.
Since by assumption a0 ≠ 0, the expression in the brackets
[ … ] must be zero. This gives
(4) r(r − 1) + b0r + c0 = 0.
This important quadratic equation is called the indicial
equation of the ODE (1).

Section 5.3 p43

 Extended Power Series Method: Frobenius Method

Theorem 2
Frobenius Method. Basis of Solutions. Three Cases
Suppose that the ODE (1) satisfies the assumptions in
Theorem 1. Let r1 and r2 be the roots of the indicial equation (4).
Then we have the following three cases.

Case 1. Distinct Roots Not Differing by an Integer.

A basis is
(5) y1
( x )  x r1
( a0
 a1
x  a 2
x 2
 )
and
(6) y2 ( x)  x r2 ( A0  A1 x  A2 x 2  )
with coefficients obtained successively from (3) with r = r1 and
r = r2, respectively.

Section 5.3 p44

 Extended Power Series Method: Frobenius Method

Theorem 2 (continued)
Frobenius Method. Basis of Solutions. Three Cases
(continued)
Case 2. Double Root r1 = r2 = r
A basis is
(7) y1(x) = xr(a0 + a1x + a2 x2 + …) [r = (1 − b0)]
(of the same general form as before) and
(8) y2(x) = y1(x) ln x + xr(A1x + A2 x2 + …) (x > 0)

Section 5.3 p45

 Extended Power Series Method: Frobenius Method

Theorem 2 (continued)
Frobenius Method. Basis of Solutions. Three Cases
(continued)
Case 3. Roots Differing by an Integer.
A basis is
(9) y1 ( x)  xr1 ( a0  a1x  a2 x 2  )
(of the same general form as before) and
(10) y2 ( x)  ky1 ( x)ln x  xr2 ( A0  A1x  A2 x 2  ),
where the roots are so denoted that r 1 − r2 > 0 and k may turn out
to be zero.

Section 5.3 p46

 Bessel’s Equation.
Bessel Functions Jv(x)

Section 5.4 p47

 Bessel’s Equation. Bessel Functions Jv(x)

One of the most important ODEs in applied mathematics

is Bessel’s equation,
(1) x2y” + xy’ + (x2 − ν2)y = 0
where the parameter ν (nu) is a given real number which
is positive or zero. Bessel’s equation often appears if a
problem shows cylindrical symmetry. The equation
satisfies the assumptions of Theorem 1.
To see this, divide (1) by x2 to get the standard form
y” + y’/x + (1 − ν2/x2)y = 0.

Section 5.4 p48

 Bessel’s Equation. Bessel Functions Jv(x)

Hence, according to the Frobenius theory, it has a solution

of the form

(2) y( x )   a m x m  r (a0 ≠ 0).
m0
Substituting (2) and its first and second derivatives into
Bessel’s equation, we obtain
 

 (m  r )(m  r  1)am x
m 0
m r
  ( m  r )am x m  r
m0
 
  am x m r  2
 2
 m  0.
a x m r

m0 m0

Section 5.4 p49

ao (r  )( r  )  0
(r  )( r  )  0 as ao  0
 ( 1)m a0
a2 m  2m , m  1,2, .
2 m !(  1)(  2) (  m)
 Bessel’s Equation. Bessel Functions Jv(x)

Bessel Functions Jn(x) for Integer ν = n

Integer values of ν are denoted by n. This is standard. For
ν = n the relation (7) becomes
( 1)m a0
(8) a2 m  2m , m  1,2, .
2 m !(n  1)(n  2) (n  m)
a0 is still arbitrary, so that the series (2) with these
coefficients would contain this arbitrary factor a0. This
would be a highly impractical situation for developing
formulas or computing values of this new function.
Accordingly, we have to make a choice. The choice a0 = 1
would be possible. A simpler series (2) could be obtained if
we could absorb the growing product (n + 1)(n + 2) … (n + m)
into a factorial function (n + m)!
Section 5.4 p53
 Bessel’s Equation. Bessel Functions Jv(x)

Bessel Functions Jn(x) for Integer ν = n

Integer values of ν are denoted by n. (continued)
What should be our choice? Our choice should be
1
(9) a0  n
2 n!
because then n!(n + 1) … (n + m) = (n + m)! in (8), so that (8)
simply becomes
( 1)m
(10) a2 m  2 m  n , m  1,2, .
2 m !(n  m)!

Section 5.4 p54

 Bessel’s Equation. Bessel Functions Jv(x)

Bessel Functions Jn(x) for Integer ν = n

Integer values of ν are denoted by n. (continued)
By inserting these coefficients into (2) and remembering that
a1 = 0, a3 = 0, … we obtain a particular solution of Bessel’s
equation that is denoted by Jn(x):

( 1)m x 2 m
(11) J n ( m)  x  2 m  n
n
(n  0).
m 0 2 m !(n  m)!
Jn(x) is called the Bessel function of the first kind of order n.
The series (11) converges for all x, as the ratio test shows.
Hence Jn(x) is defined for all x. The series converges very
rapidly because of the factorials in the denominator.

Section 5.4 p55

 Bessel’s Equation. Bessel Functions Jv(x)

EXAMPLE 1 Bessel Functions J0(x) and J1(x)

For n = 0 we obtain from (11) the Bessel function of order 0

( 1)m x 2 m x2 x4 x6
(12) J0 ( m)   2 2 m ( m !)2  1  2   
2  1! 2 4  2! 2 6  3!
2 2 2
m0

which looks similar to a cosine (Fig. 110). For n = 1 we obtain

the Bessel function of order 1

( 1)m x 2 m1 x x3 x5 x7
(13) J1 ( m)   2 m   3  5  7  ,
m0 2 m !( m  1)! 2 2 1!2! 2 2!3! 2 3!4!
which looks similar to a sine (Fig. 110). But the zeros of these
functions are not completely regularly spaced and the
height of the “waves” decreases with increasing x.

Section 5.4 p56

 Bessel’s Equation. Bessel Functions Jv(x)

EXAMPLE 1 Bessel Functions J0(x) and J1(x)

(continued)

(14) 2 n 
J n ( x) cos( x   )
x 2 4
where ~ is read “asymptotically equal” and means that for
fixed n the quotient of the two sides approaches 1 as x → ∞.

Section 5.4 p57

 5.4 Bessel’s Equation. Bessel Functions Jv(x)

EXAMPLE 1 Bessel Functions J0(x) to J5(x)

(continued)

Bessel functions of the first kind J0 to J5

Section 5.4 p58

 Bessel’s Equation. Bessel Functions Jv(x)

Bessel Functions Jν(x) for any ν ≥ 0. Gamma Function

We now proceed from integer ν = n to any ν ≥ 0. We had a0 =
1/(2nn!) in (9). So we have to extend the factorial function n!
to any ν ≥ 0. For this we choose
1
(15) a0 
2 (  1)
with the gamma function Г(ν + 1) defined by

(16) (  1)   e  t t dt (ν > −1).
0

Integration by parts we get

(17) Г(ν + 1) = νГ(ν).

Section 5.4 p59
Bessel Functions Jν(x) for any ν ≥ 0. Gamma Function

In general
(18) Г(n + 1) = n! (n = 0, 1, …).

Section 5.4 p61

The gamma function generalizes the factorial function to
arbitrary positive ν.
Thus (15) with ν = n agrees with (9). Hence because of our
(standard!) choice (15) of a0 the coefficients (7) are simply

( 1)m
19 a2 m  2 m .
2 m ! (  m  1)

Section 5.4 p62

With these coefficients and r = r1 = ν we get from (2) a
particular solution of (1), denoted by Jν(x) and given by


( 1) m 2m
x
J ( x)  x  2 m .
(20) m0 2 m ! (  m  1)

Jν(x) is called the Bessel function of the first kind of order

ν. The series (20) converges for all x, as one can verify by the
ratio test.

Section 5.4 p63

 Bessel’s Equation. Bessel Functions Jv(x)

Discovery of Properties from Series

Bessel functions are a model case for showing how to
discover properties and relations of functions from series
by which they are defined.
In Theorem 1 we shall discuss four formulas that are
backbones in applications and theory.

Section 5.4 p64

 Bessel’s Equation. Bessel Functions Jv(x)

Theorem 1
Derivatives, Recursions
The derivative of Jν(x) with respect to x can be expressed by
Jν−1(x) or Jν+1(x) by the formulas
(a) [ x J ( x)]  x J 1 ( x)
(21)
(b) [ x J ( x)]   x J 1 ( x).
 

Furthermore, Jν(x) and its derivative satisfy the recurrence

relations
2
(c) J 1 ( x)  J 1 ( x)  J ( x)
(21) x
(d) J 1 ( x)  J 1 ( x)  2 J ( x).

Section 5.4 p65

Proof of a

We multiply (20) by x and we get

By differentiation using

Using k=ν-1 in the following term


(1) m x 2 m 
(1) m x 2m
x 1

m 0 2
2 m  1
m!(  m)
 x  2 m k
k

m 0 2 m!(k  m  1)
 J k ( x)

Thus
( x J ) '  x J k  x J 1
Proof b

We multiply (20) by x  and we get


(1) m x 2 m
x J   2 m 


m 0 2 m!(  m  1)
By diff.
2 m 1 2 m 1

( 1) m
2 m x 
( 1) m
2 m x
( x  J ) '   2 m    2 m 
m 1 2 m!(  m  1) m 1 2 m(m  1)!(  m  1)

(1) m x 2 m 1
  2 m  1
m 1 2 (m  1)!(  m  1)

By replacing m=s+1
(1) s 1 x 2 s 1
 
(1) s x 2 s 1
( x J )   2 s  1
 '
 (1) 2 s  1
s 0 2 s!(  s  2) s 0 2 s!(  s  2)
 
( 1) m 2m
x
J ( x)  x  2 m .
m0 2 m ! (  m  1)


(1) s x 2 s 1 
(1) s x 2 s
( x J )  (1) 2 s  1
 '
 (1) x x x  2 s  1
 

s 0 2 s!(  s  2) s 0 2 s!(  s  2)

(1) s x 2 s
 (1) x x  1

s 0 2
2 s  1
s!(  s  2)
 J 1 ( x)
  x J 1 ( x)
 Bessel’s Equation. Bessel Functions Jv(x)

EXAMPLE 3 Elementary Bessel Functions Jν with ν = ±,

± 3/2, ± 5/2, …. The Value Г()

2
(a) J1/2 ( x)  sin x
(22)
x
2
(b) J 1/2 ( x)  cos x
x

1
(23) ( )  
2

Section 5.4 p69

 Bessel’s Equation. Bessel Functions Jv(x)

EXAMPLE 3 Elementary Bessel Functions Jν with ν = ±,

± 3/2, ± 5/2, …. The Value Г()
(continued)

Fig. 111. Bessel functions and J1/2 and J−1/2

Section 5.4 p70

 Bessel’s Equation. Bessel Functions Jv(x)

General Solution. Linear Dependence

If ν is not an integer, a general solution of Bessel’s equation

x2y” + xy’ + (x2 − ν2)y = 0

for all x ≠ 0 is
y(x) = c1Jν(x) + c2J−ν(x)
This cannot be the general solution for an integer ν = n
because, in that case, we have linear dependence.
This means that, for any integer ν = n, we have linear
dependence because
(25) J−n(x) = (−1)n Jn(x) (n = 1, 2, … ).

Section 5.4 p71

 Bessel Functions Yν(x). General
Solution

Section 5.5 p72

 Bessel Functions Yν(x). General Solution

To obtain a general solution of Bessel’s equation (1), Sec. 5.4,

for any ν, we now introduce Bessel functions of the second
kind Yν(x), beginning with the case ν = n = 0.
When n = 0, Bessel’s equation can be written (divide by x)
(1) xy” + y’ + xy = 0.
Then the indicial equation (4) has a double root
r = 0. This is Case 2. In this case we first have only one
solution, J0(x). From (8) we see that the desired second
solution must be of the form

(2) y2  J0 ( x) ln x   Am x m .
m 1

Section 5.5 p73

 Bessel Functions Yν(x). General Solution

Using the short notations

1 1
(4) h1
 1 hm
 1    m  2,3,
2 m
and inserting (4) and A1 = A3 = … = 0 into (2), we obtain the
result 
( 1)m1 hm 2 m
y2 ( x)  J0 ( x)ln x   2 m 2
x
m1 2 ( m !)
1 2 3 4 11
(5)  J0 ( x)ln x  x  x  x6   .
4 128 13,824

Section 5.5 p74

 Bessel Functions Yν(x). General Solution

Since J0 and y2 are linearly independent functions, they

form a basis of (1) for x > 0. Of course, another basis is
obtained if we replace y2 by an independent particular
solution of the form a( y2 + bJ0), where a (≠ 0) and b are
constants. It is customary to choose a = 2/π and b = γ − ln 2,
where the number γ = 0.57721566490… is the so-called
Euler constant, which is defined as the limit of
1 1
1     ln s
2 s
as s approaches infinity.

Section 5.5 p75

 Bessel Functions Yν(x). General Solution

The standard particular solution thus obtained is called the

Bessel function of the second kind of order zero (Fig. 112) or
Neumann’s function of order zero and is denoted by Y0(x).
Thus [see (4)]
2 hm 2 m 
m1
 x  
( 1)
(6) Y0 ( x)   J0 ( x)  ln      2 m x .
  2  m1 2 ( m !)
2

For small x > 0 the function Y0(x) behaves about like ln x
(see Fig. 112, why?), and Y0(x) → −∞ as x → 0.

Section 5.5 p76

 Bessel Functions Yν(x). General Solution

Bessel Functions of the Second Kind Yn(x)

For this reason we introduce a standard second solution
Yn(x) defined for all ν by the formula
1
(a) Y ( x)  [ J ( x) cos  J  ( x)
(7) sin
(b) Yn ( x)  lim Y ( x).
 n
This function is called the Bessel function of the second
kind of order ν or Neumann’s function of order ν. Figure
112 shows Y0(x) and Y1(x).

Section 5.5 p77

 Bessel Functions Yν(x). General Solution

Bessel Functions of the Second Kind Yn(x)

(continued)

Fig. 112. Bessel functions of the second kind Y0 and Y1.

(For a small table, see App. 5.)

Section 5.5 p78

 Bessel Functions Yν(x). General Solution

Bessel Functions of the Second Kind Yn(x)

(continued)
m 1
2  x  xn  ( 1) ( hm  hm n ) 2 m
Yn ( x)  Jn ( x)  ln      2 m n x
(8)
  2   m0 2 m !( m  n)!
x  n n1 (n  m  1)! 2 m
 
 m0 2 2 mn
m!
x
where x > 0, n = 0, 1, … and [as in (4)] h0 = 0, h1 = 1,
1 1 1 1
hm  1    , hm n  1    .
2 m 2 mn

For n = 0 the last sum in (8) is to be replaced by 0

[giving agreement with (6)].
Furthermore, it can be shown that
Y−n(x) = (−1)nYn(x)
Section 5.5 p79
 Bessel Functions Yν(x). General Solution

Theorem 1
General Solution of Bessel’s Equation
x2y” + xy’ + (x2 − ν2)y = 0
A general solution of Bessel’s equation for all values of ν
(and x > 0) is
(9)

Section 5.5 p80

 5. Bessel Functions Yν(x). General Solution

Modified Bessel' s Function I ( x) and K ( x)

Replacing the dependent variable x in the Bessel function by ix

Which is the modified Bessel function of order ν

the solution w ill be according to modified Bessel' s function of

First and second kind I ( x) and K ( x)
J ( x) modified to I ( x) as following

Section 5.5 p81

 By removing the factor ν we get

Another function K ( x) is chosen as following

K (x) is Modified Bessel function of second kind

And the general solution of the modified Bessel equation is
 5
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER
Series Solution of ODEs.
Special Functions

Section 5.Summary p93

 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 5
Series Solution of ODEs. Special Functions
The power series method gives solutions of linear ODEs
(1) y” + p(x)y’ + q(x)y = 0
with variable coefficients p and q in the form of a power series
(with any center x0, e.g., x0 = 0)

(2) y( x)   am ( x  x0 )m  a0  a1 ( x  x0 )  a2 ( x  x0 )2  .
m0
Such a solution is obtained by substituting (2) and its derivatives
into (1). This gives a recurrence formula for the coefficients. You
may program this formula (or even obtain and graph the whole
solution) on your CAS.

Section 5.Summary p94

 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 5
(continued 1) Series Solution of ODEs. Special Functions
If p and q are analytic at x0 (that is, representable by a
power series in powers of x – x0 with positive radius of
convergence; Sec. 5.1), then (1) has solutions of this form (2).
The same holds if h , p , q in
h( x) y  p( x) y  q( x) y  0
are analytic at x0 and h( x0 )  0, so that we can divide by h
and obtain the standard form (1). Legendre’s equation is
solved by the power series method in Sec. 5.2.

Section 5.Summary p95

 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 5
(continued 2) Series Solution of ODEs. Special Functions
The Frobenius method (Sec. 5.3) extends the power series
method to ODEs
a( x) b( x)
(3) y  y  y0
x  x0 ( x  x0 ) 2

whose coefficients are singular (i.e., not analytic) at x0, but

are “not too bad,” namely, such that a and b are analytic at
x0. Then (3) has at least one solution of the form


(4) y( x)  ( x  x0 )
r
 m
a
m0
( x  x 0
) m
 a0
( x  x 0
) r
 a1
( x  x 0
) r 1


where r can be any real (or even complex) number and is

determined by substituting (4) into (3) from the indicial
equation (Sec. 5.3), along with the coefficients of (4).

Section 5.Summary p96

 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 5
(continued 2) Series Solution of ODEs. Special Functions
A second linearly independent solution of (3) may be of a
similar form (with different r and am’s) or may involve a
logarithmic term. Bessel’s equation is solved by the
Frobenius method in Secs. 5.4 and 5.5.
“Special functions” is a common name for higher
functions, as opposed to the usual functions of calculus.
Most of them arise either as nonelementary integrals [see
(24)–(44) in App. 3.1] or as solutions of (1) or (3). They get a
name and notation and are included in the usual CASs if
they are important in application or in theory.

Section 5.Summary p97

 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 5
(continued 2) Series Solution of ODEs. Special Functions
Of this kind, and particularly useful to the engineer and
physicist, are Legendre’s equation and polynomials P0 , P1,
… (Sec. 5.2), Gauss’s hypergeometric equation and
functions F(a, b, c; x) (Sec. 5.3), and Bessel’s equation and
functions Jν and Yν (Secs. 5.4, 5.5).

Section 5.Summary p98