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 Physics
6. MISCELLANEOUS
n Astronomy is the scientific study of the universe and everything in it. This includes, but is not limited to,
the study of motion, matter, and energy; the study of planets, moons, asteroids, comets, stars, galaxies,
and all the gas and dust between them, and even the study of the universe itself, including its origin, aging
processes, and final fate.

l
l Astronomical unit : It is the mean distance of the earth from the sun. It is found to 1.496 × 10 11 m

e
or 1.496 x 108 km (~150 million km). It is generally used to measure the distances within the solar system.

n
l Parsec : It is the extraterrestrial distance at which the main radius of Earth’s orbit (one astronomical
unit, AU) subtends an angle of one arc-second. It is thus, the distance at which a star would exhibit an

n
annual parallax of one arc-second. The term itself is a shortened form of “parallax second.”

a
1 parsec = 3.2616 Light years = 206,265 astronomical units = 30.857 × 10 12 km.
l Light year : One light year is equal to the distance travelled by light in one year in a vacuum. It is

h
equal to 9.46 × 1012 km or 9.46 trillion km (1 trillion = 10 12).
1 light year = 0.3066 parsecs

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1 light year = 63,240 astronomical units

_
n Characteristics of the universe

e
l The universe is all of space, time, matter, and energy that exist. The farthest limit to our viewing is
called the cosmic horizon, which is about 13.7 billion light-years away, or about 80 billion trillion

im
miles, in every direction. Everything within that cosmic horizon is called the observable universe.
n Origin of the universe
l The scientific theory that describes the origin of the universe is called the Big Bang. According to the

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Big Bang theory, the universe began to exist as a single point of spacetime, and it has been expanding

y
ever since. As that expansion has occurred, the conditions in the universe have changed—from small
to big, from hot to cold, and from young to old—resulting in the universe we observe today.

d
l The first scientists to formulate the Big Bang theory

u
1917: Dutch astronomer Willem de Sitter (1872–1934)

t
1922 : Russian mathematician Alexander Friedmann (1888–1925)

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Late 1920s : Belgian astronomer Georges-Henri Lemaître (1894–1966)
l Lemaître was a Jesuit priest as well as an astronomer, he has sometimes been called “the Father of the

@
Big Bang.”
l The expanding universe is the main observational evidence that the universe began as the Big Bang
theory describes. If space is getting larger all the time, then that means the universe is larger now than
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it was yesterday. By continuing backward in time, it is possible to follow the trend all the way down to
the point where the entire universe was just a point. Based on the expansion rate of the universe, that
point was at a time about 13.7 billion years ago.
l If such a bang had occurred, the universe would have been incredibly hot very soon after the bang—
somewhere in the area of trillions upon trillions of degrees. As the universe expanded, the heat in the
universe would become distributed over a larger volume, and the temperature would go down.
l Edwin Hubble (1889–1953) first showed that the universe is expanding.
} He also showed that galaxies exist outside the Milky Way too.
} He continued to study galaxies after his pioneering measurement of the distance to the Andromeda
Galaxy.
} Hubble measured the galaxies’ Doppler effect, the shift in the observed colour of objects moving
toward or away from an observer. He discovered that the farther away a galaxy is, the faster it
moves away from us, which is the clear sign of an expanding universe.

121
 Class X
l Hubble Constant : The expansion rate of the universe is called the Hubble Constant in honour of
Edwin H ubble. Cur rently th e best measure d value of th e Hubble Const ant is about
73 km/s/megaparsec. It means that, if a location in space is one million parsecs from another location,
then in the absence of any other forces or effects, the two locations will be moving apart from one
another at the speed of 163,000 miles (263,000 km)/hr.
l Doppler effect in light : When an object emitting light or any kind of electromagnetic radiation,

l
moves toward someone, the wavelength of its emitted light decreases i.e., frequency increases.

e
Conversely, when the object moves away, the wavelength of its emitted light increases i.e., frequency
decreases. For visible light, the bluish part of the spectrum has shorter wavelengths, and the reddish

n
part of the spectrum has longer wavelengths. Thus, the Doppler effect for light is called a “blueshift”
if the light source is coming toward an observer, and a “redshift” if it is moving away. The faster the

n
object moves, the greater the blueshift or redshift.

a
l The first astronomer to observe a Doppler shift from a distant object was Vesto Melvin Slipher in
1912. He used telescopes to photograph and study large fuzzy patches of gas and dust, called nebulae,

h
which were thought to be within the Milky Way galaxy. Slipher found that many of these patches were
made of stars, which suggested that they could be distant galaxies like the Milky Way.

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n Black hole : It is an object whose escape velocity equals or exceeds the speed of light. It is so small and

_
massive that even light could not escape, thus, it would be black.
l One way to find black holes is to observe matter moving or orbiting at much higher speeds than

e
expected. By carefully mapping the motion, and then applying Kepler’s third law of orbital motion, it
is possible to measure the mass of an object even without seeing the object itself.

im
l The deep gravitational field of a black hole can also produce a tremendous amount of light nearby and
around itself, even if the hole itself is dark. The infalling matter gets hot from the frictional drag too,
sometimes reaching temperatures of millions of degrees. That hot material glows brightly and emits far

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more X-ray radiation and radio waves than would normally be expected from such a small volume of
space. By searching for these emissions, astronomers can deduce the presence of black holes even

y
though they cannot see the holes themselves.

d
n Galaxy : It is a vast collection of stars, gas, dust, and dark matter that forms a cohesive gravitational unit
in the universe.

u
l Each galaxy has its own identity, and it ages and evolves on its own, but it also interacts with other

t
galaxies in the cosmos.

S
l Galaxies are generally grouped by their appearance into three types : spiral, elliptical, and irregular.
} Spiral galaxy : It is a galaxy that appears to have spiral-shaped structures, or arms, that contain
bright stars. Spiral galaxies have star-filled, ellipsoid-shaped bulges at their centers; a star-filled,

@
thin disk of spinning gas surrounding the bulge; and a thinly populated stellar halo that envelops
both the disk and the bulge e.g. Milky Way galaxy.
} Elliptical galaxy : It is a galaxy that appears to be an ellipse from our point of view. The ellipticity
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of the galaxy—how round or flat it is—varies greatly in ellipticals, so they can look like anything
from perfect spheres to long cigars. These can be triaxial, i.e. they each can have a length, width,
and height that are all different from one another. So ellipticals can be shaped like gigantic basketballs,
rugby balls, ostrich eggs, cough drops, or anywhere in between.
} Irregular galaxy : It is a galaxy that does not fit well into the standard categories of elliptical or
spiral galaxies. Two examples of irregular galaxies are the Large Magellanic Cloud and Small
Magellanic Cloud, which are visible from Earth’s southern hemisphere.
l The Milky Way : We live near the outer edge of the spiral galaxy which is called Milky Way (Akash
Ganga). Milky way is a very large band of stars, having misty cloud like appearance, extending itself
across the sky like a part of a great circle. It appears as a flat lens shaped disc which is thicker in the
middle and thins out at the edges. Its diameter is about 100,000 light years. The thickness of the disk
is about 5000 light years at the centre, but it decreases as we move towards the edges. The thickness
of disc near the sun is about 1000 light years. The sun is situated in its central plane at a distance of
about 30,000 light years from the centre.

122
 Physics
l Radio galaxies : These are simply galaxies—usually very ordinary-looking elliptical galaxies when
viewed by visible light—that radiate an unusually large amount of radio waves.
n Star : It is a mass of incandescent gas that produces energy at its core by nuclear fusion.
l Most of the visible light in the universe is produced by stars. The Sun is a star.
l In our Milky Way galaxy alone, there are more than 1011 stars, and in our observable universe, there

l
are at least a billion times that number.
l The Sun is the closest star to Earth. It is 93 million miles away from Earth on average.

e
l The closest star system to Earth is the multiple star system Alpha Centauri. The faintest star in that
system, known as Proxima Centauri, has been measured to be 4.24 light-years away from Earth.

n
l North Star : The North Star is any star near the spot in the sky called the north celestial pole: the
place that Earth’s rotational axis is pointing toward. Right now, and for the past several centuries, a

n
star called Polaris (Pole Star, Dhruv Tara) has been very close to the pole, and thus has served as a

a
good North Star.
l The brightest star in the night sky as viewed from Earth is Sirius, the “Dog Star”.

h
l Astronomers use a historical description of a star’s brightness known as ‘magnitude’. Brighter objects
have a lower magnitude number, while fainter objects have a higher magnitude number. This means

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that negative magnitudes are brighter than positive magnitudes.

_
n Constellation : It is a group of stars in the sky that, when viewed from Earth, creates some recognizable
shape or pattern.

e
l Modern constellations are mostly named after mythological themes, such as gods, legendary heroes,
creatures, or structures e.g. Gemini (The Twins), Leo (The Lion), Orion (The Hunter), Ursa Major

im
(The Big Bear), Ursa Minor (The Little Bear), etc.
l The current, internationally agreed upon map of the sky contains 88 constellations.
l The largest of these is Hydra (Sea Serpent) which contains atleast 68 stars visible to the naked eye.

T
The constellation Centaurus has 94 stars. Cassiopeia is another prominent constellation in the northern

y
sky. It is visible during winter in the early part of the night. It looks like a distorted letter W or M.
l The apparent path of the sun against the background of stars on the celestial sphere is known as

d
Ecliptic. Ecliptic is imagined to be divided in to twelve equal parts, each part corresponds to one sign
of the zodiac (rashi).

u
l Hans Albrecht Bethe (1906–2005) first explained the process of nuclear fusion. He explained how

t
nuclear fusion could work at the heart of the Sun, and how it could produce enough energy to make

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the Sun shine. For his immense contributions to science, Hans Bethe was awarded the Nobel Prize in
physics in 1967.
n Star evolution

@
l Stellar evolution : It describes the aging process of stars.
l Main sequence star : It is a star that is currently in the main mature period of its life cycle, converting
hydrogen into helium and are in an equilibrium state.
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l There are also stars not on the main sequence. These include premain sequence, or “infant” stars, and
post-main sequence, or “elderly” stars. Stars change and age throughout their existence.
l Formation of a protostar : The gravitational attraction between the gas particles draws them close
together to form a cloud. If the size of the cloud is large, the gravitational attraction between the
individual molecules becomes strong enough to pull the cloud inward. The cloud then begins to contract
under its own gravitation and it becomes a highly condensed gaseous mass. This highly condensed
cloud of gas consisting mainly of hydrogen and helium which ultimately develops into a star is called
protostar. A protostar is a huge dark ball of gas.
l Formation of a star from protostar : Protostar continues to contract for about a million years
further under its own gravitation. This causes the atoms in the gas cloud to collide with one another
more frequently, thereby raising its temperature. When the temperature rises to about 107 °C, beginning
of nuclear fusion reaction between hydrogen nuclei takes place, liberating enormous amounts of energy
in the form of heat and light. This further raises the temperature and pressure inside. In this way,
protostar begins to glow and becomes a star.

123
 Class X
l Why do stars not collapse ?
Due to energy released during nuclear fusion reaction, internal pressure is developed in the star.
Because of this internal pressure in the star, the gaseous matter stops collapsing further. The star is in
delicate equilibrium under two opposing forces — the gravitational attraction trying to compress and
ignite the fusion reaction, and forces due to the internal pressure generated by the energy released
during fusion reaction. This balance can continue for thousands of millions of years if the temperature

l
in the interior of the star is just right to maintain the fusion reaction and the rate of this reaction just

e
right for balancing the pressure of compression.
n Final stages of a star's life

n
l Red giant phase : Due to the continuous fusion reaction in the interior of the star, more and more
hydrogen gets converted into helium. At some point of time, the matter in its core would consist mainly

n
of helium and the fusion reaction would stop. Thus, the pressure inside the core would reduce greatly
and it would begin to contract under its own gravity. In the outermost shell, still some hydrogen is left

a
and liberates energy. Therefore, the outer shell would begin to expand, thus increasing its surface area
and reducing the intensity of radiated energy. At this stage, the star enters the red giant phase. It

h
would begin to change colour and appear red. A star spends a comparatively short time in the red

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giant phase because it is quite unstable in that state.
l Our sun would eventually meet this phase after about 5,000 million years from now. Its expanding

_
shell will engulf the inner planets, Mercury, Venus and even the Earth. On reaching the red giant phase,
its future depends on its intial mass. There are two possible ends of the stars :

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} Formation of white dwarf star : If the initial mass is similar to that of our sun, then the red giant
loses its expanding outer shell and core shrinks to form a white dwarf star in which three helium

im
nuclei will fuse to form a carbon nucleus with the release of tremendous amount of energy. It
utimately dies out as dense ball of matter in the space. The white dwarf star will glow as long as the
helium lasts in it. Finally, it will fade in the space as a dense lump of matter.

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} Formation of supernova : If the star is much more massive than sun, then the red giant star
explodes in the form of a supernova star, and the core of this exploding supernova star can shrink

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to form a neutron star or a black hole. The maximum possible mass for a white dwarf to form is
called Chandrashekhar limit. It was first computed in 1931, by the Indian astrophysicist

d
Subrahmanyan Chandrashekhar. Its value is about 1.44 solar masses. If the mass of the core of

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a star exceeds Chandrashekhar limit, its end could be quite spectacular. When such a massive star

t
is in the red giant phase, its core contains much more helium. The big core of helium continues to
contract building high temperatures. Due to the development of extremely high temperature, fusion

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of helium into carbon takes place along with the liberation of tremendous amount of energy. This
causes the outer envelope of red giant star to explode with a brilliant flash, releasing in one second
the same amount of energy that the sun radiates in about a hundred years. It would light up the sky

@
for many days. Such an exploding star is called a Supernova.
} Formation of neutron star : After the supernova explosion, only the core of the big star survives.
The core continues to contract and the vast gravitational forces compress the core to tremendous
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densities. The inside becomes so tight that individual protons and electrons combine to form neutrons.
– The extremely dense celestial object that consists primarily of closely packed neutrons and that
results from the collapse of a very big star is called a neutron star.
– The densities of neutron star can be about millon tonnes per cc and higher. There are strong
magnetic fields associated with a neutron star.
– Neutron stars are the end points of stars whose mass after nuclear burning is greater than the
Chandrashekhar limit for white dwarfs, but whose mass is not great enough to overcome the neutron
degeneracy pressure to become black holes.
l Formation of black holes : If the mass of a neutron star is quite high, it continues to contract
indefinitely. This means that vast amount of matter in the neutron star would be packed eventually into
a extremely small area. Such an infinitely dense object is called a black hole.
l The main part of a star’s life cycle is spent on what is called the main sequence. The higher the initial
mass of a star is, the greater its main sequence luminosity is; the bluer and hotter it is; the larger its
diameter is; and the shorter its main sequence lifetime is.

124
 Physics
n The Sun
l The Sun has a core at its center; a radiative zone surrounding the core; a convective zone surrounding
the radiative zone; a thin photosphere at its surface; and a chromosphere and corona that extends
beyond the photospheric surface. In all, the Sun is about 853,000 miles (1,372,500 km) across, which
is about 109 times the diameter of Earth.

l
Diameter of sun : 1.39 × 106 Km
Mean Density of sun : 146 Kg/m 3

e
Acceleration due to gravity : 275 ms2

n
Surface temperature of sun (photosphere) : 5800 K (5527 0C)
Mass of sun : 2 × 10 3 0 Kg.

n
Mean distance of sun from earth : 1.496 ×10 8 km = 1 A.U. = 8 light minutes

a
l The Sun’s mass is composed of 71 percent hydrogen, 27 percent helium, and 2 percent other elements.
l The Sun does indeed spin, rotating about its axis from west to east, the same direction that the planets

h
orbit around the Sun. Since the Sun is not a solid object but rather a big ball of electrically charged gas,
it spins at different speeds depending on the latitude. The Sun spins once around its axis near its

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equator in about 25 days, and in about 35 days near its north and south poles. This kind of spinning,

_
in which different parts move at different speeds, is called differential rotation.
l Differential rotation causes the magnetic field lines in the Sun to get bent, twisted, knotted, and even

e
broken; sunspots, prominences, solar flares, and coronal mass ejections are the result.
n Pulsar : When a neutron star spins, it sometimes spins incredibly fast—up to hundreds of times a second.

im
A magnetic field billions of times stronger than Earth’s can form as a result. If the field interacts with
nearby electrically charged matter, it can result in a great deal of energy being radiated into space. In this
scenario, the slightest unevenness or surface feature on the neutron star can cause a significant “blip” or

T
“pulse” in the radiation being emitted. Each time the neutron star spins around once, a pulse of radiation
comes out. Such an object is called a pulsar.

y
n X-ray star : It is a star that emits a great deal of X-ray radiation. Our Sun, as with most typical stars,

d
emits lots of X rays compared to terrestrial sources. As a percentage of the total radiation emitted by the
Sun, however, its X-ray emission is very small.

u
n Binary star : It is a pair of stars that are so close together in the sky that they appear to be closely

t
associated with one another. Some binary stars, called ‘apparent binaries’, are merely close together

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because of our point of view from Earth; they have nothing to do with one another physically. Two stars
that are physically associated together make a binary star system, however, the two stars orbit each other
around a single center of gravity.

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n The solar system
l Planetory system : It is a system of astronomical objects that populate the vicinity of a star. This
includes objects like planets, asteroids, comets, and interplanetary dust.
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l The general characteristics of the planets in our solar system are :

} A planet must be in hydrostatic equilibrium — a balance between the inward pull of gravity and the
outward push of the supporting structure. Objects in this kind of equilibrium are almost always spherical
or very close to it.
} A planet’s primary orbit must be around the Sun. That means objects like the Moon, Titan, or Ganymede,
are not planets, even though they are round due to hydrostatic equilibrium, because their primary orbit
is around a planet.
} A planet must have cleared out other, smaller objects in its orbital path, and thus must be by far the
largest object in its orbital neighborhood. This means that Pluto is not a planet, even though it meets the
other two criteria; there are thousands of Plutinos in the orbital path of Pluto, and it crosses the orbit of
Neptune, which is a much larger and more massive object.
l The eight objects in our solar system that meet all three criteria are Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, Jupiter,
Mars, Earth, Venus, and Mercury.

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 Class X
n The inner solar system (terrestrial planets) : The planets that are collectively thought of as belonging to
the inner solar system are Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.
l The terrestrial planet zone is generally considered to be the part of the solar system containing the planets
Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. These four objects are called the terrestrial planets because they resemble
one another (specifically, Earth) in their structure: a metallic core, surrounded by a rocky mantle and thin
crust. There are three moons in the terrestrial zone as well: Earth’s moon, and the two moons of Mars:

l
Phobos and Deimos.

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n Mercury
l Mercury is the smallest of the terrestrial planets, more comparable in size to the Moon than to the Earth. It

n
is also the closest planet to the Sun, with an orbital radius of only 0.39 AU.

n
l The rotation period (sidereal day) of Mercury is 58.65 days, exactly 2/3 of the orbital period (87.97 days).
Due to this, always the same side of Mercury faces the Sun.

a
l Mercury is so close to the Sun that its orbit is rather tilted and stretched into a long elliptical shape.

h
l Mercury is heavily cratered, like the Moon, but also contains large patches of craterless terrain.
l Its magnetic field is about 100 times weaker than the Earth’s.

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l While the equatorial temperature on Mercury is very high, about 825 K, the temperature at the poles is
much cooler, about 167 K .

_
l Being so close to the Sun, the glare of the Sun makes it difficult to observe Mercury from Earth. Mercury is

e
therefore visible only periodically, when it is just above the horizon, for at most an hour or so before sunrise
and after sunset.
n Venus

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l Venus is about 0.82 Earth masses, and 95% the radius of the Earth. Here, however, the resemblance stops.
Perhaps the most poorly understood difference between Venus and the Earth is the sense and rate of

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rotation.
l Venus’s rotation is retrograde (opposite, i.e., clockwise rather than counterclockwise) to its orbit, and to the

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orbits and rotations of the vast majority of the rest of the solar system bodies. The rotation is also very slow;

d
Venus’s day is about 243 Earth days.
l The atmosphere on Venus consists of carbon dioxide (96%) and nitrogen (3%). The high pressure (plus the

u
CO2 atmosphere) drives the temperature to a scorching 740 K.

t
l Volcanic activity seems to still be a major force on Venus.

S
l Venus is visible in the sky either just after dark or just before sunrise, depending on the season. This pattern
of appearance prompted ancient astronomers to refer to Venus as the “evening star” or the “morning star.”
Venus is named for the Roman goddess of love and beauty.

@
n Mars
l The mass of Mars is about one-tenth the mass of the Earth, and Mars is about half as large in diameter.
l The orbital period of Mars is 1.88 years, and so the seasons on Mars are nearly twice as long as the seasons
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on Earth. These seasons are qualitatively similar to Earth’s, since the tilt of Mars’s rotation axis is quite similar
(25°, compared with the Earth’s 23.5°).
l Like the Earth, Mars has polar caps; unlike the Earth, one of these is mostly CO2 ice. Temperatures on Mars
range from 133K to 293K , and the atmospheric pressure at the surface is very low, about 1/100 the
pressure at the surface of the Earth. The atmosphere on Mars is 95% CO2, similar to the atmosphere of
Venus.
l Mars has no plate tectonic activity.
l The red color on the surface of Mars is caused by rust—surface iron has been oxidized.
l Moons of Mars : Mars has two small, irregularly-shaped moons, Phobos and Deimos.
n Gas giants : Gas giant planets are so named because they are much larger than the terrestrial planets, and
they have atmospheres so thick that the gas is a dominant part of the planets’ structure. They are also called
Jovian planets, which include Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
l The gas giant zone : Each of the gas giant planets has a host of moons and rings or ringlets.

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 Physics
n Jupiter
l Jupiter is the largest of the Jovian planets.
l Jupiter has ammonia, sulphur, phosphorus, and other trace elements in its atmosphere that contribute to the
banded structures and the multicolored clouds.
l The Great Red Spot on Jupiter is one such storm, which has persisted since Galileo first observed it nearly
400 years ago.

l
l The liquid metallic hydrogen around the thick, dense core of magnesium, iron, silicon, and various ices. and

e
the rapid rotation of the planet generate the strong magnetic field that surrounds Jupiter.
n Saturn

n
l Saturn is similar to Jupiter, though about one-third the mass. Still, it is about 95 times more massive than

n
Earth.
l Saturn’s average density is actually lower than that of water.

a
l A day on Saturn is only 10 hours and 39 minutes long; it spins so fast that its diameter at the equator is
10% larger than its diameter from pole to pole.

h
l Saturn has a solid core likely made of rock and ice, which is thought to be many times the mass of Earth.

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l Covering this core is a layer of liquid metallic hydrogen, and on top of that are layers of liquid hydrogen and
helium. These layers conduct strong electric currents that, in turn, generate Saturn’s powerful magnetic

_
field.

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l Saturn has dozens of moons, and its largest moon is Titan, which is larger than Earth’s own moon and has a
thick, opaque atmosphere.
l The most spectacular part of Saturn is its magnificent system of planetary rings, which stretch some 170,000

im
miles (300,000 km) across.
n Uranus

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l Uranus is the seventh major planet in our solar system, and the third of four gas giant planets.
l It is 31,800 miles (51,200 km) in diameter, just under four times the diameter of Earth.

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l Like the other gas giant planets, Uranus consists mostly of gas. Its pale blue-green, cloudy atmosphere is

d
made of 83% hydrogen, 15% helium, and small amounts of methane and other gases. Uranus gets its color
because the methane in the atmosphere absorbs reddish light and reflects bluish-greenish light.

u
l Uranus has an extremely odd rotation compared to the other major planets. It rotates on its side, almost like

t
a bowling ball rolling down its lane, and its polar axis is parallel rather than perpendicular to its orbital plane.
l One end of Uranus faces the Sun for an entire half of its orbit, while the other end faces away during that

S
time. So one “day” on Uranus is equal to 42 Earth years!
l Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are the five planets visible to naked eye.

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n Neptune
l Neptune is the eighth major planet in our solar system, 17 times more massive than Earth and about four
times its diameter.
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l The most remote of the four gas giant planets in our solar system, Neptune takes 165 Earth years to orbit
the Sun once.
l A “day” on Neptune, however, is only 16 Earth hours.
l Similar to Uranus, Neptune’s cloud-top temperature is a frosty –350 °F (–210 °C).
l Neptune is bluish-green in colour, which might seem fitting for a planet named after the Roman god of the
sea. However, the color does not come from water; it is due to the gases in Neptune’s atmosphere reflecting
sunlight back into space. Neptune’s atmosphere consists mostly of hydrogen, helium, and methane. Below
the atmosphere, scientists think there is a thick layer of ionized water, ammonia, and methane ice, and
deeper yet is a rocky core many times the mass of Earth.
n Some more terms related to solar system
l Superior planet : Term that is used to describe any planet with an orbit that lies beyond that of the Earth;
the superior planets are Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.
l Inferior planet : Planet with an orbit that lies closer to the Sun than does the orbit of the Earth; the inferior
planets are Mercury and Venus.

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l At your site, the zenith is the point on the celestial sphere directly over your head. The celestial horizon
is the great circle on the celestial sphere 90° from your zenith. Although the celestial sphere is filled with
stars, you can see only those that are above your horizon. The celestial meridian is the great circle passing
through your zenith and the north and south points on your horizon. Only half of the celestial meridian is
above the horizon.

e l
n n
ha
_ C
e
(a) : Zenith (b) : Celestial meridian (c) : Celestial horizon
l Transit : It means ‘passage of a celestial body, particularly one of the inferior planets directly between the
Sun and the Earth, crossing the Sun’s disk.

im
l Occultation : Event in which one body is obscured by another – in other words, when a distant object is
hidden by a nearer one.

T
n Moon : A moon is a natural satellite that orbits a planet.
l Jupiter moons : There are at least 63 confirmed moons orbiting Jupiter, namely Io, Europa, Ganymede,

y
Callisto, etc.
l Saturn’s moons : Saturn has at least 60 confirmed and several suspected moons, the largest being Titan.

d
l Uranus’s moons : Uranus has five large moons and at least 27 small moons orbit Uranus, Oberon, Titania,

u
Umbriel, Ariel, Miranda.

t
l Neptune’s moons : Neptune has at least 13 confirmed moons of which Triton is the largest.
n The Kuiper Belt : The Kuiper Belt (also called the Kuiper-Edgeworth Belt) is a doughnut-shaped region that

S
extends between about three to eight billion miles (5 to 12 billion km) out from the Sun (its inner edge is about
at the orbit of Neptune, while its outer edge is about twice that diameter).

@
l Kuiper Belt Objects (KBOs) are, as their name implies, objects that originate from or orbit in the Kuiper
Belt. Only one KBO was known for more than 60 years: Pluto.
n Asteroids : This are relatively small, primarily rocky or metallic chunks of matter that orbit the Sun.
l They are like planets, but much smaller; the largest asteroid, Ceres, is only about 580 miles (930 km) across.
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l While most asteroids are made mostly of carbon-rich rock, some are made at least partially of iron and
nickel.
l Apart from the largest ones, asteroids tend to be irregular in shape, rotating and tumbling as they move
through the solar system.
l The asteroid belt : It is the region between the orbit of Mars and the orbit of Jupiter—about 150 to 500
million miles (240 to 800 million km) away from the Sun. The vast majority of known asteroids orbit in this
belt.
n Comets : They are basically “snowy dirtballs” or “dirty snowballs”—clumpy collections of rocky material, dust,
and frozen water, methane, and ammonia that move through the solar system in long, highly elliptical orbits
around the Sun.
l When they are far away from the Sun, comets are simple, solid bodies; but when they get closer to the Sun,
they warm up, causing the ice in the comets’ outer surface to vaporize. This creates a cloudy “coma” that
forms around the solid part of the comet, called the “nucleus.” The loosened comet vapour forms long “tails”
that can grow to millions of miles in length.

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 Physics
l Comets can be seen with the naked eye, and sometimes they are spectacularly bright and beautiful, so
humans have undoubtedly been observing comets since time immemorial. On the other hand, comets are
usually visible only for short periods of time—a few days or weeks—so almost all comet sightings have gone
unrecorded and were misunderstood for most of that human history. For these and other reasons, a great
deal of mythology and superstition has been associated with comets throughout the ages.

l
l Edmund Halley predicted that this same comet would return 76 years after its last sighting, in the year 1758.
Unfortunately, Halley died before he could see that he was, indeed, correct. The comet was named in his

e
honour, and to this day Halley’s comet remains the best-known comet in the world. It last passed by Earth in
1986, and will return again in 2062.

n
l The Oort Cloud is a spherical region enveloping the Sun where most comets with orbital periods exceeding

n
several hundred years (i.e. “long-period comets”) originate.
l Other well-known comets in recent times include Comet Shoemaker Levy 9, which broke apart and crashed

a
into Jupiter in 1994; Comet Hyakutake, which flew by Earth in 1996; and Comet Hale-Bopp, considered by
many to be the “comet of the twentieth century,” which flew by Earth in 1997.

h
n Earth and the Moon

C
l Earth
} Earth is the third planet in the solar system, orbiting at a distance of about 93 million miles (150 million

_
kilometers) from the Sun.

e
} It is the largest and most massive of the terrestrial planets.
} Its interior structure consists of a metallic core, which has both liquid and solid components : a thick rocky

im
mantle, and a thin rocky crust.
l The study of the size and shape of Earth is called geodesy.
l Earth rotates once every 23 hours, 56 minutes, causing our cycles of day and night. Earth also has precession

T
(a wobble of the rotational axis) and nutation (a back-and-forth wiggle of Earth’s axis), caused primarily by

y
the gravitational pull of the Moon as it orbits Earth. Precession and nutation, over long periods of time, cause
Earth’s north and south poles to point toward different stars.

d
l Earth’s atmosphere : Earth’s atmosphere extends hundreds of miles beyond its surface, but it is much
denser at the surface than at high altitudes. About half of the gas in Earth’s atmosphere is within a few

u
kilometers of the surface, and 95% of the gas is found within 12 miles (19 km) of the surface.

t
} Earth’s atmosphere consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% argon, and less than 1% of other gases,

S
such as water vapour and carbon dioxide.
} The bottom layer of Earth’s atmosphere is called the troposphere. This level is the air we breathe; it

@
contains clouds and weather patterns. Above the troposphere is the stratosphere, which starts at an
altitude of about 9 miles (14 km). The temperature in the stratosphere is a frosty –58 °F (–50 °C). From
an altitude of 50 miles (80 km) up to about 200 miles (320 km), temperatures increase dramatically,
even though the atmospheric density is very low; this is the thermosphere. Above the thermosphere is
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the highest layer of Earth’s atmosphere: the exosphere or ionosphere. At this level, gas molecules
break down into atoms, and many of the atoms become electrically charged, or ionized.
l Earth’s magnetic field : Earth itself acts like a giant spherical magnet. This is caused primarily by the
motion of electrical currents within Earth, probably through the liquid metallic part of Earth’s core. Combined
with Earth’s rotation, the core acts like an electric dynamo, or generator, creating a magnetic field.
l Cosmic rays : They are invisible, high-energy particles that constantly bombard Earth from all directions.
} Most cosmic rays are protons moving at extremely high speeds, but they can be atomic nuclei of any
known element. They enter Earth’s atmosphere at velocities of 90% the speed of light or more.
} A continuous stream of electrically charged particles flows from the Sun; this flow is called the solar wind.
n Meteors and meteorites
l Meteorites are large particles from outer space that lands on Earth. They range in size from a grain of sand
on up. About 30,000 meteorites have been recovered in recorded history; about 600 of them are made
primarily of metal, and the rest are made primarily of rock.
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 Class X
l A meteor is a particle from outer space that enters Earth’s atmosphere, but does not land on Earth. Instead,
the particle burns up in the atmosphere, leaving a shortlived, glowing trail that traces part of its path through
the sky. Like meteorites, meteors can range from the size of a grain of sand on up; most of the time, though,
a meteor larger than about the size of a baseball will reach Earth, in which case we call it a meteorite.
l Most meteors, especially those that fall during meteor showers, are the tiny remnants of comets left in

l
Earth’s orbital path over many, many years. Most meteorites, which are generally larger than meteors, are
pieces of asteroids and comets that somehow came apart from their parent bodies—perhaps from a collision

e
with another body—and orbited in the solar system until they collided with Earth.

n
l Meteor shower : Meteors are often called “shooting stars” because they are bright for a moment and move
quickly across the sky. Usually, a shooting star appears in the sky about once an hour or so. Sometimes,

n
though, a large number of meteors appear in the sky over the course of a several nights. These meteors will

a
appear to come from the same part of the sky, and dozens or hundreds (sometimes even thousands) of
meteors can be seen every hour. The strongest, dazzling displays meteor showers are sometimes called

h
meteor storms.
n The Moon : The Moon is Earth’s only natural satellite.

C
l It is 2,160 miles (3,476 km) across, which is a little more than one quarter of Earth’s diameter.

_
l The Moon orbits Earth once every 27.3 days.

e
l The Moon has no atmosphere and no liquid water at its surface, so it has no wind or weather at all. On the
lunar surface, there is no protection from the Sun’s rays, and no ability to retain heat like the greenhouse
effect on Earth.

im
l Temperatures on the moon range from about 253 °F (123 °C) to –387 °F (–233 °C).
l The Moon’s surface is covered with rocks, mountains, craters, and vast low plains called maria (“seas”).

T
l It is actually covered with rocks, boulders, craters, and a layer of charcoal-coloured soil.

y
l On average, the Moon is about 238,000 miles (384,000 km) away from Earth.

d
l The dark side of the Moon is a misnomer for the side of the Moon that always faces away from Earth. Over
billions of years, the rotation of the Moon has become synchronized with its orbit around Earth, so that the

u
same side of the Moon always faces our planet. This phenomenon, called tidal locking, means that the

t
other side of the Moon is never visible from Earth. Though this side is sometimes dark, just as often it is

S
brightly lit by the Sun. So the scientifically accurate way to refer to the Moon’s “dark side” should be “the far
side” of the Moon.

@
l Moonlight is reflected sunlight. Depending on the location of the Moon in its orbit around Earth, different
parts of the Moon will reflect sunlight onto Earth.
l As viewed from Earth, the amount of sunlight that strikes the Moon and reaches us changes continually in a
perioidic (repeating) pattern. That is because Earth orbits the Sun, whereas the Moon orbits Earth; so the
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relative positions of the Moon, Earth, and the Sun keep changing. This kind of regular changing pattern
causes the phases of the Moon.
l The Moon orbits Earth every 27.3 days, while Earth orbits the Sun every 365.25 days. Those facts, combined
with the fact that moonlight is actually reflected sunlight, causes the Moon to take on different phases over a
29.5-day cycle.
n History of space exploration
The history of exploring the space by sending a space shuttle is almost six decades old. The process started by
the successful launching of a satellite named Sputnik – 1 on 4th October 1957 by the erstwhile Soviet Union
(USSR). Within few weeks of this, a satellite Sputnik – 2 was launched with a live dog Laika on
3rd November 1957. Laika’s heart beat, temperature and blood pressure were measured through radio waves
from earth. The analysis of the study of various effects on the living organism in space made possible to send
man in space.

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 Physics
l America launched its first spacecraft ‘Explorer’ in space on 31st January 1958. This spacecraft gave
very important information about the radiation present around the earth.
l In October 1959, important information about moon was obtained from the photographs sent by space
craft ‘Luna-3’ which was launched by erstwhile Soviet Union.
l In 1962, American Mariner - 2 spacecraft sent information about the high temperature of the Venus and

l
its rotation in opposite direction while passing close to the Venus.

e
l In 1965, Mariner – 4 disclosed many mysteries of the Mars. Thus initial efforts made by man regarding
space research found many facts about the Venus, Mars, and Moon.

n
l In the beginning, most of the spacecrafts launched for space exploration and research were manless. The
first man to enter space was Yuri Gagarin of Russia, who went around the earth for the first time through

n
spacecraft Vostok - 1 on 12th April 1961.

a
l Velentina Tereshkova of erstwhile Soviet Union became the first women to travel space in Vostok - 6 on
16th June 1963.

h
l In 1965, America started Gemini series, its main aim was the preparation of Apollo mission for moon.

C
} 21st July 1969 was a memorable day in the history of space research. On this day, Neil Armstrong and

_
Advin Aldrin created a history by stepping down on moon travelling by Apollo - 11.
} The studies of moon’s surface by various missions gave the information about geographic structures of

e
the moon and the substances present in it.
l Possibilities of life have been found on the Mars by the studies made on this planet. To conduct research

im
related to the Mars, America and erstwhile Soviet Union started series of spacecrafts Apollo-Soyuz in 1975
and Atlantis-Meer in 1995.

T
} In 1997, American spacecraft ‘Path Finder’ landed on Mars. It sends very important information about
the! Mars.

y
} Recently Mars mission is accelerated again. In 2004 American spacecraft ‘Spirit’ and ‘Opportunity’

d
landed on Mars. They have found a residual Sign of water flow on the Mars. Besides this, there is a hope
to receive information from the ‘Cassini’ which is sent to do research about Saturn and from ‘Messenger’

u
which is sent to study facts about the Mercury.

t
l First Communication satellite INTELSAT was launched in 1965 for commercial use. In 1972, America

S
launched LANDSAT - 1 to take pictures of agriculture land, forest and water.
l In 1981, spare shuttle Columbia was sent in space. After this Challenger, Discovery, and Atlantis space

@
shuttle were sent in space.
l With establishing a space center Meer on 20th February 1986 erstwhile Soviet Union started new experiments
in the research.
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l In April 1984, American Shuttle Challenger did the repairing successfully and gave a new life to satellite
Solar Max. For this historical work astronauts had to move out of the space craft and they walked around in
space for 6 hours and 44 minutes.
l ‘Deep space’ in 2001 and ‘Stardust’ and ‘Roseta’ in 2004 were sent to study about Comets.
l In 2002, Denis Teti became the first space tourist. This opened a way to collect money for space research.
l It is not like that all the space missions were 100 % successful. Challenger, Columbia like accidents affected
space programmes all over the world but by not getting rejected, the nature of not defeating and belief in the
science make human being always progressive in the space research.
n Space research programme of India
More than 1500 years back, at the time of Aryabhat, there was an observatory in Patliputra, using which he
concluded many results. He imagined the expansion of space and after identifying the stars, calculated their
distance from the sun.

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 Class X
l Indian space programme began in 1962 under the leadership of Dr. Vikram Sarabhai with the establishment
of INdian COmmittee for SPAce Research (INCOSPAR). In November 1963, a two stage rocket was launched
from Thumba near Thiruvanantapuram in Kerela. Today India is continuously touching new heights in the
field of manufacturing satellites for successful launching of spacecrafts.
l The committee formed in 1962 was restructured into the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) in

l
1969. After this, the space commission and Department of Space Science was established to give strong

e
economical base and effective management to space research in the country.
l Aryabhatt, the first satellite designed and constructed in India, was launched successfully from erstwhile

n
Soviet Union Space Centre on 19th April 1975. Experiments were done in the field of X-rays, astronomy,

n
solar physics, and meteorology with it.
l Second Indian Satellite, Bhaskar- I was launched on 7th June 1979 from erstwhile Soviet Union.

a
} The above satellites were named after the famous ancient astronomers Aryabhatt and Bhaskaracharya.

h
l On 2011 November 1988, more advance satellite Bhaskar – II was launched. The aim of Bhaskar-I and
Bhaskar - II was to collect data of natural resources through the remote sensing technology.

C
l In 1975-76 development programmes were directly telecasted using community television receiver in 2400

_
villages of India in the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) with the help of American satellite

e
ATS-4.
} Similarly, in 1977- 79, with the help of France and Germany, India made satellite ‘Symphony’ and the

im
satellite telecommunication experiment project (STEP) was implemented.
l The first Indian experimental telecommunication satellite APPLE (Ariane Passenger PayLoad Experiment)
was launched from ‘Kauru’ launching station at French Guyana through European Aryan spacecraft in June

T
1981. This satellite was active for 27 months in its orbit and during this period, it had done many high

y
standard communication experiments.
l After launching multi-purpose satellite INSAT - 1B with the help of American spacecraft, India become fully

d
capable in the field of telecommunication, meteorology, and television transmission.

u
} Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) is a multipurpose satellite system. It is a joint enterprise of

t
Space, Telecommunication, Indian meteorology, Radio and television departments. It is used for the

S
domestic telecommunication, information about weather, sending data, and to telecast the radio and
television programmes all over the country.

@
} The first generation satellites of this series (INSAT 1-A to 1-D) were developed by lndian space scientists
according to the prescribed standards from American company Ford Aerospace. But out of these only
two INSAT I-B and INSAT I-D worked properly.
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} The first satellite of the second generation of INSAT series INSAT 2-A was developed in India and was
launched successfully in July 1992. With the successful working of this satellite, it was an end of dependence
of India on the imported satellites and started a new era in manufacturing of lndia made communication
satellites. INSAT 2-B in 1993, INSAT 2-C in 1995, INSAT 2-D in 1997, and INSAT 2-E in 1999 were
launched. All these satellites were developed completely in India. Except the technical problem in the
electric system of INSAT 2-D all other satellites worked successfully.
} In the third generation of INSAT series, the first satellite INSAT 3-B was launched in March 2000 and
INSAT 3-C was launched in January 2002 successfully from the Kaoru launching station.
} INSAT 3-A was launched in April 2003 and the fourth Satellite of this series INSAT 3-E was launched in
September 2003. All these satellites were developed in India and working successfully.
} The launching of the fourth generation of INSAT series has also started. INSAT 4-A was launched
successfully on 22nd December 2005.

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 Physics
l Indian remote sensing satellites have important contributions in the survey and management of natural
resources. In March 1988, the first remote sensing satellite IRS - 1 A (Indian remote sensing satellite A)
developed in India was launched successfully from the Bakonur launching station of erstwhile Soviet union.
The IRS - 1B was launched successfully in 1991. Very high quality photographs were received from these
satellites, which were better than the American LANDSAT series satellite. After that, the successful launching
of IRS - I C in 1985, IRS - P3 in 1996, IRS - I D in 1997, and IRS - P4, in 1999 made the position of India

l
very strong on international level in the field of remote sensing. After the successful launching of Resource

e
Sat - 1 in October 2003, a new series of Indian remote sensing satellites started.
l Launching vehicle is the important part of any space system without which one cannot imagine the

n
independence in the space technology. On 18th July 1980, first time Rohini satellite of weight 35 kg was
established successfully in the lower orbit of earth by the satellite launch vehicle SLV-3 developed in India.

n
The development of the second generation of the launch vehicle started with the series of ‘Augmented
satellite launch vehicles’ (ASLV) that was the developed form of SLV. They are capable of carrying a satellite

a
of weight up to 150 kg. There were two unsuccessful launching of it in 1987 and 1988. Indian scientists did
intense analysis of the two failures and made major improvement. On 20th May 1992, ASLV - D3 successfully

h
established the SROSS - C (Stretched Rohini Series Satellite - C) of weight 106 kg in the lower orbit the
earth. In May 1994, SROSS - C2 of Weight 113 kg was established successfully in the lower orbit of the

C
earth by ASLV - D4.

_
l The success of these launching move forwarded the Indian scientists steps for the development of Polar
satellite launch vehicle (PSLV). Satellites of weight up to 1000 kg can be established into Polar Sun

e
Synchronous Orbit with the help of it. The first developmental flight of this vehicle PSLV - D 1 was not
successful but by establishing an Indian remote sensing satellite IRS - P2 of weight 870 Kg in polar sun
synchronous orbit by the successful launching of PSLV - D2 on 1511 October 1994, India was included in the

im
list of few countries which have a capacity to launch a satellite of weight up to 1000 Kg. After this IRS- P3
from PSLV-D3 in 1996 and IRS - 1 D from PSLV - C 1 in 1997 were launched successfully. On 26th May

T
1999, India launched three satellites from PSLV - C2. In these three satellites, with Indian remote sensing
satellite IRS - P4 , Kitsat - 3 of South Korea and DIR Tubsat of Japan was included. This was the first

y
launching of foreign satellite from the India. This way Indian entered into the commercial flight era. In 2002,
first meteorology satellite METSAT (whose name was Kalpana-1 in the honour of Kalpana) from PSLV C4

d
and in 2003 Resource SAT - I from PSLV - C5 launched.

u
l Geosynchronous satellite launch vehicles (GSLV) : The satellite whose orbital period is equal to the

t
period at which the earth rotates (24 hours), looks stable with respect to the earth are called Geostationary
or Geosynchronous satellite. These satellites are orbiting around the earth at an altitude of about

S
36000 km. The geosynchronous satellite's orbit is exactly aligned with the equator. Geostationary satellite's
orbit is also called parking orbit. Geosynchronous satellite launch vehicle (GSLV) is required to place
satellites of this series in Geostationary orbit. GSLV developed with the improvement in the performance of

@
the PSLV. GSLV is a three-staged vehicle. It requires a different type of low-temperature engine, which is
called cryogenic engine. The word cryogenic is a derivative of the Greek Word ‘kyros’ meaning,
"ice cold". Cryogenic technology is related to the temperature that is much lower then 0°C. In GSLV, liquefied
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fuel (liquid hydrogen) is used instead of fuel in the form of solid or liquid at normal temperature. Liquefied
fuel produces more thrust than the solid or liquid fuel of same quantity. Therefore engine is more capable
to carry heavy weight for larger distances. Super cooled liquid hydrogen is used as fuel and liquid oxygen is
used as oxidant in GSLV. Hydrogen and Oxygen liquify at –253 °C and – 183 °C respectively. It is important
to maintain the temperature obtained in liquid form during the flight time. That is why the technology of
cryogenic engine is more difficult.
l India faced many difficulties to get the cryogenic engine technology from other countries. Finally, Indian
scientists accepted the challenge by developing cryogenic engine within the country and on 18th April 2001
India successfully launched its first cryogenic engin based launch vehicle GSLV-D1. After that GSLV- D2
established a telecommunication satellite GSAT-2 of weight 1800 kg in Geostationary orbit successfully on
8th May 2003. On 20th Sept 2004, India-made Geostationary satellite EDUSAT of weight 950 kg was
launched successfully with GSLV-F1 from Shriharikota for the purpose of extension of education. After this
successful mission of Indian space programme, India was included in the "Elite group of five countries (America,
China, Russia, Japan and European union), who are capable in launching a Geostationary satellite.

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 Class X
l Indian space scientist - Kalpana Chawla : Kalpana Chawla was the first woman astronaut of Indian
origin.
} She was born on 1st July 1961 in Karnal city of Haryana.
} She completed her post graduation in Aerospace engineering from Texas university in 1984 and Ph.D in
1988 from Colorado university. She got married to flight instructor Jean Piere Harrison.

l
} In 1994, NASA selected Kalpana as an astronaut. On 19th Nov 1997, her first space journey was

e
started in Coloumbia spacecraft.
} In 2000, Kalpana was selected for her second space journey. But this mission was delayed because of

n
technical and management problems.
} Finally, on 16th January 2003, Kalpana started her second space flight in Columbia space craft. Kalpana

n
did research on the effect of weightlessness on many physical systems.

a
} After successful mission of 16 days on 1st February 2003, just few minutes before landing on space center
at Florida, Columbia spacecraft broke into pieces due to accident. The whole world was shocked.

h
} After Kalpana’s death, a new Indian weather related satellite was named Kalpana-1 in her honour. Small

C
star 51826 was also named ‘Kalpana Chawla’. NASA has named one supercomputer ‘Kalpana’. Newyork
74 street name was changed to ‘Kalpana Chawla Way’.

_
l Sunita Williams : Sunita Williams is an American astronaut of Indian origin.

e
} She is the second woman of Indian origin to have been selected by NASA for a space mission after
Kalpana Chawla.
} She was born on 19th September 1965 at Euclid-Ohio in America.

im
} American Space Agency NASA selected her in June 1998 and she began her Astronaut Candidate
training at the Johnson Space Center in August 1998.

T
} Sunita's shuttle's name was "Discovery", launched on December 10, 2006. She served as a mission

y
specialist on STS-117. On January 31, February 4 and 9, 2007 she completed three space walks from the
ISS with Michael Lopez Algeria. She spent 6 hours and 40 minutes in her third space walk and 29 hours and

d
17 minutes till her fourth space walk eclipsing the record held by Kathryn C. Thornton for most space walk

u
time by a woman. She returned to Earth on June 22, 2007, at the end of the STS-117 mission after setting

t
a record of 195 days stay in space.
} Sunita also set the world record for a female astronaut on spacewalks, totaling 29 hours and 17 minutes.

S
As of November 2012, she has made seven spacewalks totaling 50 hours and 40 minutes, putting her in No.
5 on the list of most experienced spacewalkers.

@
} She holds the records for the longest single space flight by a woman (195 days), total spacewalks by a
woman (seven), and most spacewalk time for a woman (50 hours, 40 minutes).
l India's Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) : The MOM probe or Mangalyaan lifted-off from the launch pad at
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Satish Dhawan Space Centre SHAR, Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh, using a PSLV rocket C25 on November
5, 2013.
} The MOM probe spent about a month in Earth's orbit, where it made a series of seven altitude-raising
orbital manoeuvres before the transfer of MOM away from Earth's orbit and on heliocentric trajectory toward
Mars (trans-Mars injection) on November 30, 2013.
} The probe is now travelling a distance of 484 million miles (780 million km) to reach Mars.
} The spacecraft is being currently monitored from the Spacecraft Control Centre at ISRO Telemetry,
Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC) in Bangalore.
} One of the main objectives of the first Indian mission to Mars is to develop the technologies required for
design, planning, management and operations of an interplanetary mission.
} It is India's first interplanetary mission and if successful, ISRO would become the fourth space agency to
reach Mars, after the Soviet space program, NASA, and European Space Agency.

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 Physics

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE
1. Study of heavenly bodies is called 14. Which is the incorrect statement about the planet
Venus?
(1) Astrology (2) Astronomy
(1) It is the brightest planet visible from Earth.
(3) Aeronautics (4) Cosmography
(2) It rotates faster on its axis than Earth.

l
2. Who among the following gave geocentric model (3) Its rotation is retrograde i.e. clockwise unlike Earth.
of the universe ? (4) It is also called “morning star” or “evening star”.

e
(1) Newton (2) Einstein 15. Which is the wrong statement about the planet Mars?
(3) Hipparchus (4) Ptolemy (1) It is also called the “Red Planet”.

n
3. Light year is the unit of (2) Its atmosphere has 95% CO2 like that of Venus.
(1) Time (2) Mass (3) Its orbital period around the Sun is less than

n
(3) Distance (4) Speed of light that of Earth.
(4) It has two small moons named Phobos and Deimos.

a
4. Which of the following units is the largest ?
(1) Light year (2) Fermi 16. Which planet has highest gravitational force in Solar
System?

h
(3) A.U. (4) Parsec
(1) Mars (2) Saturn
5. Sunlight nearly takes 8 minutes to reach the earth.
(3) Jupiter (4) Neptune

C
The distance of sun from earth is
17. The Great Red Spot is found on the
(1) 1.44 × 108 km (2) 1.44 × 105 km

_
(1) Moon (2) Mars
(3) 2.4 × 1010 km (4) 2.4 × 106 km (3) Venus (4) Jupiter

e
6. Mass of the sun is of the order of 18. Which is the false statement about the planet Saturn?
(1) 1020 kg (2) 1024 kg (1) It has a magnificent system of planetary rings
(3) 10 kg27
(4) 1030 kg around it.

im
7. Milky way is (2) It spins much faster on its axis than Earth.
(1) A planet of our solar system (3) Its average density is even less than that of water.
(2) A sun (4) It is one of the inferior planets of our solar system.

T
(3) One of the solar systems 19. Which planet rolls on its sides while orbiting the Sun?
(1) Uranus (2) Mars

y
(4) One of the solar galaxies of universe
(3) Venus (4) Neptune
8. The galaxy in which we live is
20. Which of the following has the maximum time of

d
(1) Spiral galaxy (2) Elliptical galaxy
revolution around the sun ?
(3) Irregular galaxy (4) None of these (1) Earth (2) Venus

u
9. In the Milky Way galaxy, the solar system is believed (3) Neptune (4) Mercury

t
to be located 21. Which of the following is not a member of our Solar
(1) in one of the spiral arms halfway from the centre System?

S
of the disk to the edge (1) An asteroid (2) A satellite
(2) high above the plane of the galaxy's disk (3) A constellation (4) A comet

@
(3) in the black hole at the center 22. The small pieces of rock revolving round the sun
(4) between the spiral arms at the outer edge of between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter are called
the galaxy disk (1) Meteors (2) Asteroids
10. There is no atomsphere on moon because (3) Comets (4) Meteoroids
23.
Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\10th\Advance\CCP\Physics-1\12 Miscellaneous (Ex.) .p65

(1) There is no vegetation The tail of a comet points

(1) Towards the sun (2) Away from the sun
(2) There is vacuum is space
(3) In arbitrary direction (4) Away from the earth
(3) The escape velocity at its surface is very low
24. Halley's comet was seen in India in 1986. It is
(4) Diffusion constant of gases is high expected to be visible again in the year
11. Which of the following is a star nearest to the (1) 2052 (2) 2062
earth ? (3) 2072 (4) 2082
(1) Milky Way (2) Alpha Centauri 25. Which one of the following statements regarding
(3) Moon (4) Meteoroid shooting stars is incorrect ?
12. Which is the smallest planet which is also nearest (1) They are meteors
to the Sun? (2) They are the debris which got separated from
(1) Mars (2) Venus a comet
(3) Mercury (4) Uranus (3) They emit light due to extremely high
13. Before sunrise, Mercury can be seen in the direction temperature caused by friction while they are
passing through earth's atmosphere
(1) East (2) West
(4) They are a kind of stars
(3) North (4) South
135
 Class X
26. According to modern astronomers, into how many 39. The short name of the institution related to the space
constellations is the whole sky divided ? programme in India is
(1) 1011 (2) 88 (1) BARC (2) CAT
(3) 880 (4) 5000 (3) SHAR (4) BEL
27. The surface temperature is maximum for 40. Which is the first satellite designed and constructed
(1) Blue star (2) Yellow star in India?

l
(3) Green star (4) Red star (1) APPLE (2) Bhaskar
28. In a star if all gases get exhausted, its (3) Rohini (4) Aryabhatta

e
(1) Size decreases and temperature increases 41. Which is the first experimental telecommunication
(2) Size decreases and temperature decreases satellite developed in India?

n
(3) Size increases and temperature increases (1) APPLE (2) Bhaskar
(4) Size increases and temperature decreases (3) Rohini (4) INSAT-1B

n
29. An exploding star is called 42. Which is the first multi-purpose satellite developed
(1) Nova (2) Supernova in India?

a
(3) Protostar (4) Neutron star (1) IRS-1A (2) Bhaskar
30. A spinning neutron star is known as (3) Rohini (4) INSAT-1B

h
(1) Uranus (2) Mars 43. Which is the first remote sensing satellite developed
(3) Venus (4) Neptune in India?

C
31. Which Indian scientist contributed to the study of (1) IRS-1A (2) Bhaskar
structure and evolution of stars ? (3) Rohini (4) INSAT-1B

_
(1) S.N. Bose (2) Meghnad Saha 44. Which is the first launch vehicle of India?
(1) SLV-3 (2) ASLV-C3

e
(3) C.V. Raman (4) S. Chandra Shekhar
32. Black hole is (3) PSLV-D1 (4) GSLV-D1
(1) Hole in the ozone layer of atomosphere 45. Which technology is used in GSLV engine which
maintains liquefied fuel at very low temperatures?

im
(2) Hole in earth's centre
(3) Highly dense matter available in the universe (1) Pyrogenic (2) Autogenic
(4) Hole in troposhere (3) Refrigenic (4) Cryogenic
46. Which Geostationary satellite was launched for the

T
33. The name black hole is given because
(1) It is part of space which has no matter purpose of extension of education in India?

y
(2) It is completely made up of carbon (1) TEACHINDIA (2) EDUINDIA
(3) Its gravity is so high that it prevents even (3) EDUSAT (4) IGNOU

d
light to radiate into space 47. Who was the first Indian to go into space?
(4) It is a star which does not emit visible radiations (1) Arya Bhatt (2) Rakesh Sharma

u
34. Pick out the correct statement (3) Rakesh Verma (4) Bhaskaracharya

t
(1) The phenomenon of expanding universe 48. Who was the first Indian woman to go into space?
contradicts Big-Bang theory. (1) Mallika Sarabhai (2) Sunita Sharma

S
(2) A star of mass 1.4 times greater than that of the (3) Sunita Williams (4) Kalpana Chawla
Sun ultimately collapses to form a black hole. 49. In which space shuttle did Kalpana Chawla die after
(3) Doppler effect is used to measure the mass of it met with a disaster in February 2003?

@
celestial objects. (1) Columbia (2) Apollo
(4) Surface temperature of a Red star is greater (3) Challenger (4) Messenger
than that of a Blue star. 50. Which satellite was renamed Kalpana-1 in the
35. The universe is honour of Kalpana Chawla?
Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\10th\Advance\CCP\Physics-1\12 Miscellaneous (Ex.) .p65

(1) Contracting (2) Expanding (1) IRS-1A (2) INSAT-1B

(3) Infinite (4) Constant in size (3) Rohini (4) METSAT
36. 'Theory of expanding universe' is given by 51. Which Indian-born American astronaut holds the
(1) Stephen Hawking (2) Galileo Galilei record of longest single space flight by a woman
(3) Edwin Hubble (4) S. Chandra Shekhar (195 days), total spacewalks by a woman (7) and
37. Which organisation carries out space research most spacewalk time for a woman (50 hrs 40 min)?
programmes in India? (1) Mallika Sarabhai (2) Sunita Sharma
(1) DRDO (2) ISO (3) Sunita Williams (4) Kalpana Chawla
(3) NASA (4) ISRO 52. Which is the Indian astrophysicist after whom an X-
38. Who is known as the “Founding Father” of Indian ray Telescope has been named?
Space Programme? (1) Bhaskaracharya
(1) Sir C V Raman (2) Subramanyan Chandrasekhar
(2) J R D Tata
(3) Jayant Vishnu Narlikar
(3) Dr Vikram A Sarabhai
(4) Dr A P J Abdul Kalam (4) Arya Bhatt

136
 Physics
53. Which is the first Indian planetary science and 68. Which scientist discovered and proved that
exploration mission to Moon? electricity and magnetism are related phenomena?
(1) Luna-1 (2) Chandra-1 (1) Michael Faraday
(3) Chandrama-1 (4) Chandrayaan-1 (2) Joseph Henry
54. Which is India’s first Mars Orbiter Mission launched (3) Hans Christian Oersted
in November 2013? (4) James Clark Maxwell

l
(1) Mars-1 (2) Mangalyaan-1 69. Which scientist demonstrated that two current
(3) Brihaspati-1 (4) Buddhyaan-1

e
carrying parallel wires attracted or repelled each
55. Which is the first artificial satellite launched in the other depending on whether the currents flowing

n
world? through them are in same or opposite directions ?
(1) Sputnik-1 (2) Explorer-1 (1) Hans Christian Oersted

n
(3) Aryabhatta (4) Vostok-1 (2) Andre Marie Ampere
56. Who was the first person to go into space? (3) James Clark Maxwell

a
(1) Alan Shepard (2) Neil Armstrong (4) Michael Faraday
(3) Yuri Gagarin (4) Edwin Aldrin 70. The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction was

h
57. Who was the first woman to go into space? discovered by
(1) Maria Sharapova (2) Kalpana Chawla (1) Lenz (2) Maxwell

C
(3) Sunita Williams (4) Valentina Tereshkova (3) Fleming (4) Faraday
58. The first living creature to orbit the Earth was a

_
71. Who invented transformer ?
(1) cat named Kitty
(1) Michael Faraday (2) Alexander Fleming

e
(2) monkey named Albert
(3) James Maxwell (4) Joseph Henry
(3) dog named Laika
72. The 'principle of least time' states that out of all
(4) rabbit named Bunny
possible paths that light might travel to get from

im
59. The first remote celestial object to be flown by,
one point to another, it travels the path that requires
orbited and landed upon by a spacecraft, and ever the shortest time. Who gave this principle ?
visited by humans is the

T
(1) Pierre Curie (2) Pierre Fermat
(1) Moon (2) Mars
(3) Christian Huygens (4) De Broglie
(3) Venus (4) Jupiter

y
73. Telescope was first invented by
60. The first manned landing on Moon was made by
(1) Hans Lippershay (2) Galileo

d
the spacecraft
(1) Sputnik-1 (2) Explorer-1 (3) Copernicus (4) Sir Isaac Newton
74.

u
(3) Luna-10 (4) Apollo-11 Microscope was invented by

t
61. Who was the first person to land on Moon? (1) Hans Lippershay (2) Z. Janssen
(1) Michael Collins (2) Neil Armstrong (3) Sir Isaac Newton (4) Christian Huygens

S
(3) Yuri Gagarin (4) Edwin Aldrin 75. Who invented diesel engine ?
62. Who invented lightning conductor ? (1) Adolf Diesel (2) Rudolf Diesel
(1) Benjamin Franklin (2) Thomas Alva Edison (3) Wilbur Wright (4) James Watt

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(3) James Watt (4) Albert Einstein 76. Instrument used to measure wind speed is
63. Who invented electric battery ? (1) Speedometer (2) Barometer
(1) Andre Marie Ampere (2) Alessandro Volta (3) Altimeter (4) Anemometer
Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\10th\Advance\CCP\Physics-1\12 Miscellaneous (Ex.) .p65

(3) Georg Simon Ohm (4) Michael Faraday 77. Electron was discovered by
64. Who invented galvanometer ? (1) Neils Bohr (2) J.J Thomson
(1) Michael Faraday (2) Nikola Tesla (3) James Chadwick (4) Ernest Rutherford
(3) Andre Marie Ampere (4) Alessandro Volta 78. James Chadwick discovered
65. Who invented electric bulb ?
(1) Atom (2) Electron
(1) Albert Einstein (2) James Joule
(3) Proton (4) Neutron
(3) James Watt (4) Thomas Alva Edison
79. The process of controlled nuclear fission was given by
66. Superconductivity was discovered by
(1) James Chadwick (2) John Dalton
(1) Andre-Marie Ampere
(2) Heike Kammerlingh Onnes (3) Enrico Fermi (4) Heisenberg
(3) Georg Simon Ohm 80. Who invented atom bomb ?
(1) Albert Einstein
(4) Nikola Tesla
(2) Edward Teller
67. Laws of electrolysis are given by
(3) J. Robert Oppenheimer
(1) Faraday (2) Maxwell
(4) Thomas Edison
(3) Lenz (4) Bohr
137
 Class X
81. Who proposed that enormous amount of heat in 91. Sir Isaac Newton formulated
the Sun is due to nuclear fusion reactions occurring (1) Laws of Motion (2) Laws of Gravitation
in the Sun ? (3) Calculus (4) All of these
(1) Albert Einstein 92. Fountain pen was invented by
(2) Henry Becquerel (1) J. Reynolds (2) John J. Loud
(3) Hans Bethe (3) Lewis E. Waterman (4) Torricelli

l
(4) Hans Christian Oersted 93. Barometer was invented by
82. Hydrogen bomb was invented by (1) Archimedes (2) Evangelista Torricelli

e
(1) Albert Einstein (3) Sir Isaac Newton (4) Galileo Galilei
(2) Edward Teller 94. The Greek scientist, Archimedes, had given

n
(3) J.Robert Oppenheimer (1) Principle of reversibility of light
(4) Thomas Edison (2) Principle of buoyancy

n
83. Who discovered the radioactive element radium ? (3) Principle of levers
(1) Henry Becquerel (2) Neils Bohr (4) Both (2) and (3)

a
(3) J. J. Thomson (4) Marie Curie 95. The hydraulic brakes used in automobiles is a direct
84. X-rays were discovered by application of

h
(1) James Chadwick (2) H Yukawa (1) Newton's Law of Motion
(3) W. C. Roentgen (4) Marie Curie (2) Toricellian Law

C
85. Who predicted the existence and nature of (3) Pascal's Law
electromagnetic waves, and later suggested that (4) Archimede's Principle

_
light itself is a form of electromagnetic wave ? 96. Study of sound is called

e
(1) Heinrich Hertz (2) Michael Faraday (1) Sonography (2) Aurology
(3) James Clerk Maxwell (4) Christian Huygens (3) Acoustics (4) Aerodynamics
86. The German scientist who generated electromagnetic 97. Microphone was invented by

im
waves was (1) J.L. Baird
(1) Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (2) G. Marconi (2) James Maxwell
(3) W. C. Roentgen (4) Ernest Rutherford (3) Heinrich Hertz

T
87. Who invented thermometer ? (4) Alexander Graham Bell
(1) Galileo Galilei (2) Fahrenheit 98. Loudspeaker was invented by

y
(3) Sir John Kelvin (4) James P. Joule (1) Horace Short
88. Device used to regulate the temperature to a (2) Alexander Graham Bell

d
particular degree is called (3) Thomas Edison
(1) Thermometer (2) Thermograph (4) John L. Loud

u
(3) Thermostat (4) Thermos 99. Alexander Graham Bell is credited with the

t
89. Who invented the pendulum clock ? invention of
(1) Christian Huygens (2) Thomas Alva Edison (1) Television (2) Telegraph

S
(3) Leonardo Da Vinci (4) Benjamin Franklin (3) Telescope (4) Telephone
90. Who invented aeroplane ? 100. Which scientist introduced the concept of “Nano-
(1) Benjamin Franklin technology”?

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(2) Neil Armstrong (1) Richard P. Feynman
(3) Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright (2) K. Eric Drexler
(4) J R D Tata (3) Richard E. Smalley
(4) Robert F. Curl
Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\10th\Advance\CCP\Physics-1\12 Miscellaneous (Ex.) .p65

ANSWER KEY
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 4 3 4 1 4 4 1 1 3 2 3 1 2 3 3 4 4 1 3
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 3 2 2 2 4 2 1 2 2 1 4 3 3 2 2 3 4 3 3 4
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 1 4 1 1 4 3 2 4 1 4 3 2 4 2 1 3 4 3 1 4
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 2 1 2 3 4 2 1 3 2 4 1 2 1 2 2 4 2 4 3 3
Que. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 3 2 4 3 3 1 1 3 1 3 4 3 2 4 3 3 4 1 4 1

138
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