N.J. Cook & C.L. Ciobanu (Eds.

), 2004
Au-Ag-telluride Deposits of the Golden Quadrilateral, Apuseni Mts., Romania
Guidebook of the International Field Workshop of IGCP project 486,
Au Ag Te Alba Iulia, Romania, 31 August –7 September 2004
IAGOD Guidebook Series 11

2. GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF THE APUSENI MOUNTAINS WITH

EMPHASIS ON THE NEOGENE MAGMATISM – A REVIEW

Ioan Seghedi
Romanian Academy, Institute of Geodynamics "Sabba S. Stefanescu",
19-21 Jean-Louis Calderon Str., 020032 Bucharest 37, Romania

Abstract: The geological and structural history of the Apuseni Mountains is reviewed with special emphasis
on the Neogene and associated magmatic activity. Pre-Neogene geological evolution divided the Apuseni
Mountains into two main units: (1) The North Apuseni composed of an Early Proterozoic Variscan
basement, basement-cover and cover nappes (pre-Alpine, ranging from Late-Permian to Early Cretaceous)
and (2) The South Apuseni representing the largest Middle Jurassic ophiolitic sequence of the Carpathians,
Late Jurassic calc-alkaline magmatic rocks and late Jurassic to Late Cretaceous sedimentary deposits stacked
within several north-verging nappes. The Alpine orogeny between Early Aptian to Late Maastrichtian
generated a large tectonic shear zone at the southern part of The North Apuseni (Highis-Biharia) and
thrusting of The South Apuseni over The North Apuseni nappes. Late Cretaceous-Paleogene banatitic
magmatism, partly coeval with extensional Gosau basin development, and trending N-S, crosses through all
the tectonic units. Miocene evolution is marked by the generation of WNW-ESE graben-like basins, which
mainly affected the western part of North and South Apuseni Units, as a consequence of a rapid block
rotation. Miocene magmatism was developed within such extensional conditions.
The “subduction signature“ of the Neogene magmas, along with adakite-like features and large source
variability, suggests significant involvement of fluids. Decompressional melting during the block extension
of a heterogeneous source situated at the crust-lithosphere mantle boundary may be the mechanism of
magmagenesis. The short episode of Pliocene shoshonitic magmatism is asthenosphere-derived and almost
coeval with the alkali-basaltic magmatism that occurs in the southwestern part of Apuseni Mountains, along
the South Transylvanian fault system.

Pre-Neogene development and Alpine structures

Based on their different pre-Alpine geological evolution (e.g., Ianovici et al., 1976; Bleahu et al.,
1981; Sandulescu, 1984; Dimitrescu, 1988; Balintoni, 1994, 1997; Dallmeyer et al., 1999, Pana et
al., 2002a), the Apuseni Mts. can be divided in two main structural units, The North Apuseni
(Highis-Drocea, Codru-Moma, Bihor, Gilau, Padurea Craiului, Vladeasa, Plopis, Meses Mountains)
and a The South Apuseni (Metaliferi and Trascau Mountains), (Fig. 1).
6 GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF THE APUSENI MOUNTAINS

Fig. 1. General outline of

the Apuseni Mountains,
showing the main
geographical sub-
NA divisions and the
geological division
between The North
Apuseni (NA) and The
South Apuseni (SA) units

SA

The North Apuseni Mts. are composed of various basement tectonic units, made up of Early
Proterozoic metamorphic rocks (mostly from high-grade metamorphic sequences) and associated
granites (Late Cambrian ~502–490 Ma, Middle to Late Devonian ~372–364 Ma and Early Permian
~278–264 Ma), with a Permo-Mesozoic sedimentary and volcanic cover (e.g., Stan, 1987;
Dallmeyer et al., 1999, Pana et al., 2002a).
They delineate a system of nappes (Bihor, Codru, Highis-Drocea, Biharia, Baia de Aries), named
the Inner Dacides (Sandulescu, 1984), well correlated with Western Carpathians and Eastern Alps.
These nappes have been juxtaposed during Late Paleozoic (Variscan) orogenic activity (when they
recorded three distinct tectonic phases at mid-crustal levels) (Fig. 2). Alpine tectonic activity
records a crustal shortening during the Turonian, followed by a sealing episode involving deposition
of formations within Gosau-type basins during the Senonian.
 GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF THE APUSENI MOUNTAINS 7

Fig. 2. Structural map of the

metamorphic units of The North
Apuseni Mountains, compiled by
Tatu (1998) after Dimitrescu, 1988,
with modifications. About the same
shear zone (GBHSZ) was named
Highis-Biharia Shear Zone (HBSZ)
by Dallmeyer et al. (1999), Pana et
al. (2002a).

The southern basement units of The North Apuseni Mts. record only younger Alpine events, in a
north-vergent thrusting shear zone and concomitant low-grade metamorphism, which marks the
separation of North and South Apuseni (Dallmeyer et al., 1999, Pana et al., 2002a). Here, older
Variscan events have been erased, with a climactic phase of compression during Aptian-Albian.
Extending 150 km from the western end of the Highis Mts. to the northeastern part of the Gilau
Mts., and varying in thickness between 5 and 20 km, this tectonic shear zone is developed mainly
on the Highis and Biharia units. However, it also affects the neighbouring Bihor, Codru and Baia de
Aries units, showing a heterogeneous composition with the major lithological entities developed
parallel to the shear zone boundaries (e.g., Pana and Erdmer, 1994; Tatu, 1998; Dallmeyer et al.
1999; Pana et al., 2002a) (Fig. 2).
The South Apuseni Mts. (SAM) includes Middle Jurassic ophiolites, Late Jurassic calc-alkaline
volcanic rocks and Late Jurassic to Late Cretaceous sedimentary deposits. The SAM include the
largest ophiolitic sequence of the Carpathians, determined as a prolongation of the Vardar zone of
the Dinaric ophiolitic belt, from which they are now separated by South Transylvanian fault system
(e.g., Andjelkovic and Lupu, 1967 in Zacher and Lupu, 1999; Savu, 1996; Saccani et al., 2001;
Bortolotti et al., 2002; Nicolae and Saccani, 2003). They are stacked within several individual
nappes (Capîlnas-Techereu, Fenes, Valea Mica-Galda, Bedeleu, Rimetea) (e.g., Lupu, 1976; Bleahu
et al., 1981), collectively named as Transylvanides (Sandulescu, 1984) or Mures Nappe complex
(Bortolotti et al., 2002) (Fig. 3). Calc-alkaline effusive and intrusive rocks pierced the ophiolitic
basement during Late Jurassic times (Stefan, 1986; Nicolae, 1995). A U/Pb zircon age of 153.1 +/-
0.6 Ma is inferred for the Savîrsin granite by Pana et al., (2002b), suggesting an island arc
magmatic activity developed in an intra-oceanic setting (Nicolae and Saccani, 2003).
8 GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF THE APUSENI MOUNTAINS

Two folding phases are recognised between the Early Aptian to Late Maastrichtian in the Fenes
Unit, which incorporate burial at 8-10 km depth, followed by an exhumation at shallow levels
(Ellero et al., 2002), also marking thrusting over the Bihor, Codru, and Biharia complexes of The
North Apuseni Mountains, where the aforementioned wide shear zone gradually accommodated the
Alpine compression (Dallmeyer et al. 1999, Pana et al, 2002a).
The subsequent Late Cretaceous-Paleogene "banatitic" magmatism developed along a N-S
alignment crossing through all the tectonic units of the Apuseni Mountains, the western part of the
South Carpathians and Dinarides (e.g., Stefan et al., 1992; Berza et al., 1998). This was partly
coeval with Gosau basin development, whose related extensional faults facilitated emplacement of
the magmas. The timing of "banatitic" magmatic activity in the Apuseni Mountains was between
65-80 Ma, showing an duration of 25 –30 million years, similar to all other segment of the belt
(Ciobanu et al., 2002). The volcano-plutonic Vladeasa Massif is most characteristic, built by a
volcano-sedimentary formation, andesitic, dacitic lava flows and ignimbritic rhyolites, all crosscut
by diorite and monzogranite intrusions, as intrusive bodies can be found in Drocea, Bihor, Gilau
and Trascau Mountains (e.g., Stefan et al., 1992). In The South Apuseni Mountains a volcano-
sedimentary formation, largely developed in Baita-Sacarâmb and Zlatna areas, named the Fata Baii
Formation, composed of polymictic conglomerates, sandstone and red shales, interbedded with
andesites and rhyolites, formerly considered as Lower Miocene (Ghitulescu and Socolescu, 1941)
has been subsequently established as Maastrichtian-Paleocene (Borcos et al., 1989) [see also
Chapter 3 where there will be some more discussion about the Fata Baii Fm.].
Post-Paleocene tectonic uplift of the whole area interrupted sedimentation until it resumed in Early-
Middle Miocene times. The Miocene evolution of the Apuseni Mts. is related to brittle tectonics
(Royden, 1988; Sandulescu, 1988), mainly marked by complex extensional graben-like structures,
opened mostly along the western edges of the Apuseni Mountains. From the Badenian onwards, the
Apuseni Mts. remained as a high relief segment, upstanding after the general subsidence of the
Pannonian Basin and early Transylvanian basins. Development of the Neogene volcanism was
closely related to extensional processes, as suggested by the relationship with coexistent
sedimentary strata in Zarand Basin (e.g., Badenian pelagic marls with Globigerina with
intercalations of distal facies rhyodacitic tuffs are widely developed, or Sarmatian Leitha limestones
covering andesites formations) (e.g., Ghitulescu and Socolescu, 1941; Ianovici et al., 1969 and
references therein). Radiometric ages and magnetic polarity data show agreement with
biostratigraphic data (Pécskay et al., 1995a; Rosu et al., 1997, 2001).
From Pliocene to recent, the Apuseni Mountains were gradually eroded (ca. 1000 m), that led to an
isostatic uplift of ca. 300-500 m (Sanders, 1998).
 GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF THE APUSENI MOUNTAINS 9

Fig. 3. Structural map of Apuseni Mountains compiled and simplified after Dumitrescu and Sandulescu (1976)
(redrawn by I. Gheuca in 1998). For The South Apuseni Mountains modifications have been made after Saccani et al.
(2001), Rosu (2001), Pana et al. (2002b), Nicolae and Saccani, (2003).
Legend: 1. Neogene Magmatites, 2. Upper Cretaceous-Paleocene Magmatites (Banatites), 3. Upper Jurassic Granitoids.
The North Apuseni Units: 4. Biharia Nappe Complex, 5. Codru Nappe Complex, 6. Bihor Nappe Complex.
The South Apuseni Units (Transylvanide): 7. Tholeiitic Ophiolites, Calc-alkaline Island Arc Magmatites and, in
places, Upper Jurassic Limestone, 8. Cretaceous Sedimentary Rocks, 9. Supragetic Units, 10. South Transylvanian Fault
system.
South Apuseni Nappe system: Cr: Cris Nappe, C-T: Capîlnas-Techereu Nappe, Fe: Fenes Nappe, VM-G: Valea Mica-
Galda Nappe, Be: Bedeleu Nappe, Ri: Rimetea Nappe.

Geodynamics

The Apuseni Mountains (Romania), areas along the Mecsek and Villany Mts. (Hungary) and in the
Slavonian Inselberg (Croatia), represent outcrop areas of a major Intra-Carpathian terrane, called
Tisza (e.g., Csontos, 1995) or Tisia (herefter, e.g., Brezsnyansky et al., 2000), defined by tectono-
stratigraphic similarities (e.g., peculiar Mesozoic nappes according to Kazmer, 1986; Bleahu et al.,
1996). The substratum of the intra-Carpathian areas is composed mainly from an assemblage of
different continental blocks, generally referred to as the Alcapa, Tisia and Dacia blocks (e.g., Balla,
1984, Csontos et al., 1992). The Alcapa block is located in the northernmost area of the Pannonian
10 GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF THE APUSENI MOUNTAINS

Basin, whereas the Tisia and Dacia blocks occur in the southernmost regions. The Alcapa block is
separated from the Tisia block by the mid-Hungarian line attached to both terranes and site of major
across-strike shortening and along-strike elongation, probably active since the Cretaceous.
Tisia and Dacia blocks are regarded as microplates with different Mesozoic tectonic histories as
reflected in paleomagnetic data (Surmont et al., 1990; Patrascu et al., 1994). Tisia-Dacia crustal
block resulted from Early to Mid-Cretaceous collision as suggested by crustal thickening and nappe
stacking in the Apuseni Mountains (e.g., Balintoni 1997; Dallmeyer et al., 1999) and South
Carpathians (e.g., Berza et al., 1994). Geological data suggest that the Alcapa and Tisia blocks were
derived from the northernmost edge of the Adria (=Apulia) plate (e.g., Sandulescu, 1994).
However, the geodynamic evolution of these blocks translated and rotated during the Neogene, is
still open to debate (e.g., Csontos, 1995; Fodor et al., 1999; Neugebauer et al., 2001; Csontos et al.,
2002).

Tectonic reconstruction of the Carpathian-Pannonian region (e.g., Csontos, 1995; Fodor et al.,
1999; Huismans et al., 2001) suggest that the Apuseni Mountains, as part of the Tisia lithospheric
block, experienced during Early to Middle Miocene eastward translation, along with the Alcapa
block (Fig. 4). This process constituted the active driving force of the intra-Carpathian blocks
dominated by the subduction-retreat processes, collision and consequent orogenesis (Royden, 1988;
Sandulescu, 1988; Royden and Burchfiel, 1989; Csontos et al., 1992; Csontos, 1995). Important
opposite-sense rotations occurred between the two continental blocks at the end of this interval.
According to paleomagnetic data during Eocene-Early Miocene times, the Tisia block experienced
~ 20o clockwise rotation (Patrascu et al., 1994; Panaiotu, 1998) at the same time as the Alcapa
block underwent counterclockwise rotation (Márton and Márton, 1996). However, the Apuseni Mts
and the Mecsek-Villany areas, as parts of Tisia, underwent different rotations during this period
(Csontos et al., 2002). This produced internal deformations, such as across-strike thrust faults, e.g.,
the Meses fault (see Fig. 3), on the NE margins of the Apuseni Mts (e.g., Balintoni, 1994), since the
eastern parts of Tisia (Apuseni) was less rotated than the central parts.
Since the Middle Miocene, Apuseni Mountains underwent very fast clockwise rotation (~60o). This
rotation started around 14 Ma, diminished at 13 Ma to around 28o, and ceased at around 12 Ma
(Panaiotu, 1998, 1999). Between 14-12 Ma, only the northeastern part of Alcapa was subject to
continuous rigid counterclockwise block rotations from 50o to 20o (Panaiotu, 1998, Márton et al.,
2000). The large clockwise rotation of the Apuseni part and non-rotation of the Mecsek-Villany
area generated across-strike normal faults operating during Badenian-Early Pannonian (e.g.,
Csontos et al., 2002). As a result, extensions with NW-SE occurred along the western border of the
Apuseni Mts. (e.g., Royden, 1988; Sandulescu, 1988; Balintoni and Vlad, 1998). In addition,
graben-like or sphenochasm -like basins have been generated in adjacent areas beneath the Great
Hungarian plain (e.g., Balla, 1984; Györfi and Csontos, 1994). This kind of extension-related
basins, synchronous to the major rotations have settled in the Apuseni both the sedimentary fill and
magmatism since Early Badenian (e.g., Ghitulescu and Socolescu, 1941; Balintoni and Vlad, 1998;
Rosu et al., 2001; Seghedi et al., 1998, 2004). A consequence of this rotation was the synchronous
extensional (Györfi and Csontos, 1994; Tari et al., 1999) and compressional (Huismans et al., 1997;
Ciulavu et al., 2000) deformation, respectively west and east of the Apuseni Mts. This may be
related to the thinning of the lithosphere along the western hinge during counterclockwise rotation
around a pole situated in western Moesia (Csontos and Nogymarosy, 1998), either en-echelon
brittle crustal splitting during fast clockwise rotations (Seghedi et al., 2004). A schematic
geodynamic evolution is given in Csontos et al. (2002; figure 12c) and Seghedi et al. (2004; figure
2b), reproduced here as Fig. 4. The upper figure (Csontos et al., 2002) shows the geodynamic
situation after the end of major rotations in the east (Pannonian time). The differential rotation of
the central and eastern parts of Tisia can be noted, as well as the subsequent graben opening in the
western part of Apuseni Mountains. The lower figure (Seghedi et al., 2004) shows that the related
magmatism in Apuseni Mountains, as part of Tisia, is in close connection with the major rotations
 GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF THE APUSENI MOUNTAINS 11

between 14 to 12 Ma toward east, and subsequent narrow graben-type basin opening. During this
interval, contemporaneous calc-alkaline magmatism also developed in the front of Alcapa and Tisia
(Pécskay et al., 1995a), in direct relationships with rollback and probable breakoff of the subducted
slab (e.g. Nemcok et al., 1998; Seghedi et al., 1998, 2001, 2004; Wortel and Spackman, 2001).

Fig. 4. Schematic examples of geodynamic

evolution in Carpathian-Pannonian region
during Middle to Late Miocene. The upper
figure is Fig. 12c of Csontos et al. (2002),
showing the geodynamic situation after the
end of major rotations in the east
(Pannonian time). The differential rotation
of the central (black arrow) and eastern
parts (white arrow) of Tisia can be noted, as
well as the graben opening in the western
part of Apuseni Mountains. The lower
figure is Fig 2b of Seghedi et al. (2004),
showing that the related magmatism in Tisia
(Apuseni Mountains) is in close connection
with the major rotations (14-12 Ma) toward
east in the 15.5 to 11 Ma interval, and
subsequent graben-type basin opening.
During this interval, contemporaneous calc-
alkaline magmatism also developed in the
front of Alcapa and Tisia. TTZ- Teisseyre-
Tornquist- Zone

Alcapa

Tisia

During Upper Middle Miocene times (~11 Ma), collision of Tisia took place and retreating
subduction processes ceased due to the introduction of the East European platform into the
deformation system (e.g., Csontos, 1995; Matenco, 1997; Zweigel, 1997).
During the Late Miocene to Recent, stress indicators for the southern part of the Transylvanian
basin and its rims show that an E-W to NW-SE compressive stress prevail, along with an important
isostatic uplift (e.g. Huismans et al., 2001; Ciulavu et al., 2002; Sanders et al., 2002).
12 GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF THE APUSENI MOUNTAINS

Neogene magmatic rocks of SAM

Spatial configuration
The spatial configuration of Neogene magmatic rocks in the SAM suggests roughly a NW-SE
trending evolution of the igneous activity and an association with coeval Miocene sedimentation in
several extension-controlled basins, narrower toward the east (Fig. 5), even though the spatial
occurrence reveals a more complicated pattern. Two main alignments can be noted: one WNW–
ESE trending (between Buteni and Zlatna), as an almost continuous outcropping area of ca. 100 km
long, and a second, ca. 60 km long (between Baia de Aries and Deva), as mostly isolated outcrops
concentrated in the eastern half of the area, which apparently follow a NNE-SSW strike (e.g., Rosu
et al., 2001).

Fig. 5. Geological sketch of South Apuseni Mountains, emphasizing the development of different types of Neogene
magmatic products and associated sediments (simplified after Geological Map of Romania, scale 1.1.000.000; edited by
Sandulescu et al., 1978; Geological Institute of Romania).

Based on available K-Ar determinations, correlation of magnetic polarity data and petrological data
Rosu et al. (in press) have separated, from north to south, the following volcano-intrusive areas: (1)
Baia de Aries, Rosia Montana-Bucium; (2) Zarand, Brad, Zlatna (3) Baita-Sacarâmb and (4) Deva,
which also includes the youngest occurrence at Uroi. In this review we will follow the above-
mentioned separation. It is worth mentioning an additional, isolated, small-scale occurrence at the
northernmost edge of the Apuseni Mts., at Moigrad, located about halfway between the Southern
Apuseni and the Oas-Gutâi Neogene volcanic areas (Stefan et al., 1986; Rosu et al., 2001).

Petrography
Petrographic description of the SAM magmatic rocks has been given by many authors to date (e.g.,
Ghitulescu and Socolescu, 1941; Borcos et al., 1972; Berbeleac, 1975; Savu et al., 1993, 1994;
Rosu et al., in press). According to these authors, the Neogene magmatic rocks in the Apuseni
Mountains range from basaltic-andesites to dacites, with subordinate trachyandesites and associated
intrusive varieties. Andesite is the most common rock-type.
Basaltic andesites are present in the Zarand and Baia de Aries area (Detunata hills). These rocks are
slightly porphyritic, with plagioclase, augite, olivine, resorbed amphibole microphenocrysts and
 GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF THE APUSENI MOUNTAINS 13

microlites of plagioclase and augite, magnetite, ilmenite, olivine, resorbed amphibole and glass in
the groundmass.
Andesites display the largest spectrum of varieties according to texture and phenocryst content. The
most common are: (1) Two-pyroxene andesites (occurring in the Zarand area). The rocks are
normally porphyritic and contain plagioclase, clino- and orthopyroxene phenocrysts, generally
showing corroded and opaque rims; (2) Amphibole ± pyroxene andesites are present, mostly in the
eastern half of the outcropping sector (Bucium, Brad and Zlatna areas). They are largely porphyritic
and have plagioclase, amphibole, clino-orthopyroxene, and sometimes, corroded quartz and
accessory Fe-Ti oxides, apatite, zircon, sulphides and Cr-spinels. Rare garnet can be found at
Zlatna, Bucium and in the Brad areas within this type. (3) Amphibole-biotite ± pyroxene andesites
occur in the Sacarâmb, Deva and Baia de Aries areas. The rocks are largely porphyritic and
principal phenocrysts are plagioclase, quartz, amphibole, biotite, two pyroxenes and the same
accessory minerals as for the amphibole ± pyroxene andesites.
The different types of andesites are generally specific to each individual area, with two pyroxene-
bearing varieties in the west (Zarand), and more acidic, amphibole- and biotite-bearing varieties in
the east (Brad-Zlatna, Baita – Sacarâmb. Amphibole-pyroxene andesites occur mainly in Zarand,
Brad and Zlatna areas. The large presence of hydrous minerals together with the calc-alkaline
characteristics of the rocks emphasises the significant involvement of water in the generation of
magmas.
Dacites have been described at Rosia Montana area or as clasts in volcano - sedimentary deposits
(e.g., Ghitulescu and Socolescu, 1941; Cioflica et al., 1966; Rosu et al., 1997). Even if the rocks
keep their coarse porphyritic textures and a phenocryst assemblage of plagioclase, quartz, biotite
and minor amphibole is observed, they are nevertheless hydrothermally altered (e.g., adularized at
Rosia Montana). The attributed name of these rocks is based only on petrographic observations and
cannot be proved by petrochemical data (as requested), because the rock is hydrothermally altered.
Dacitic composition may occur by the transition of some amphibole-biotite ± pyroxene andesites,
richer in quartz, at Baia de Aries and Sacarâmb areas.
Trachyandesite occur in the Sacarâmb area (Zâmbrita) and in an isolated occurrence near Deva
(Uroi). Zâmbrita trachyandesite is slightly porphyritic, and contains plagioclase, amphibole, two
pyroxenes, biotite and quartz as micro-phenocrysts in a fine groundmass along apatite, zircon,
magnetite, ilmenite and Cr-spinels. The Uroi trachyandesites display a disequilibrium mineral
assemblage containing Ti-augite, hypersthene, amphibole and biotite phenocrysts and accidental
quartz xenocrysts, many with reaction rims.
The intrusive varieties can be described as microdiorites and they have the identical mineralogical
assemblage as the extrusive varieties. Most are, however, affected by processes of hydrothermal
alteration. An exception is a microdiorite in Sacarâmb area (Pârâul lui Toader), which is an alkaline
variety. It contain several generations of plagioclase, amphibole substituted either by clinopyroxene
or an aggregate of clinopyroxene, plagioclase, quartz and biotite, fresh amphibole, clinopyroxene
along apatite, zircon, magnetite, ilmenite and sulphides as accessories.

Volcanic and subvolcanic structures

The evolution of volcanic activity appears very complex regarding the form of volcanic structures
and is specific to each area, in terms of the individual mineralogical and petrological composition of
the extruded magmas. The most complex situation is in Zarand, Brad, Zlatna and Sacarâmb areas,
because of, for example, the numerous vent locations. In contrast, the situation is more simple in
Baia de Aries, Rosia Montana, Bucium and Deva areas, where mostly individual volcanoes or
intrusive bodies can be found. However, modern volcanological study still needs to be carried out in
each of the areas.
14 GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF THE APUSENI MOUNTAINS

Different effusive products have been described so far, as lava or extrusive dome flows, pyroclastic
deposits, volcano-sedimentary deposits, as well as intrusive bodies (dykes, domes, micro-
laccolithes), some of them representing the rooted area of the volcanoes, as well as a large variety
of intrusive breccias (e.g. Borcos in Borcos and Vlad, 1994; Tamas, 2002). The volcanic edifices
have been described as calderas, stratovolcanoes, simple or composite volcanoes and extrusive
domes (e.g., Ianovici et al., 1969, Berbeleac, 1975). Some authors considered that in most cases the
volcanoes preserve less than a third of their superstructure, as they were affected by an intense
erosion activity (Sacarâmb area), but some domes have preserved their original morphology, as for
example, Caraci and Cetras (e.g., Borcos in Cioflica et al., 1973). The intrusive activity
accompanies significant metallogenetic activity, particularly for Cu-Au (Mo), together with Au-Ag
± Te and base metal mineralization (e.g., Udubasa et al. 2001). A variety of mineral deposits types
are present including porphyry copper, epithermal veins (low-sulphidation and less commonly high-
sulphidation), breccia pipes and replacement bodies. However, not all the intrusions are associated
with mineralization.

Geochronology
The timing of Neogene magmatic rocks in SAM ranges from 14.7 to 7.4 Ma, and concludes with a
brief activity at ~1.6 Ma (Uroi) (Pécskay et al., 1995a; Rosu et al., 1997, in press). The timing and
duration of magmatic activity in the Apuseni Mountains is roughly coeval with those from the
Tokaj-Slanske area and Vihorlat-Beregovo - Oas-Gutâi - Tibles-Rodna-Bargau areas (Pécskay et
al., 1995b, 2000; Rosu et al., 1997).
The rocks that have been shown to be older (>14 Ma), according to K-Ar methods, occur in the
Rosia Montana-Bucium and areas adjacent to the Brad district (at Curechiu). Subsequently, the
volcanic activity apparently proceeded towards the west, in the Zarand basin, where K-Ar ages
present an interval between 13.4 and 12.4 Ma. Between 13 and 11 Ma, volcanic activity shifted
progressively eastwards, occurring mostly at the eastern end of the area in the Baia de Aries, Zlatna,
Sacarâmb and Deva areas. At 11-9 Ma magmatic activity continued in the eastern part and finished
in Baia de Aries area, between 9-7 Ma. The youngest magmatic occurrence is at Uroi (1.6 Ma), in
the southeastern part of SAM, after a time-gap of about 6 Ma. The aforementioned Moigrad
andesites have been dated at 12.4 Ma, within the range of the SAM magmatic rocks.

Geochemistry
In this review we use the published geochemical and isotopic data (Alderton et al., 1998; Alderton
and Fallick, 2000; Rosu et al., 2001, in press), on rock units for which K-Ar geochronological data
is available (Pécskay et al., 1995a; Rosu et al., 1997, in press). The data set, which includes also
Moigrad occurrence at the northern periphery of the Apuseni Mountains, can be considered as
representative for the Miocene igneous activity in the SAM.

Major elements
According to Rosu et al. (2001, in press) most of rocks plot in andesite calc-alkaline field. Two
rocks from Uroi plot in the trachyandesite, as well as the Zâmbrita sample, and another of Uroi in
trachydacite field. Major element variations are typical for calc-alkaline rocks, with MgO, FeO*,
CaO and TiO2 decreasing with increasing SiO2. Na2O and P2O5 remain roughly constant vs. SiO2,
which apply for insignificant plagioclase and apatite fractionation during magma evolution.
Generally, major element patterns look similar to other calc-alkaline Neogene volcanic rocks of any
part of the East Carpathian arc segments, such as the Gutâi Mountains in northern Romania
(Kovacs, 2002), the Transcarpathian region of Ukraine (Seghedi et al., 2001), or the Calimani-
Gurghiu-Harghita chain of the East Carpathians (Seghedi et al., 1995; Mason et al., 1996), but
without large variations in SiO2 (55-64%).
 GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF THE APUSENI MOUNTAINS 15

Trace element, REE geochemistry and isotopes

The patterns of incompatible and HFSE trace element normalized to N-MORB (Sun and
McDonough, 1989) are displayed in Fig. 6. They are typical for subduction-related magmatic rocks
in modern continental and island arcs, with obvious negative spikes of Nb, P and Ti, and a strong
positive Ba, Th and Pb spikes (e.g., Wilson, 1989). The rocks from Baia de Aries that are younger
than 10 Ma (see Fig. 7b), Sacarâmb, Deva and Uroi samples show higher and large incompatible
element variation and Sr spike, as compared with Zarand-Brad-Zlatna samples, which are more
homogeneous and show only a small positive Sr spike (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. N-MORB normalized trace element diagram for samples grouped in four areas: Baia de Aries-Bucium; Zarand-
Brad-Zlatna; Sacarâmb; Deva-Uroi, Moigrad. Normalizing coefficients from Sun and McDonough (1989). Data and
figure from Rosu et al., 2001, in press, with modifications.

With the exception of Pb, the Moigrad andesite is similar to the average incompatible trace element
pattern of the Zarand-Brad-Zlatna samples, as well those from the Gutâi Mountains (Kovacs, 2002),
Ukraine (Seghedi et al. 2001) and the Calimani-Gurghiu-Harghita volcanic chain (Mason et al.
1996). High-Sr and high-Ba rocks, first mentioned by Bostinescu and Savu (1996) in Deva area, are
characteristic of the Apuseni Mountains, as compared to the East Carpathian arc (Kovacs 2002;
Seghedi et al. 2001), except for its southernmost segment (South Harghita Mountains) where
similar rocks are present (Seghedi et al. 1986, 1987; Mason et al. 1996).
An important characteristic of Neogene magmatic rocks in SAM is their high Sr/Y ratio (Fig. 7a).
As suggested by Rosu et al., (2001, in press), this characteristic links some of the SAM magmatism
with a particular calc-alkaline association defined as adakite by Defant and Drummond (1990). The
term “adakite” was defined as an intermediate to acid calc-alkaline rock characterized by high
Al2O3 and Sr, low Y and HREE, and MORB-like Sr and Nd isotopic signature. Most of the rocks
from Sacarâmb, Deva and younger rocks from Baia de Aries-Bucium are plot at the edge of the
adakite field (Fig. 7a). Due to the partial overlapping with the adakite field of Defant and
16 GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF THE APUSENI MOUNTAINS

Drummond (1990) Rosu et al., (2001, in press) used the term adakite-like as a descriptive term,
without genetic connotation. From Fig. 7b, in which Sr/Y is plotted against ages determined by
radiometric methods, it appears that the high Sr/Y ratio (>30) is a regional characteristic, initially in
Deva (all the rocks), then Sacarâmb (most of the rocks, but especially those generated ~10.5 Ma,
showing also alkalic features) and then Baia de Aries - Bucium rocks (only the younger then 10
Ma). The adakite-like character is lacking in Zarand-Brad-Zlatna and older intrusions in Baia de
Aries-Bucium area, at least on the data available at present.

Fig. 7. Sr/Y vs. Y (Drummond and

Defant, 1990) diagram discriminating
between adakitic and normal calc-
alkaline compositions (a). Sr/Y vs. age
(b) Symbols, figure7a and data as in
Fig. 6.

According to Rosu et al., (2001, in press) the REE pattern normalized to chondrite shows a
relatively smooth and slightly concave trend for most of the analysed rocks, without any significant
Eu anomaly. The rocks with alkaline character (Uroi and Zâmbrita) show a different trend,
displaying strong enrichment in LREE and important depletion of HREE, similar with shoshonites
and high-K rocks in the South Harghita rocks (Seghedi et al. 1987; Mason et al. 1996).
Sr and Nd isotopic compositions are similar with regions of known calc-alkaline affinity (Aegean
arc, Aeolian arc, East Carpathians, West Carpathians) (Rosu et al., 2001, in press), with the adakite-
like rocks plotting at lower 87Sr/86Sr and higher 143Nd/144Nd ratios, around the Bulk Silicate Earth
reservoir (e.g., Zindler and Hart, 1986).
For the moment the available lead isotope signature of Apuseni Neogene magmatic rocks is
controversial, since plot in two different fields, one with high 206Pb/204Pb values, ~19 and other
around 18.7 similar to lead isotope values of ore deposits (Marcoux et al., 2002).
 GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF THE APUSENI MOUNTAINS 17

Magmagenesis

Several conclusions have been reached by examining the geochemical peculiarities of the Neogene
magmatic rocks in Apuseni Mountains (according to Rosu et al., 2001, in press):
- Most of the rocks are andesites, with few basaltic andesites and according to their high Sr/Y
ratio show an adakitic-like character for those younger than 12.5 Ma;
- There is a general increase of Na2O+K2O, P2O5, Mg#, Nb, 144Nd/143Nd and decrease of 87Sr/86Sr
ratio, suggesting a tendency to more alkaline and at the same time more primitive sources which
vary with age, also specific for each areas;
- No significant fractionation processes (e.g., narrow SiO2 interval, lack of Eu anomaly, lower Sr
and higher Nd isotope ratios for younger magmatic products) have been observed.
The results made possible several interpretations:
- Since the normal calc-alkaline rocks show high 87Sr/86Sr for the older rocks, it was suggested
that in the initial stages of magma generation either a larger amount of assimilation-fractional
crystallization (AFC) occurred in intermediary magma chambers or that the source had a higher
initial 87Sr/86Sr (see Fig. 8b);
- Significant fluid involvement during magma generation, especially after 12 Ma, indicates the
onset of the conditions required for the generation of adakitic-like magmas. The variable Ba/La
ratio, higher for Sacarâmb and Deva area, suggests variable fluid involvement in magma
generation (Fig. 8a, b), which would characterise a heterogeneous, variably fluid-rich source,
probably the lower crust or upper lithospheric mantle, and not asthenosphere, which normally is
much more homogeneous. The observed temporal changes in magma composition may have
resulted from local composition of the source, compatible with a lower crust and/or mantle
lithosphere origin.
- Higher Nb and Nb/Y ratios for the magmas generated between 10 and 7.4 Ma, and also for the
youngest alkaline rocks (1.6 Ma), trending towards the OIB field (Fig. 7a), suggests
involvement of the asthenosphere in magma generation, probably via mixing with lower
crust/mantle lithosphere (still hydrated source)-derived magmas.
18 GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF THE APUSENI MOUNTAINS

Fig. 8. Nb/Y vs. Ba/La diagram for

Neogene magmatic rocks of the
Apuseni Mountains. OIB and MORB
from Sun and McDonough (1989) (a).
87
Sr/86Sr vs. Ba/La diagram for
Apuseni Mountains magmatic rocks
(b). Symbols and data as in Fig. 6.
b

In conclusion, the existing data may suggest the following scenario (Rosu et al., 2001, in press;
Seghedi et al., 2004). Magmas were derived initially from a source situated at the crust-lithospheric
mantle boundary (low-Nb), and at the end of activity from uprising asthenosphere (high-Nb, low
87
Sr/86Sr ratio), as suggested by isotopic and trace element data. Upper crustal contamination was
possible only in the initial stages (higher 87Sr/86Sr ratios occur in the older rocks, >13 Ma) and was
unimportant, as were also fractional crystallization processes, in later stages. The lithospheric
source must have been heterogeneous, isotopically depleted and particularly rich in fluids. The
evolutionary trend from common calc-alkaline to adakite-like calc-alkaline and alkaline magmas is
also largely variable in time and space. The invoked mechanism of magma generation is
decompression melting facilitated by an extensional tectonic regime. Variable rotational
movements, mostly from 14 to 12 Ma, may have intensified the brittle tectonic and tensional stress
field regime of the western Apuseni part of Tisia block and induced lower crust-lithosphere melting.
Tensional fractures facilitated ascent of the early magmas, which experienced some fractionation
and contamination in shallow magma chambers. Acceleration of the extensional regime favoured
asthenospheric upwelling at the base of the lithosphere, which in turn, determined an increase in
temperature. In these geodynamic conditions adakite-like magmas (fluid-present melting) was
generated. These features suggest a fluid-rich source located in the upper lithospheric mantle or
lower crust, and possibly further mixing with asthenosphere-derived melts. Petrological data for the
Moigrad andesite, situated much further to the north, suggests a similar magma genesis as for the
common Apuseni calc-alkaline magmas. Trachyandesite generation after a gap of 6 Ma suggests a
different tectonic setting, but also extensional, as it is contemporaneous with alkali-basaltic
magmatism (2.5 Ma) (Downes et al., 1995) along the same South Transylvanian fault (Szakács and
Seghedi, 1996). The geochemical and isotopic features of the trachyandesites suggest mixing of
asthenospheric (low 87Sr/86Sr and high Nb) and lithospheric components, as the trachyandesites fall
close to the adakite-like field.
 GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF THE APUSENI MOUNTAINS 19

The isolated position of Apuseni Mountains magmatism with respect to the Carpathian fold-and-
thrust belt, some 200-km behind the front of the East Carpathian main volcanic arc, but
contemporaneous with it, is inconsistent with a typical subduction model. Geotectonic models that
invoke subduction-related processes for Neogene magmatism in the Apuseni Mts. (e.g., Radulescu
and Sandulescu, 1973; Bocaletti et al., 1973; Bleahu, 1974) cannot explain the unusual position and
geochemistry of this volcanism. In accordance with the progress of geodynamic knowledge,
Balintoni and Vlad (1998), Seghedi et al. (1998, 2004); Rosu et al., (2001, in press) have suggested
that Neogene calc-alkaline to alkaline magmas in the Apuseni Mountains were generated in
response to extension of the lithosphere during opening of the Pannonian Basin.

Acknowledgements
I. S. thanks for the help and fruitful exchange of opinions to Dr. Ionel Nicolae, Dr. Ion Berbeleac, Dr. Mihai
Tatu, Dr. Alexandru Szakács and Emil Rosu. Viorel Mirea is thanked for the assistance with figure drawing.
The work was supported by Ceres project 3-35. Dr. Nigel Cook and Dr. Cristiana Ciobanu are thanked for
their encouragement and advice.

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