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CHARACTERIZATON OF UNWANA BEACH SILICA SAND AND ITS INDUSTRIAL

APPLICATIONS

Article  in  International Journal of Science Innovations and Discoveries · February 2013

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 Isiaka Olajide Odewale et al., IJSID, 2013, 3 (1), 93-100

ISSN:2249-5347
IJSID
International Journal of Science Innovations and Discoveries An International peer
Review Journal for Science

Research Article Available online through www.ijsidonline.info

CHARACTERIZATON OF UNWANA BEACH SILICA SAND AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
*Isiaka Olajide Odewale1, Lawrence Olusegu Ajala2 and Daniel T. Tse1
1Ceramic and Glass Technology Department, Akanu Ibiam Federal Polytechnic, Unwana
Nigeria; 2Science Laboratory Technology Department, Akanu Ibiam Federal Polytechnic, Unwana, Nigeria.

Received: 06-01-2013 ABSTRACT

Accepted: 15-02-2013
Characterization of the Unwana beach silica sand deposit has been carried out
with a view to find its industrial application. The physical properties of the sand shows
*Corresponding Author
that the sand has high percentage of medium to fine particle size i.e 15.55% is 30 BS mesh
63.21% is 36BS mesh and 5.55% is 60BS mesh. The sand has 0.5% moisture content and
2% clay content with traces of grey to light brown colouration. The chemical analysis
indicates that the sand is composed of 98.14% - SiO2, 0.4% - Al2O3, 0.02% - Fe2O3, 0.37% -
CaO, 0.06% - MgO, 0.20% - Na2O, 0.08% - K2O, 0.02% - ZnO, 0.01% - MnO and 0.51% - Loss
on ignition (L.O.l). It was indicated that the sand can be use for manufacturing of flint
glass, sheet glass, green glass, container glass (colourless and amber) and plate glass
Address:
(general and windows) according to standard specification of BS2975s, US specifications
Name:
and Ceramic Industry Magazine. It was also indicated that the Unwana beach silica sand
Isiaka Olajide Odewale
Place: can be used for refractory brick production.
PMB 1007, Afikpo, Nigeria
Keywords: Silica sand, Chemical Composition, Chemical Analysis, Glass, Standard
E-mail:
easyceramicglass@gmail.com Specification.

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 Isiaka Olajide Odewale et al., IJSID, 2013, 3 (1), 93-100

INTRODUCTION
Silica sand is known to be one of the most abundant minerals that can be found in diverse ways such as in quartz
crystals, huge forming hills, quartz sand or silica sand, sand stone, Tripoli, quartzite, diatomite, opal, flint, in some chalcedonic
forms such as agate and onyx and so forth. It can in addition be found with various outer forms mainly depending on the
colour like purple quartz (amethyst), yellow quartz or false topaz (citrine), smoky quartz, milky quartz and rose quartz [1].
Sand is one of the products of geological weathering of the surface of the earth; this weathering is continuously going
on everyday so silica sand is an extremely common and abundant material in nature. Sand is a mineral that is the result of the
erosion of the earth’s crust over vast spans of time [2]. Sand and other soils have their origin in the mechanical and chemical
disintegration of rock [3].
Geologists apply the team sand to natural particles of a certain size as well as to geologic deposits composed of such
particles. Silica sand is a general term used to describe washed, graded, dried and cooled clay free sands which are found in
many parts of the world. They generally contain 90 to 100% silica but vary generally in chemical composition and grain
structure. [4]. Sands sized particles are grounded to angular fragments or detrial grain that are smaller than granules and larger
than coarse silt granules; the size is determined by sieving grain through a set of standard screens of different mesh sizes.
General scales are used to determine sand size, such as these set up by the:
i. U.S Department of Agriculture (0.05mm to 2mm)
ii. The American Society of Testing and Materials (0.08mm to 2mm)
iii. The U.S Army Corps of Engineers (0.08mm to 4mm) [5]
As a deposit, sand is defined as a loose aggregate of sand size mineral particle. Most sand consists of quartz grains
derived from weathering of granite or other siliceous igneous rocks (carbonate sands are composed of shell fragment, coral or
chemical precipitates such as casites). Wind and water transport quartz sand to great distances. Generally the further the
particles are transported the rounder and better sorted they become [4].
Many silica sand deposits has been found nationwide in Nigeria; some of the deposits are quarried for construction
purposes while some have the appropriate grain size distribution and high degree of purity which made them suitable for use
in glass production. However, known silica sand (glass sand) deposits are common in most river sides of our country with a
reasonable quantity. The deposit can be found in at least seventeen (17) states of Nigerian and some others that are yet to be
found useful [7]. Out of all these deposits, some are found useful for glass production, foundry technology, refractory brick
production, ceramic wares production and majorly for construction purposes. Therefore it is well known that this abundant
mineral is not been fully utilized for technological development of Nigeria. Also it is not only been fully utilized, but some of
these silica sand deposits has no proper documentation in relation to their reserves in tones and mostly their chemical
compositions and physical properties are not readily available. Example of this kind of deposit is Unwana beach silica sand
which has not been found useful for any other things than construction by the people in the area and record has not shown
that there is a reasonable reserve of silica sand there let alone of its chemical composition and physical characteristics been
found.
Unwana is a town in Afikpo North Local Government Area. It is situated at about 80km South East of Abakaliki, the
Ebonyi State capital, Nigeria. The deposit is located along the Cross River boundary. i.e the beach is located between Ebonyi
and River States. However, the choice of the site is based on the relative abundance of silica sand deposit in this location.

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The study is the preliminary investigation of reprsentative samples as an introductory to do more detailed studies in
the near future.
Standard Specification of Silica Sand for Glass Production
The sands used in glass-making consist essentially of quartz grains within a size range which ensures that coarse and
fine particles are present in minimal amounts. Coarse grains reduce the melting rate, or appear as “stones” in the finished
glass. Fine grains lead to refining problems or carry through the furnace into the regenerator system causing damage to the
brick work [7].
The first specification for glass-making sands appeared in the journal of the society of Glass Technology in 1935. This
was revised in 1943 and a British Standard Specification – BS 2975 was published in 1958. The standard is in process of
revision but in the mean time the Glass Manufacturers Federation has produced a document setting down preferred
specification for sands used in the various categories of glass manufacture [7].
BS 2975 specifies the particle size, the minimum silica content, and maximum contents for Iron, titanium and chromium. The
particle size requirement is that 80% of the sand grains should fall between 420 microns (36BS mesh) and 150microns
(100BS mesh). There should be nothing coarser that 1100microns (16BS mesh), and not more than 2% coarser than 600
microns (25BS mesh). In the smaller particle size range not more than 5% should be finer than 125 microns (120BS mesh) [7].
Three levels of purity are specified, A,B, and C. Grade A sand, suitable for manufacture of high grade optical ware,
should contain no more than 0.008%F02O3, 0.030% Ti02 and 2ppm Cr2O3. Grade B sand, suitable for high grade domestic and
decorative glassware, should contain no more than 0.013% fe 203 and 2ppm Cr2O3. Grades A and B should contain a minimum
of 99-5% SiO2. Grade C sand, suitable for the manufacture of colour less containers e.t.c, should have a maximum Fe2 O3
content of 0.030% and not more than 6 ppm Cr2O3. There is a proviso that the Fe2O3 specification can be relaxed to 0.035%
maximum if the sand contains less than 2ppm Cr2O3. A minimum SiO2 content of 98.5% is specified [7].
This specification refers only to sand used in the manufacture of colourless glass and many thousands of tons of sand
(with contents of colouring elements well outside the limits specified) are used in the manufacture of flat glass and coloured
containers.
General specifications and standards for Glass sand is graded according to its silica and alumina contents. The
percentage content of lime, magnesia may also taken into consideration. Specifications vary within certain limits from one
glass manufactures to another one as shown in table 1 and 2. For example sands containing more than 99.5% SiO 2 and 0.1%
Al2O2 are considered of high grade and may be suitable for optical purposes [8].
Also, the glass industry has established different standard specifications for the silica sand intended for seven types of
glass. The requirements for these grades of silica sand are set out in BS 2975:1988, British standard methods for sampling and
analysis of glassmaking sand (BS 2975)2 and cover the following applications:
 Optical and ophthalmic glass Grade A
 Tableware and lead crystal glass Grade B
 Borosilicate glass Grade C
 Colourless (or clear) container glass Grade D
 Clear flat glass Grade E
 Coloured container glass Grade F
 Glass for insulating fibres Grade G
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BS 2975(2) gives detailed chemical and physical specifications for each of these grades of silica/glass sand. These
specify parameters such as:
(a) minimum silica levels;
(b) maximum levels of aluminium, iron, chromium, copper, cobalt, nickel and vanadium;
(c) maximum alkali levels;
(d) maximum losses on heating; and
(e) particle size distributions.
The amounts by which many of these parameters are permitted to vary between deliveries are also specified [8].
Table 1. Specifications for Chemical Compositions for Glass S and American Ceramic Society and the National Bureau Standard
(Norton, 1957)
S/N Product (Glass) SiO % Al2O3% Fe2O3% CaO+MgO%
(min) (max) (max) (max)
1. Quality Optical Glass 99.8 0.1 0.02 0.1
2. Quality Flint Containers and table ware 98.5 0.5 0.035 0.2
3. Quality Flint glass 95.0 4.0 0.035 0.5
4. Quality Sheet and plate glass 98.5 0.5 0.06 0.5
5. Quality Sheet and plate glass 95.0 4.0 0.06 0.5
6. Quality green container & Windows glass 98.0 0.5 0.3 0.5
7. Quality Green Glass 95.0 4.0 0.3 0.5
8. Quality Amber Glass containers 98.0 0.5 1.0 0.5
9. Quality Amber Glass 95.0 4.0 1.0 0.5

Table 2. Iron Oxide Standards set by Glass Manufacturer

Product Maximum Fe2O3(%)
Optical Glass 0.015 – 0.016
Containers (Colourless) 0.03 – 0.04
Containers (Amber) 0.05 – 0.08
Plate Glass (General) 0.15
Plate Glass (window) 0.08
Ceramic Industry Magazine (1966)
Table 3. Indian Standard specifications for glass making sands, 2nd Revision [IS 488: 1980]
(i)Chemical analysis
S.No Characteristic(% by mass) Special Grade I Grade II Grade III
Grade
1 Loss on ignition, Max 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
2 Silica (as SiO2), Min. 99.0 98.5 98.0 97.0
3 Iron Oxide (as Fe2O3), Max. 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.10
4 Aluminium Oxide (as Al2O3), Max. * * * *
5 Titanium Dioxide ( as TiO2), Max. 0.10 0.10 0.10 *
6 Manganese Oxide (as MnO) To pass the test To pass the To pass the To pass the
test test Test
7 Copper Oxide (as CuO) To pass the To pass the To pass the To pass the
Test Test test Test
8 Chromium Trioxide (as Cr2O3) To pass the To pass the To pass the To pass the
Test Test test Test
* These requirements shall be as agreed to between the purchaser and the supplier.

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(ii) Size grading Wt (%)

Retained on 1 mm IS sieve - Nil
Retained on 600 micron IS sieve, % by mass, Max. -01.0
Passing through 600 micron IS sieve,
but retained on 300 micron IS sieve, % by mass, Max. -50.0
Passing through 300 micron IS sieve,
but retained on 125 micron IS sieve, % by mass, Min. -50.0
Passing through 125 micron IS sieve, % by mass, Max. -05.0
The best grade known as Special grade should contain minimum 99% silica with maximum permissible level of 0.02%
Fe2O3 and 0.1% TiO2 for a size fraction in between 600 and 125μm. Others Grade are low in purity [10].
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Collection of Raw Materials
The silica sand used for this research was obtained from different locations in Unwana Beach silica sand deposit,
Afikpo North L.G.A of Ebonyi State.
Grain-size Distribution (Sieve Analysis)
The beach sand sample was properly dry and mixed. A representative of the dry sample of 2kg was weighed into top
sieve of the arranged set of sieves. The sieves were arranged in descending order of mesh number with collector at the bottom
to collect the finest particles (i.e pan). The set of sieves with the sample in it cover with lid (pan) was properly fixed on the
sieve shaker and the shaker was switched on to vibrate for 15 minutes. Each sieve (one after the other) was carefully removed
and the quantity of sand grains retained in each was measured by pouring it on a clean white paper (with pre-determined
weight). Brush was used to remove all sand particles retained in each sieve by brushing it on to the paper. The weight were
determined by using chemical balance and presented in tabular form.
Determination of Moisture Content
2 kg of the sand was pulverized and placed inside a drying cabinet for 2 hours at temperature of 110 0C. The sand
sample was removed from the cabinet and weighed. Their process was repeated until there was no change in the weight of the
dry sand sample again. The different in weight was determined and presented in percentage.
Determination of Clay Content
2kg of sand sample was weighed into head pan and water was added; the mixture was rubbed and stirred carefully
with hand and the brown water was decanted from the mixture. This process was repeated continuously until clean water was
obtained on the sand sample. The water was decanted and the sample (i.e wet sand) was loaded into drying cabinet for 2hours
at temperature of 1100C. It was removed and reweighed to determine the loss in weight which will reflect the percentage clay
content of the silica sand.
Physical Appearance of the Beach Sand (Colour)
The colour of the Unwana beach silica sand was observed.
Determination of Chemical Composition of Unwana Beach Silica Sand
A chemical analysis of Unwana beach silica sand was carried out to determine the % oxide composition of the sample.
The oxides include: SiO2, CaO, MgO, Na2O, K2O, Fe2O3, ZnO, MnO, Al2O3, and loss on ignition. The oxides were determined using
Buck Model 210 VGP Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS).
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 4. Result of Chemical Analysis of the Unwana Beach Silica Sand
Parameters % Oxides Composition
CaO 0.37
MgO 0.06
Na2O 0.20
K2O 0.08
Fe2O3 0.02
ZnO 0.02
MnO 0.01
SiO2 98.14
Al2O3 0.4
Loss on iginition (L.O.I) 0.51
Other oxides/impurities 0.19
Table 5. Result of Sieve Analysis
Mesh Mesh Aperture size Sieve Samples Weight of the % Composition
No (mm) Particle (g)
7 2.360 Very Coarse particle 34.0 1.7
14 1.180 Coarse particles 226.3 11.31
30 0.500 Medium particle – A 311.0 15.55
36 0.425 Medium particle – B 1264.1 63.21
60 0.250 Fine particle 111.1 5.55
Pan Pan (Collector) Very fine particle 53.1 2.66

Table 6. Result of Physical Analysis of Unwana Beach Silica sand

Property Unwana Beach Silica Sand
% Moisture Content 0.5
% Clay content 2.0
Appearance (Colour) Grey to light brown colouration

DISCUSSION
The result of the grain size distribution (Table 5) shows that the Unwana beach silica sand deposit has high
percentage of medium to fine particle size i.e. 15.55% of the sand grain is 30BS mesh, 63.21% of the grain is 36BS mesh and
5.55% of the sand grain is 60BS mesh. The sand has percentage moisture content of 0.5% and percentage clay content of 2%
with traces of grey to light brown colouration. The chemical composition of Unwana beach silica sand deposit (Table 4) shows
that the sand has 98.14% - SiO2, 0.4% - Al2O3, 0.02% - Fe2O3, 0.37% - CaO, 0.06% - MgO, 0.20% - Na2O, 0.08% - K2O, 0.02% -
ZnO, 0.01% - MnO and 0.51% - L.O.I.

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The result of grain size analysis of the Unwana beach silica sand indicated that it meets up with the standard
specification of BS2975:1958 & 1988 specifies the particle size requirement for glass production i.e 80% of the sand grain
should fall between 30BS mesh and 100BS mesh. Also, the result of chemical analysis shows that the silica sand fall within the
specification of American Ceramic Society and the National Bureau of Standard (Norton, 1955) with ceramic industry
magazine (1966) for glass production. The silica sand also meets up with Indian standard specification for glass making sand
2nd revision IS488;1980 for the production of grade I, II and III(table 3) with 98.14%-SiO2 and L.O.I of 0.51%. Unwana beach
silica sand can be use for the production of flint glass, sheet and plate glass (general and windows) according to ceramic
industry magazine (1966) (Table 1and 2).
Also, Unwana beach silica sand inaddition with other raw materials (refractory clay and plastic clay) can be used for
refractory brick production.
CONCLUSION
The result of the physical and chemical analysis of the Unwana beach silica sand deposit indicated that, the silica sand
deposit is very well sorted, more than 80% of grains lie between coarse to fine sand size range. The sand has percentage
moisture content and clay content of 0.5% and 2% respectively with traces of grey to light brown colouration. Its chemical
composition shows that the sand has 98.14% - SiO2, 0.4% - Al2O3, 0.02% - Fe2O3, 0.37% - CaO, 0.06% - MgO, 0.20% - Na2O,
0.08% - K2O, 0.02% - ZnO, 0.01% - MnO and 0.51% - L.O.I. According to standard specification of BS2975;1958 & 1988, U.S.
specification (Norton, 1957) and ceramic industry magazine (1966); the sand can be used for the production of flint glass,
sheet and plate glass, green glass, amber glass, container glass (colourless and amber) and plate glass (general and windows).
Also, Unwana beach silica sand can be used for refractory brick production in correct proportion with other raw materials.
RECOMMENDATIONS
In the spirit of self-reliance and the exploitation of local sources of raw materials for industries, the results of this
study will encourage industrialists in Nigeria to take advantage of the cheap and abundant local raw material (silica sand) for
big time glass manufacture and refractory bricks production. Moreover, it is well known that glass industries in Nigeria are
still producing below the domestic needs. Many glass components are still imported. Increase in productive capacity will result
in the creation of wealth and drastically reduce the unemployment problem of the nation. The truth is that there is no
industrialized nation in the world today which does not have a strong ceramic/glass industrial base. Also, refractory bricks are
important in all industry that is using kiln, oven, furnace and other heating equipment. In Nigeria presently, there is no
industry producing refractory bricks, hence most of industry import it. The government of this country should encourage the
interested person(s) and industries by giving them loans to produce locally so as to conserve revenue. Its importation is not
only very expensive but its continuing importation will contribute to further drain on our external reserve.
REFERENCES
1. http://www.egoldprospecting.com. Retrieved March 7, 2009.
2. Art 186 Introductions to Ceramics. Types of clays. Geological origins and working properties. Retrieved June 21, 2011.
http://seco.glendale.edu/ceramics/clay.html.
3. Idenyi N.E. Nonmetallic Materials. 1st Edition, Strait gate Communication. (2002) P.8.
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5. Ajayi I.A. Introduction to Refractory Technology. Akins Press Ltd, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria. (2002) pp. 7-10.
6. Aso I. and Ajayi O. A. Introduction to Mining. Vol. 1 Kenlua Paper back London (1999) pp 19-20 and 28-29.
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7. Doyle P.J. Glass Making Today (Society of Glass Technology Shefield). Portollis Press, England. (1978) 1-2.
8. Abdel Rahman I.F. Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Silica sand Deposit (white sand) of Wadi Watir Region Sinai.
Journal of ACTA Mineralogical - Petrographica, Szeged. (2002) Vol. 43. 79-83.
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10. Sundararajan M, Ramaswamy S and Raghavan P. Evaluation for the Beneficiability of White Silica Sands from the
Overburden of Lignite Mine situated in Rajpardi district of Gujarat, India. Journal of Minerals & Materials Characterization
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