f,.
. C.A. Low &: E;A. Akeju
DURABILITY OF IGBOKODA ClAY AND SiliCA
. .
AS A SYNTHETIC MOUlDING SAND
C.A. loto, and E.A. Akeju
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Lagos, Akoka
Lagos, NIGERIA
ABSTRACT
Mechanical test experiments have been
performed on the synthetic mould sand made
from the clay and silica sar:•-.1 :;:btained from
lgbokoda in Ondo State, Nigef 1a, to determine
its durability of use. The synthetic moulding
sand was further admixed with sodium
( I
carbonate, cassave flour and coal dust
additives in an attempt to enhance the clay
bonding properties. After each casting, the
synthetic moulding sand was re-used and this
was repeated several times. This paper reports
the result of the mechanical properties obtained
and hence the durability of the synthetic
moulding sand. The results showed that the
lgbokoda clay-bonded-silica sand has very good
durability up to five times re-use. There was
improved mechanical properties/durability when
the additives were used. Castings made during
the experimental period were sound. The
additives gave improved bonding property.
INTRODUCTION
Clay obtained from lgbokoda in . the
South Western part of Nigeria (Ondo State),
has been characterised, analysed and
developed as a binder for synthetic moulding
sand. The effects of some additives on the
mechanical properties of the synthetic
moulding sand has also be.en · investigated 11 1•
Results .f rom the previous studies have been
reported (2,3, 1 ).
CofTlprehensive . investigations have
been performed on varici.us aspects of moulding
sand development and testing (4,5,6). Despite
the huge amount of investigations carried out
on clay development so far, literature work on
the durability of bonding clays is still minimal.
However, the work of sanders and Doelman (7-
9) made a significant contribution to the
present day knowledge of this subject.
21
SAND
BY
lgbokoda clay which is mainly kaolinitic
in structure had been put to practical moulding
tp;~: ~-r: casting and its performance was
§&-uzr#;,~ily good. i n an attempt to further
dev&op the clay, the determination of the
durability of its bonding property is considered
necessary as part of the clay's available data.
This is the object of the present investigation.
The number of time that the synthetic moulding
sand could be re-used will determine, in part,
its economic justification for continued use.
The results of the effect ·. of ·some
additives, such as sodium carbonate,_cassave
flour and coal dust on the synthetic mould sand
properties of the clay/silica sand, reported in
the previous studies and mentioned above,
were impressive (3, 1 ). This has given further
encouragement to the use of the same types of
additives in this present work to determine their
synergistic effect on the day's bonding
durability /performance.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
Separation · of clay from sand
The experimental procedures used here
are described in the previous work of Loto and
Omotosho (2). The as-received cl~y contained
much of coarse particles mainly quartz . Due to
·their widely varying size ratio, the clay and the
quartz were separated using gravity
sedimentation techniques. Wet sieving was
done to remove light coarse particles which
could float"in the suspension.
The clay was dissolved in water and
thoroughly dispersed with 1.5g/dm 3 calgon
(sodium hexametaphosphate). The jar's
c:;ontent was allowed to settle for about 5
minutes after stirring for about 30 minutes.
The quartz sediment and the clay particles in
suspension were separated by decantation .
The sediment consisting of quartz was

discarded, while the clay suspension was
retained for subsequent separation treatm ent.
A laboratory centrifuge consisting of
four 55 cm 3 tubes radially arrang ed and traces
of 70mm radius when rotating , wa s used to
further separate the clay particles. T he tu bes
were filled with slurry obtained f rom the gravity
separation suspension, arid allowed to rotate
under a centrifugal force of 19kN at 15,000
rev./min for 30 min . The clear water
suspension obtained was discarded and the
clay sediment removed for further use . The
fine clay sediment obtained was sun-dried for
1 0 days and then oven dried with a laboratory
Gallenkamp oven at a temperature of 5 0°C for
15 hrs . The dried mass was crushed in a
laboratory mill and subsequently sieved.
EDAX analysis of the clay performed
previously ( 1 ) has given the composition to
consist qualitatively of silicon, alimunium,
magnesium, phosphorus, calcium, sulphur,
potassium, titanium and iron. It was more
enriched with silicon and aluminium. The
partical chemical and physical quantitative
composition of the clay, (2) are given in Tables
I and II. The pH of the clay had been found (1)
to be 4.2 and thus acidic.
Preparation of the base silica sand
The base silica sand used was washed
several times with water and sun-dried for 1 0
days . The size and distribution of the sand
grains was determined by the sieve analysis
test method of the A .F.S. (10) (American
Foundryman Society) . The average grain
fineness used was 36 .40 .
Preparation of test samples
From the preliminary tests performed on
the test samples, an optimum clay of 17% by
weight and 5% by weight tempering water
were used for all the test samples in this work.
Two different types of test samples were
made, viz:
1) the samples containing the clay, silica
sand and tempering water only. These
are referred to. in this report as test
sample I.
2) the samples containing the clay , silica
sand, tempering water and additives.
22
C.A. Loto & E.A. Akeju
These are referr-ed to as test sample II.
The details for these are given in Tables
Ill and IV .
The base silica sand, 78% by weight; a
predetermined amount of clay, 17% by weight;
and known amount of tempering wate r, 5% by
we ight, w ere mechanica lly mixed by mulling
apparatus and this mixture was use~ as test
sample I. Similarly, the base silica sand, 74%
by ·weight; clay - 17% by weight; 5 % by
weight tempering water; coal dust - 2% by
weight; sodium carbonate - 0 .5% by weight;
and cassave flou r - 0 .5% by weight; were
mechanically mixed by a mulling apparatus and
used as test sample II. After mixing, each of
the above samples was stored in polytene· bags
to prevent air - drying.
Cylindrical test specimens conforming - )}
to the AFs standard specimen of 50mm were
prepared and used for the mechanical tests.
An amount of sand mixtures adequate to form
standard test specimens of 50mm diameter
50mm high after three rams , were determined
and measured out. In all the experiments, the
sample weight used ranged from 1 50 to 170g
depending on the sand/clay ratio . The ramming
device was securely mounted, the sand poured
into the specimen tube and rammed by impact
with three blows of a 6.50kg weight. By ..the
manually operated device, the weight was
dropped from a height of -50mm + 0.125.
Three rams normally produce a specimen
50mm + 0.79 in height provided the proper
weight of sand is put in the specimen tube.
Guage marks are shown at the top bf the
rammer to measure the specimen height. The
specimen was removed from the tube by }!
means of a stripping post.
Green compression test
The green compression test was
performed to determine the compressive stress
in kN/m 2 necessary to cause rupture of the
standard cylindrical specimen using . a
compression testing machine . Details of the
green compression test, testing procedures and
equipment are contained in the AFs' 'Foundry
Sand Handbook' (1963) 1101 • Green compressive
strength tests were performed immediately
after the specimen was stripped from the tube
to air-drying with increase in exposure time.
The compressive strength was determined by
axially loading tile cylindrical specimen through
 } C.A. Wlo & E.A. Akeju
the flat faced holders of the compress ion
(
testing machine.
Green shear test
The test was performed on the
Universal testing machine. This · was done by
changing the loading surfaces on the testing
machine from compression to shear plates.
The specimen then ruptured by shear along its
longitudinal 'a xis when sufficiently loaded. The
standard test procedures for the green shear
test are set · forth in, the AFs 'Foundry Sand
Handbook' (1963) 1101 ~
Dry comoression and shear ~
.These tests followed the same
procedures as for the green compression and
green ·· shear tests {American Foundrymen
Soceity ,1 9631101). The dry compression and
shear teslS were carried out by drying the
specimen inl ~n oven at 100 - 11 0°C for 2
hours bttfore .testing. Since dry compression
strength is usually much greater than green
strength, higher loads were required on the
universal test machine.
Shatter indp tests
The shatter index tests were performed
in the shatter index ~ester, which is designed to
drop a rammed specimen of mould.sand from a
height of 1.85m on to 2 steel ·anvil. To
determine the shatter index of the moulding
sand, an AFs standard test specimen was
prepared without stripping. The tube
containing the rammed · specimen was in
position in the .top casing below the plunger.
The specimen was ejected from its tubular
mould by gently pulling down the handle. The
fragments were collected in a 12.5mm mesh
B.S. sieve.
Basically, the shatter index value was
used to determine the toughness and
collapsibility of the moulding sand.
For toughness determination:
Shatter index = W, /W x 100
For collapsibility:
Shatter index = W 1 /W; where ·
W is weight of specimen, and W, is weight of
23
sand remaining on the sieve.
Surface hardness
The hardness of a rammed surface was
determined using an indentation tester. For the
measurement- of green hardness , a spring
loaded spherical indenter was l,lSed, the depth
of penetration from the flat reference surface
of the instrument corresponding to an empirical
scale of hardness from 0 - 100 . units was
determined . The surface hardness of the
p r.a,parmi moulds was measured to check the
ra•l.l\''"'l''l~.!Q density of the moulds.
Permeability
Permeability was determined by
measuring the rate of flow of air through a
compacted specimen under st andard
conditions. The test for green permeability was
performed on the A.Fs standard cylindrical
specimen, retained in its ramming tube.
Castings
All the tests described above for
determining the moulding properties of the
synthetic moulding sand, were ·again repeated,
in turns, after each casting. The sand was re-
used five times. Cast numbers 1 to 3 were
used to cast aluminium objects while 4 to 5
were used ·to cast cast-iron . Tbe successive
number of castings performed by re-using the
synthetic sand, was to determine its moulding
properties and its durability.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results of the durability of the lgbokoda
clay and silica sand based on the number of re-
used 'ime are reported and discussed here in
terms of the synthetic sand's moulding
properties. The effect of the additives on the
durability of the synthetic moulding sand is also
presented and discussed here. The summary
of the results are presented in Figures 1 to 8.
The results obtained for the green
compression strength versus the number of
casts, that is, number of times the sand was
re-used or re-cycled, is presented in Figure 1 .
. The green compression strengths for the two
· different samples used, - one without additive
(test sample "I); and the other with additives
(test sample II), decreased with increasing

number of casts, that is, the number of times
the same sand was re-used for casting. The
range of decrease in the compressive strength
up to cast number 4 , (11 kN/m 2 ) was not much
for test sample I; the last cast gave a ver'( low
green compressive strength for this sample.
Test samp le II (with additives) gave a range of
2
"t 5 and 1 6 Kn/m up to cast numbers 4 and 5
respectively . The trend of the decreasing green
compressive strength relative to the number of
casts remained almost similar to cast number 4
for both test samples. The loss in green
compression strength was more gradual in cast
numbers 1 to 3 than in 3 to 5 .
The green compresion strength up to
cast number 4, of 59 kN/m 2 for sample I and
60 kN/m ~ J.or sample II, confirmed the durable
quality of the synthetic moulding sand and .
hence the bonding property of the clay. The
rang8 of decrease of the compression strength
within · these number of casts (l1 and 1 5
kN/m 2 ) for samples I and II respectively, is low.
This further indicates that th e moulding sand
was reasonably durable. The castings made
within these number of casts were of good
quality. T h9se made at cast number 5 were
alsq very sound. The cast items were further
machined to a depth of 5mm and were found
to possess very good surface finish, without
blow .holes, sand inclusion and burn-on . After
cast number 5, the sand was found to be no
longer t>onding .
The first three casts, that is; cast
numbers 1 to 3 were used for aluminum alloy
casting; while cast numbers 4 and 5 ~.ereused
for casting cast iron. The difference in · the
gradual _loss of green compression strength up
to cast number 3 and the more loss of green
compression strength in cast numbers 4 and 5,
could be associated with the effect of the
differ,ent metals cast. The sand to metal ratios .
in terms of weight was 3:1 for the cast
aluminium products; and 1 : 1 for the cast iron
products. This could account for the more
reduction in the sand's mechanical properties
when cast iron was cast. The effect of heat on
the dLirability of the synthetic moulding sand as
indicated by the mechanical properties results
oqtained will pe discussed later in this report.
The effect of additives would also be discussed
under
' .
separate sub-heading..
Variation of dry compression strength
of the synttletic moulding . sand with the
24
C.A. Lolo & E.A . Akeju
number of casts made for the test samples
and II, is presented in Figure 2. The first time
the sand was recycled , the dry compre·ssioh
strengths for the two samples were very higtf
and were slightly less than the compresSive
strengths at the initial casts . After the first re-
cycling, the dry compression strengt h gave a
steep loss of strength relative to the number of
casts and this trend continued throughout the
whole experimental period covering cast
numbers 1 to 5, except for cast number 3 in
sample II; a phenomenon which is difficult to
explain. With each successive number of casts
made re-using the sand, there was aging of the ·
sand , loss of moisture from the surfaces of the
clay platelets and also .from between the Si-0
layers; loss of lattice or constitutional wate r,
and structural changes of the clay/sand
composition - all due to the effect of heat. The
combined effect of these would be that of loss
of dry compression strength values with the
increasing nl)mber of casts made wit:h'the same
sand being re-use·d. Howe ver, up to cast
number 5, the dry compression strength values .
were still under the normal range of use; and
the casts made were good . The clay/sand was
durable to . cast number 5 , afte'r· which no
reasonable bonding was obtained.
The curves of green hardness (8 scale)
versus the · number of c~sts · for tbe two
samples (I and Ill are shown in Figure 3. The
green hardness of the . two test samples
decreased with the im:reasing number of ca'Sts ,
San:ple II containing additives had higher
hardness values in all the diffe'r ent tests . ' The
loss ofgreen hardness values in all the different
tests. The loss of gr~en hardne~s with the
increasing number of casts and/or sand re-use
was due to the incr.easing loss of clay bonding )I
property due to t~'e · heat from the very high
casting process t~mperature. This also led to
the softening of the clay-sand mixture .
Structural changes within the synthetic
moulding sand resulting from the heat effect
could also make a significant contribution to
the loss of green hardness with the increasing
number of casts made.
In Figure 4, the variation of permeability
of the synthetic moulding sand with the
number of casts representing number of times
of re-use, is presented. Permeability values
decreased with the increasing number of casts.
The decreasing values were particularly drastic,
the last two casts of each of the test samples
,,'I
and the curves became steeper. The last two
casts were for the cast iron . This had high
melting point than the aluminium casting which
was used during the first three castings (cast
numbers 1 to 3) . Because of the very high
temperature involved, there was fusion of the
moulding sand and hence the decreasing
permeability with the increasing number of
casts and increasing magnitude of fusion . In
both ferrous and non-ferrous founding,
permeability in the range 25 to 90 are quite
usual. The permeability of the samples used in
this work are within the range of 56 - 81 .
The curves of green shear strength
versus number of casts ar:e jp-r:~tm ted in Figure
5. Up to the fourth (4th) cast, the green shear
strength . decreased very gently with the
increasing number of casts. From the fourth to
r ~~ the fifth cast, the decrease in the value of
green shear strength was very drastic and it
attained the low values of 12.50 and 10 kN/m 2
for samples I and II respectively. This sudden
change from the fourth cast .will undoubtedly
be due to the high temperature (heat) effect of
cast iron casting. It caused the loss of
moisture content and hence contributed to the
loss of clay-silica-water bond. The high
temperature also softened the moulding sand
and thereby reducing the green strength.
However, the green shear strength values up to
cast number 4, were within the acceptable
range.
Figure 6 shows the C"urves of the dry
strength of tested samples I and II versus the
number of casts. Sample I, showed a drastic
decrease of strength values from 45 to 43
kN/m 2 from the first re-use (cast number 1) to
the second re-use (cast number 2) of the
synthetic moulding sand. From cast number 2
to 3, it maintained the same strength of 43
kN/m 2 ; after which it decreased steadily to cast
number 5 . Sample II (with additives) also
decreased steeply from 46 to 45kN/m 2 in cast
number 1 to 2 and it remained in this constant
strength value of 45 kN/m 2 to cast number 5 .
Apparently , the samples with additives (sample
II), gave higher dry strength values in all the
casts. The constant strength value maintained
in sample II from cast number 2 tci 5, is difficult
to explain. It ho~ever, confirms that there was
no further deterioration in the strength value
after cast number 2. The synergistic beneficial
effect of-the additives .couid not be ruled out as .
making a positive contribution to this
25
C.A. Loto & E.A. ~
observation . The trend of the decreaseof dry
strength values with the increasing number of
casts in sample I (without additive) indicates
loss of clay-silica-water bond within the
structure of ' .t he moulding sand due to the
repeated high temperatures used in casting .
The sand thus became fused and softened .
The curves for the collartsibility for the
two samples - I and II versus the number of
casts made with them are presented in Figure
7. Collapsibility decreased with the increasing
number of casts throughout the experiments
~::>.ept in cast number 4 in the samples without
additives (sample I); and cast number 2 in the
samples with additives (sample II). Thes~
phenomena could be an experimental anomaly.
The decreasing collapsibility with the !increasing
number of casts could be attributed more to
the effect of heat causing the fusion of the
clay/sand mixture (synthetic moulding sand). at
. the very high casting temperatures. The fusion
did not only take place within the moulding
sand, there was also sticking of the sand to the
mould wall.
The toughness of the tested sand
samples increased with the increasing number
of casts, Figure 8. The range of 66 - 1 00 is
within the acceptable range. However, loss of
water, softening and fusing of the moulding
sand by the action of heat. at high
temperature(s), made it tougher with the
increasing number of casts.
Effect of additives
The effect of additives is apparent from
all the results obtained as presented in Figures
1 - 8. The additives increased the green and
dry compression strengths, green hardness,
permeability, green and dry shear strengths, ·
collapsibility and toughness of the synthetic
moulding sand and hence its improved durable
properties. The individual effect of the
additives could not be indicated here . The
overall effect is that of synergism. The effect
of all the additives used has, however, been
individually treated in previous studies (Loto,
1990; Loto and Adebayo, 1990). The
improved durability contributed by the additives
results mainly from the. effective bonding
property' of cassave flour and fine coal dusts
. . and'the·cl:)ange in the chemistry of the clay due
I·.
to the Na + fildm the Na 2 C0 3 addition .
I
 C.A. Lolo & B.A. Akeju

Effect of heat producing good casting.

Clearly, the general 3. The additives improved the bonding

performance/durability ·of the tested clay/sand,
in synthetic moulding sand sample forms, was '
controlled by the heat effect due to the very
high liquid metal temperature during casting.
The high casting temperature caused loss of
&lLI)()rbed moisture from the surfaces of the
plat es and also from between the Si-0 layers.
It also caused loss of lattice or constitutional
water. These affected adversely the bonding
characteristics of the synthetic moulding sand .
The alumina, si lica, and kaolinite constituents
of the clay/sand were also affected and were
subject to modification or change of structure
by the effect of heat at . very high casting
temperature(s), especially the casting of cast
iron items : During t he cast iron casting, there
was the probability of Occurrence of
crystallisation of alumina and followed by the
conversion of silica to cristob'alite and the
ultimate combination of these to form . mullite
(3AI 2 0 3 • 2Si0 2 ). In the temperature · range of
850 - 1 0 50 °C, kaolinite crystallizes above
1350 ° C and tridymite converts to cristobalite
at 1470°C. These st ructural changes after
many repeated use would cause the aging of
the clay/sand mixture and hence renders it less
durable as observed in this experimental work.
property of the clay and thus enhancing
the durability of the moulding sand and
gave its improved mech an ical
properties .
4. The deterioration in the mechanical
properties of the synthetic moulding
sand · with the increasing number of
times it w a:s re-used for casting, was
due to the effect of casting heat at
high t emperatures leading to t he
gradual loss of bonding , adsorbed and
constitutional water, fusion and
softening of clay, crystallisation of ·
alumina and structural changes in the
clay and silica sand .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The co-operation of the Federal Institute
of Industrial Resea rch (FIIRO), Oshodi, Lagos,
Nigeria; and the Department of Mechanical
Engineering, University cif Lagos, Nigeria, for
making available the research facilities used for
this work, is appreciated .

Fusion and softening of clay apparently

occurred at the high temperatures used <md

this increased after repeated use of the sand.

Loss of. constitutional water means that t he
clay has lost its layer lattice structure and is
non-binding . Structural cha nges, fus ion and
softening of the sand/clay made further
deteriorating contribution . The combination of
these phenomena gave rise to dead clay in cast
moulds and necessitaied addition of fresh clay
to compensate-for loss of bond strength when
the · sa·n d from the knock out system was re-
used for moulding. In fact, · the sand was no
longer bonding when mixed at the end of cast
number 5 .

CONCLUSION

1. The lgbokoda clay has very good and

durable property.

2. The synth et ic moulding sand made

from the clay and the silica sand can be
re-used up t o five times and still

.,. .
REFERENCES
Partial Chemical Composition of lgbokoda Clay !Lot o and
1. -Loto, C.A., 1990. Effect of cassave Omotosho, 1990)
flour and coal dust addition s on the
mechanical properties of a synthetic
moulding sand .' Appl. Clay~ Sci ., 5 : Elements Conc entration (ppml
249- 263.
.
------ --"';----------------------- ----------------- --------------.

300 0.03
2. Lata, C.A ., and Omotosho, E.O. , 1990.
Analysi s and development of lgbokoda 171 0 0.171
cl~y as a binder f or synth etic moulding
sand . Appl. Clay SCi ., 5: 249 -263 . ca • 1, 20 0 .112

8080 0 .808
3. Loto . C.A and Adebayo H ., 1990 .
Effect ·' variation in water content,
clay fra ct ion and ·:: .~:· i('..lm carbonat e
addition's on the synthet ic moulding TABLE II

properties of lgbokoda clay and si lica f'hysi cal Prop erties of lgbokoda clay (Loto .and Omotosho.
sand A ppl. Clay Sci. , 5 : 165- 181 . 1990)

4. Grim, R.E. and Cuthbert, f. L. , 1945.

Prop erty Value
The bonding action of clays. Clays in
Green Moulding Sands , Ill. State Geol.
Surv . Rept ., 102 :26- 27 . %Cla y bond

5. Schubert, C.E. , 1958. Effects of grain (1) as re cei ved 78%

size on physical properties of synthetic
(2) quartz-free 100%
moul ding sands. Foundry, pp . 88-91
(March, 1958). specific gravity 2 . 22

6. Lawrenc e, W.G ., 1961 . Fractos colou r grey

influencing moulding sand ·properties .
loss o n ignition
Foundry , pp. 61 -67 (Oct. 1961). %_,'!t 100 °C 15.7

7. Sanders, C.A . and Doelman, R.L. 1967.

The durability of bonding clays Parts I,
TABLE Ill
II and Ill. AFS Trans., 75 : 408-427 .
Composition of Tes t Sample . I
8. Sanders, C.A. and Doelman, R.L. 1968.
Durability of bonding clays. Parts V,
and : Durability of twenty -nine
Materials %Weight Quantity
commercial clays. AFS Trans ., 75 :
(Kg)
334-348.

9. Sanders, C.A . and Doelman, R.L. 1969. Clay (lgbokoda ) 17 0 .85

Clay t echnology, durability of bonding
Tempering Water 5 0.25
clays, Parts VI -X. AFS Trans., 77 :
233-252 . Base silica sand 78 3.90

10. American Foundrymen Society, 1963. Total wt. 5.0

Foundry S.a nd Handbook, 7th ed. Des
Plaines, Ill. ·

27

·'"-
 C.A. LDto & E.A. ~

TABLE JV
• with additives.
Composition of Test Sample II
6. Variation of dry shear strength with the
number of casts for the lgbokoda clay-
----------------~-·-·---------------, bonded-silica sand.
Materials %Weight Quantity
I Kg)
without additive
• with additives .
Cfay (lgbokoda) 17 0 .85
7. Collapsibility versus number cf ca~t~
Sodium carbonate 0 .5 0.025 for the lgbokoda clay-bonded-silica
.sand .
Bituminous coal dust 0 .5 0 . 10

Cassava flour 0 .5 0 .025 without additive

Tempering Water 5 .0 0.25

• with additives .

8. Toughness versus number of casts for

Base silica sand 74 3 .70
the lgbokoda day-bonded-silica sand.
Total weigllt. 5Kg.
without additive
• with additives .

liST OF FIGURES/lEGENDS 80.0 . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

.1 . Variation of green compression

70.0
strength w ith the number of casts for
the lgbo~oda clay-bonded-silica sand .
60.0
without additive
• with additives .
50.0

2. Variation of dry compression strength

with the number of casts for the -40.0
lgbokoda clay-bonded-silica sand.

without additive 30.0 ~~~...........,~~~~~~~~..........""::'"

0.0 1.0 2 .0 3.0 4.0 5 .0 6.C

• with additives . Number of cos t s

,Figure 1: Green Compression Strength (kN/~ 2 )

3. Variation of green hardness with the ,•
number of casts for the lgbokoda clay-
bonded-silica sand.
'520.0 ..-- -------------,

without additive
• with additives . -480.0

4. Variation of permeability with the 440.0

number of casts for the lgbokoda clay-
bonded -silica sand . 400.0

without additive 360.0

• with additives .
320 .0
5. Variation of green shear strength with
the number of casts for the lgbokoda
280.0 ~~;"';:-"I..I..LU~~~;!-"'""~~.u..u..~......u.u;'
clay-bonded-silica sand. 0.0 1.0 2 .0 3 .0 4.0 5 .0 6.0

without additive Number of casts

Figure 2: Dry Compression Strength (kN/m 2 )

28
 47.0 . - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - - ---'-,

64.0
46.0 _..-----..

45 .0

44.0
56.0

43.0
52.0

42.0

48.0
. 4 10
- 0 .0
t. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .l
1.0 2 .0 3 .0 4 .0 5 .0 6.0

Number of casts ---

44.0
0.0 1.0 2 .0 3 .0 4 .0 5.0 6.0 figure 6 : Dry Shear Strength CkN/m J 2

Number of costs

Figure 3 : Green Hardness (8 scale) ,_., , . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - '

85.0 1.5

' 80.0
) '
75.0

70.0

65.0

60.0

55.0

Num~er of costs .
50.0
0.0 . 1.0 2.0 " 3.0 4 .0 5 .0 6.0 F~gure 7 : Collapsibility (w/w 1)
Number of costs
Figure 4 : Permeability

C
0 ..
N
0
...0 "'
0 "'0 "'0c 110.0 ~---------:---------,

100.0

.~

...
0
60.0

"'0
50.0 Ci.o..i:O..U..u..':L!..!..Lo.u.<'-':'-'...............Jlu.Lo.=u.t.......=c'~..!..LLU,U
0 .0 1.0 2.0 3. 0 4.0 5 .0 6.0
~~----------------~
Figure 8 : Toughness (W 1 /WI x 1001
Figure 5: Green Shear Strength (kN/m2 )

29
 J

~ . . . ; ....]1l. i • • ~ '·k

WAPCO products ~elllld

e
STRENGTH and BEAUTY

PORTLAND CEMENT - For over 30 }'C8l'!, Wca A&"-..

-and now ... Portland Cement PLC bas been producing the Elepbl•
Portland Cement which meets the highest intematiooalltad-
ards for ordinary Portland Cement. About 11n miDiorl tonnea of
Elephant Portland Cement are now produced annually and are
Electrical Moto' used iD the widest variety of new building projec:ts wbicb are vital
to Nigeria's bright future: universitica, bridp, oft1c:a, faCtoriea,
Repair - buildings - big-or smalL Elephant Portland CemeDt baa gone a
long way in giving ~gth to the nation'i ccmtructloa dforta. It
is the leader in the market.

services PORTLAND PRODUCI'S - The Portland ProdUc:tl DiYi1ioo

offers a variety of special producu for beautiful decxlratiYc
finislies such as - Bluetc Roller Applied TCilure flDilb, Slmdte::l
Derorating and Surface treatment. .Thc:ae produdnrill enbance
the appearance of any building and at the I8IDC time fight effec-
tively against fungicide and other organic growth&.

ELECTRICAL SERVICES - The Portland Electtical Repaira

Division offers you reliable high quality servicing of your run-
down motors, This new divBion repairs &Dd rewinds varioua
types of Electrical Machinea, giving them a new Jeaac of lie.
Though this division is still young, our .tready loog lilt of
reputable clients continp _our eflicienty. ~valuable foreign
exchange by using our acrvic:ca. ·

Our sign ofquiJiJy shown hue is 11/fU:;«l to Ill!""'

works.

WAPCO

··········••i
WEST AFIUCAN PORTIAND CDIIN1' PLC
ELEPHANT CEMENT HOUSE

.
IKEJA Al..AUSA
CENTRAL IXEJA DIS11Ucr
BUSINBSS
P. 0. BOX looll:.AOOS
TEL:901~9.