J Seismol (2015) 19:541–565

DOI 10.1007/s10950-015-9481-4

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Reviewing the active stress field in Central Asia by using

a modified stress tensor approach
I. Karagianni & C. B. Papazachos & E. M. Scordilis &
G. F. Karakaisis

Received: 2 May 2014 / Accepted: 15 January 2015 / Published online: 9 February 2015
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2015

Abstract Central Asia and its surroundings constitute a
geodynamically complicated region, where almost all
types of tectonic patterns can be observed. A triple junc-
tion, collision, and subduction zones, as well as extend-
ed fault systems of all types prevail in different parts of
this region and compose one of the most interesting and
complex geotectonic environments on Earth. This com-
plicated setting is also associated with intense deforma-
tion, resulting in a large number of high seismicity
zones, where numerous strong earthquakes occur, also
extending, in some cases, to intermediate depths. Sev-
eral previous studies have focused on specific
seismotectonic zones in order to assess the active tec-
tonic setting and the associated stress regime. We at-
tempt to provide a unified but detailed picture of the
stress field variability for the entire central Asia region,
using the well-known inversion method proposed by
Gephart and Forsyth (1984), modified in the present
work on the basis of Fisher statistics. For this applica-
tion, we employ a large number of focal mechanisms,
spatially separated in 138 data groups. Τhe proposed
modified algorithm (FD-BSM) examines the Fisher dis-
tribution of all possible stress principal axes solutions
and select the one that: (a) shows the smallest angle
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this
article (doi:10.1007/s10950-015-9481-4) contains supplementary
material, which is available to authorized users.
I. Karagianni (*) : C. B. Papazachos : E. M. Scordilis :
G. F. Karakaisis
Department of Geophysics, Aristotle University,
54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
e-mail: ikara@geo.auth.gr
variation from the Fisher mean in all three principal
distributions and (b) minimizes the difference between
the theoretical and observed slip vectors of the
employed fault plane solution data. Synthetic tests and
comparison of the corresponding results with real data
show that, in cases where the stress regime is not clearly
uniform or the number of available data is rather small,
the models selected by the modified approach (FD-
BSM) are more robust and show better spatial
coherence compared to the initial Gephart and Forsyth
(1984) method or alternative techniques such as the
method of Michael (1984, 1987) as adapted by
Vavrycuk (2014).
Keywords Stress inversion . Central Asia . Fisher
distribution . Active tectonics
1 Introduction—regional tectonics in Central Asia
The study area includes several new and older plate
boundaries and regions of high seismicity. It is located
within the Alpine–Himalayan–Indonesian Mountain
Belt, a superorogenic complex known as the Tethysides
that frames the southern part of Eurasia. Two distinct
orogenic systems exist in this complex, namely the older
Cimmerides and the younger Alpides, products of Paleo
and Neo-Tethys, respectively (Fig. 1). The closure of
Paleo-Tethys suture between Laurasia in the north and
Cimmerian continent in the middle generated the
Cimmerides first. The Alpides were created later during
the closure of Neo-Tethys suture between Cimmerian
542
Fig. 1 Orogenic systems in the broader Central Asia area simpli-
fied from Sengor et al. (1988). The Paleo-Tethyan suture
(Cimmerides) is shown by black dashed line, while the Neo-
continent and northern Gondwanaland. This complex
system and its associated areas of cratonic disruption
have formed today’s architecture of the largest part of
Eurasia (e.g., Sengor et al. 1988). The major active
tectonic features of this extended area exhibit a wide
variety of structural and seismotectonic characteristics.
Detailed maps for the subareas examined in the follow-
ing are presented in the electronic supplement of this
manuscript (Online Resource 1).
The East Caucasus Mts. were formed by the Eurasia–
Arabia collision since Tertiary and show an average
deformation of 14 mm/year across the eastern part of
the mountain according to GPS studies (Mosar et al.
2007). The gradual velocity reduction across the Main
Caucasus Thrust indicates that there is no horizontal
displacement and that the dominant motion in this area
is the vertical uplift (Mosar et al. 2010). The Abseron
ridge, a site of major oil reserves, separates the Caucasus
thrust belt to the west from the right lateral fault of
Kopeh Dagh to the east and Central and South Caspian
J Seismol (2015) 19:541–565
Tethyan suture (Alpides) is depicted by black solid line. Plate
boundaries are also shown by dashed lines
Sea. The origin of South Caspian is uncertain (Jackson
et al. 2002; Allen et al. 2003). It is a rigid block, with one
of the thickest sedimentary layers in the world (26–
28 km, Knapp et al. 2004). South Caspian block is
currently been destroyed by dipping along its northern
and western margin under Central Caspian and is
surrounded by active high seismicity tectonic belts such
as Alborz and Talysh. Strike-slip fault systems connect
this region with the Zagros Mts. to the south. Zagros is
an asymmetrical linear folded thrust belt located in
Southwest Iran, a result of the collision between the
Arabian plate and the continental block of Central Iran.
East of Zagros, the Minab–Zendan fault connects it with
the Makran accretionary prism, a known aseismic re-
gion. The eastern termination of Makran is a major left
lateral fault, the N–S oriented Chaman fault, which also
marks the western boundary of the Indian subcontinent.
The Gulf of Aden is a young, active ocean basin
formed by the rifting of Arabia away from Africa during
Oligocene–Miocene (Manighetti et al. 1997; Huchon
J Seismol (2015) 19:541–565
and Khanbari 2003). This region is characterized by a
number of ridges and transform faults that set the boundary
between three different plates, Arabian, Somalia, and In-
dian. This oceanic rift started from the Carlsberg ridge in
the Indian Ocean and progressively moved into the Afar
region at the western part of the Gulf of Aden, cutting
through Jurassic and Cretaceous basins with a dominant
E–W to NW–SE directivity. At present, the Arabian plate
diverges from Africa towards the NE at a rate of ~2 cm/
year (Garfunkel 1981; Hubert-Ferrari et al. 2003), being
one of the slowest plate boundaries on Earth and leading to
the opening of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.
In central Asia, the Hindu Kush-Pamir region is
characterized by both shallow and intermediate-to-
large depth seismicity. According to Chatelain et al.
(1980) and Fan et al. (1994), this is the result of two
subducting zones of different origin, one dipping from
the north and one from the south. Nowroozi (1971) and
Billington et al. (1977) suggested that this is a single
geotectonic unit twisted during subduction at the inter-
mediate depth zone. Pegler and Das (1998) proposed
that the seismicity in this region is mostly concentrated
in a single S-shaped seismic zone. The origin of the deep
seismic zone under Hindu Kush is also a matter of
dispute. Billington et al. (1977), Roecker (1982), and
Mellors et al. (1995) suggested that this is of contempo-
rary oceanic origin. Burtman and Molnar (1993) and
Fan et al. (1994) have proposed that this seismic zone is
a downward extension of an old, dense, shield-like
structure. From a geological point of view, there is no
evidence of trapped oceanic crust anywhere in this
region (Pegler and Das 1998; Searle et al. 2001). Tien
Shan, another dominant feature in this area, is an
intracontinental young mountain belt extending in the
east–west direction for about 2,500 km, 300 to 500 km
wide, with a maximum elevation of 7,439 m
(Tapponnier and Molnar 1979; Omuralieva et al.
2009). The Talas-Fergana dextral strike-slip fault sepa-
rates the central part of Tien Shan belt from the West
Tien Shan. This geometry is the result of the under-
thrusting of the Tarim block beneath Southern Tien
Shan and the thrusting of the Pamir block onto southern
Kyrgyz Tien Shan, respectively (Buslov et al. 2007).
Although this orogenic belt is located at about
2,000 km far from the collision zone, it is considered
as a result of a continent–continent convergence be-
tween India and Eurasia, with the present maximum
shortening rate being 13–23 mm/year (Abdrakhmatov
et al. 1996).
543
The Tibetan plateau extends south of Tarim Basin,
including the highest young orogen, Himalaya. The exten-
sive horizontal deformation in and around Tibet and the
rapid uplift of the Himalayan Mountains are the two basic
motions currently observed in this area (Takada and
Matsu’ura, 2004). The present collision rate has been
estimated to ~50 mm/year (DeMets et al. 1990), with
almost 40 % of the total convergence rate consumed by
the subduction of India under Eurasian plate along the
Himalayan Mountains (Lyon-Caen and Molnar 1985;
Bilham et al. 1997). Because of this deformation, large-
scale strike-slip faults such as Kunlun and Altyn-Tagh
have been formed inside the Tibetan plateau. The Gobi-
Altai Mts. and the Baikal rift zone of East Asia, as well as
the collision zone that passes through Myanmar and Su-
matra have been also included in our study area.
Gobi-Altai is a northwest–southeast-oriented belt of
Paleozoic arc terrain and continental fragments that have
been reactivated during late Cenozoic because of the
India–Eurasia collision. This is a diffuse belt of defor-
mation with thrust and strike-slip faults placed between
more rigid basement blocks in a continental interior
(Cunningham 2005). Deformation to the east is accom-
modated in Hetao rift, and in the north, Sayan and
Bolnai faults connect this zone with Baikal rift. The
Baikal rift system started to form during the late Oligo-
cene–early Miocene, northeast of the Gobi-Altai. The
tectonic activity along this rift increased during Pliocene
because of the intense Pliocene and Quaternary normal
faulting and, today, is a seismically highly active region
(Tapponnier and Molnar 1979). The region around the
eastern Himalayan Syntaxis is characterized by a com-
plex system of curved strike-slip faults that interact with
the Tibetan plateau (Holt et al. 1991; Socquet and
Pubellier 2005). Litang, Xianshuihe, Gaoligong, and
Red River are the largest of these faults that partly
accommodate the material flow from Tibet around the
northeastern edge of India. Another distinct tectonic
feature of the region related to the India–Eurasia colli-
sion is the Sagaing fault on Myanmar. This fault sepa-
rates the Cretaceous–Tertiary Burma volcanic arc,
which is related to the subduction zone and the flat
Neocene Central Basin, from the westernmost extension
of Sundaland block, which is not considered as a part of
stable Eurasia (Simons et al. 1999; Pivnik et al. 1998;
Morley 2002). This N–S-oriented right lateral fault is
placed east of the collision zone, extends over 1,200 km,
and connects to the south with the Andaman spreading
zone (Bertrand and Rangin 2003).
544
Moving south, Andaman Sea opened during Ceno-
zoic after a number of extensional episodes. It is an
active backarc extensional basin caused by the oblique
convergent between Indian–Asian plates. The original
collision between these two plates with normal conver-
gence has led to a clockwise rotation and bending of the
north and west edge of Sunda Arc. This rotation caused
the extension of pre-existing faults both to the north and
south, reaching near the outer arc offshore of Sumatra
and up to the Sagaing fault (Curray 2005; Khan 2007).
A succession of small strike-slip faults and ridges has
been formed between Sagaing fault, West Andaman,
and Seuliman fault that leads to the right lateral Sumatra
fault system, which accommodates the strike-slip move-
ment south of Andaman Sea.
Plate motions in the study area depicted by GPS
velocity vectors with respect to stable Eurasia (reference
point: GPS station ARTU) show that Arabian, African,
and Indian plates are moving towards Eurasia with
different velocities but similar directions (~NNE). Cen-
tral Asia moves slowly towards the east, whereas in its
southeasternmost part (Sundaland), the dominant mo-
tion is clockwise rotation to SSE (Fig. 2). Almost 60 %
of the total convergence rate between India and Asia is
consumed by the deformation inside the Eurasian plate
(England and Molnar 1997). Additional information on
the current plate motion and the corresponding surface
deformation in this region can be also obtained from the
stress regime, as this is defined by the direction of the
principal stress axes along high seismicity deformation
regions. In the present work, we examine the stress
distribution in the broad region of Central Asia using
two alternative approaches based on the determination
of the regional stress from focal mechanisms of strong
earthquakes.
Over the last decades, based on the assumption that
the deviatoric stress tensor over an examined area is
uniform, several researches have proposed different in-
version methods and strategies for the determination of a
uniform stress tensor that minimizes the difference be-
tween the predicted shear stress direction and the re-
solved slip direction on each fault plane (Carey and
Brunier 1974; Angelier 1979, 1984; Vasseur et al.
1983; Gephart and Forsyth 1984; Carey-Gailhardis
and Mercier 1987; Michael 1984, 1987). In this work,
we employed FMSI (Gephart and Forsyth 1984), one of
the most commonly used stress inversion methods.
Earthquake focal mechanisms have been used for the
determination of the stress field in different tectonic
J Seismol (2015) 19:541–565
environments around the world using this approach,
which has been successfully applied in numerous seis-
mically active regions or areas with intraplate seismicity
(e.g., Plenefisch and Bonjer 1997; Kiratzi 2002; Mandal
and Horton 2007), as well as in subduction zones (Li
et al. 1995; Christova 2001; 2004; 2005; Ghimire and
Kasahara 2009). We have used the FMSI results as the
first approach for the determination of regional stress
field. The stress model selected by this method (over a
large number of possible solutions) is the one with the
smallest rotation misfit between the predicted slip model
and all slip observations.
Using the determined FMSI solutions for each study
area, we adopted a modified approach, where we con-
sider that, for a distribution of possible FMSI stress
models for a specific fault plane solution data set, the
best stress model is the one with all three axes being
closest to the corresponding Fisher mean directions. In
this case, minimum misfit is not the only rule considered
for the selection of the final stress model. A modified
computer program FD-BSM has been developed in this
work on the basis of this idea.
The stress regime of several large or smaller seg-
ments of the study region has been examined previously
by several scientists using a variety of methods. The
main difference in this work is that we attempt to pro-
vide a unified and complete picture of the stress field
and its spatial variation over the entire Central Asia and
its surroundings. In addition, we present evidence that
the modified approach of FD-BSM employed in this
work provides more stable stress models in cases of
small data sets or complex stress regime in comparison
to FMSI of more recent approaches such as the modifi-
cations of Michael’s method (Michael 1984, 1987) as
proposed by Vavrycuk (2014).
2 Stress tensor estimation
When the slip occurs on a pre-existing rupture, the
maximum compressive stress may have an orientation
anywhere within the dilatational quadrant of the focal
mechanism (McKenzie 1969). This suggests that the
principal stress directions are poorly constrained by a
single fault plane solution. However, if a variety of focal
mechanisms are available in a region with uniform
stress, then both principal stress directions and a mea-
sure of relative stress magnitudes can be determined.
For each fault plane, slip will occur in the direction of
J Seismol (2015) 19:541–565
Fig. 2 Plate motions depicted by GPS velocities (white arrows) at
several sites within the study area (original GPS velocities from the
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, in
association with NASA). All velocities are referenced to the sta-
tion ARTU, which is considered to be located in stable Eurasia.
resolved shear stress (Bott 1959); hence, every focal
mechanism provides additional constrains on the stress-
es that are responsible for the fault motion.
The Focal Mechanism Stress Inversion program
(FMSI) by Gephart and Forsyth (1984) is based on the
previous theory, aiming to extract maximum informa-
tion for the best-fitting regional stress tensor from a
group of observed earthquake focal mechanisms. The
basic assumptions of this method are the following: (a)
stress in the region is spatially and temporally uniform
and (b) slip occurs in the direction of the resolved shear
stress on any fault plane. During the inversion, the
program performs a grid search of possible stress
models in order to find the one which requires the
smallest total rotation of all fault planes to match the
predicted and observed slip directions.
As is well known, stress is a symmetric second-rank
tensor characterized by six independent parameters.
545
Solid lines depict major tectonic boundaries, while the dashed line
outlines the boundary of the Amuria microplate, which is consid-
ered by several researchers to be separated from Eurasia (modified
from Petit and Fournier 2005)
Every possible stress model calculated by FMSI in-
cludes maximum σ1, medium σ2 and minimum σ3 com-
pressive stress directions, and a measure of relative
stress magnitudes R=(σ2 −σ1)/(σ3 −σ1). In this way, the
number of necessary parameters can be limited in four
and the two thirds of all information in the stress tensor
are calculated. As mentioned earlier, the best-fitting
regional stress tensor for the examined data group is
given by the stress model with the smallest slip misfit
between all observations and the model predictions.
Using this approach, results in regions of uniform
stress state are obtained when a sufficient number of
data is available. However, since the stress tensor is
selected only on the basis of angular rotation (misfit),
in several cases, the selected model is often located at
the edge of the spatial distribution of all possible prin-
cipal axes calculated by the method (Fig. 3) within the
95 % confidence limit. Moreover, in cases where the
546
Fig. 3 Example of the stress model proposed by FMSI (stars)
located at the edge of the 95 % confidence angular distribution of
all three principal axes calculated by FMSI for the grid search
(group 6.1.8 in Fig. 6). The corresponding stress model defined by
original data show significant variability or poor cover-
age, the algorithm results, obtained by using different
data subsets, may vary substantially.
The BFisher Distribution–Best Stress Model^ pro-
gram (FD-BSM), developed in this work, is a modified
approach in an attempt to minimize these problems
using the Fisher distribution. This probability density
function, named after the British statistician R.A. Fisher,
is commonly used for modelling 3D orientation vectors.
A Fisher distribution PdA(θ) describes the angular distri-
bution of directions about a mean orientation vector, is
azimuthally symmetric about the mean, and gives the
probability per unit angular area of finding a direction
within an angular area dA centered at an angle θ from the
true mean. For a point distribution on a unit radius
sphere, this function is given by:
k among the large number of possible stress models esti-
PdAðθÞ ¼ expðkcosθÞ ð1Þ
4πsinhðk Þ
The quality of the distribution about the true mean
direction is measured by variable k. If k=0, the distribu-
tion of directions is uniform over the sphere. When k
approaches infinity, then all directions are concentrated
at the mean direction. The precision parameter for a
finite set of N directions can be calculated by:
N −1
k¼ ð2Þ
N −R*
where R* is the length of the mean direction vector
for N population (R*≤N). More frequently, the angular
standard deviation is measured with the use of the
angular dispersion δ:
J Seismol (2015) 19:541–565
FD-BSM is shown in squares. Large circles correspond to the
mean Fisher axis of each distribution. Compression (P), extension
(T), and intermediate (B) axes are denoted by black dots, gray
squares, and gray triangles, respectively


R*
δ ¼ cos−1 ð3Þ
N
Confidence limits around the mean direction in Fish-
er statistics are expressed as an angular radius from the
calculated mean. For a set of N data distributed on a
sphere with a confidence limit (1−p), the angle a(1−p)
within which the unknown true mean lies is calculated
by:
"
 1 #
N −R* 1 N −1
cosað1−pÞ ¼ 1− * −1 ð4Þ
R p
Using the Fisher distribution, FD-BSM selects the
best over a set of possible stress models produced by
FMSI, considering a Fisher distribution for each one of
the three principal stress axes, using the 95 % confi-
dence areas of the FMSI solutions. The idea is that
mated by FMSI, the best model is the one where all three
stress axes are closer to the corresponding Fisher mean
directions. In this case, the minimum misfit is not con-
sidered as the single measure for the selection of the
final stress model.
More specifically, for every data group, the entire set
of possible stress models calculated by FMSI (for a
specific confidence level) exhibits a certain distribution
of the three main stress axes. These models are also the
input data for FD-BSM. Since possible directions for
maximum, medium, and minimum compressive stress
do not show the same concentration, the angular disper-
sion of possible σ1, σ2, and σ3 axes is examined sepa-
rately, and the mean direction for every distribution, as
well as the corresponding precision parameter k, and the
J Seismol (2015) 19:541–565
angular standard deviation, δ are initially calculated
(circles in the example of Fig. 3).
FD-BSM program follows a three-step procedure (one
for every axis) in order to select the optimum stress tensor.
Starting from the axis with the most concentrated distribu-
tion (larger k parameter), it rejects all directions outside the
angular standard deviation δ. All stress models correspond-
ing to the accepted axis directions are the input data for the
following steps. After the recalculation of the mean Fisher
direction for the remaining axes using only the selected
models, the second best determined axis is examined by
the same procedure and a number of proposed stress
models are also excluded. The above step is also repeated
for the third, most dispersed axis. After these three repeat-
ing reductions of the possible stress models, the one with
the minimum misfit is finally adopted as the final stress
tensor among the remaining solutions (squares in the ex-
ample of Fig. 3).
3 Data—clustering criteria
Our data set includes focal mechanisms of 4,270 earth-
quakes (Mw>4.0), which have occurred within the
study area in 1908–2009, selected from three different
sources (Table 1). The majority has been retrieved from
the Harvard CMT Catalogue (3,822 events). Focal
mechanisms collected by Qin et al. (2002) were used
for 441 earthquakes that occurred in China and
surrounding regions. We also included seven
additional focal mechanisms calculated by various
researchers and published by Verma and Reddy (1988)
concerning events that occurred in the Tibetan plateau
before 1977 (Fig. 4).
We consider the epicenter and depth calculated by
Harvard as less accurate than the corresponding
solutions from other sources. This follows Maggi et al.
Table 1 List of data used in this study
Data source Region of interest
Harvard CMT catalogue Worldwide
Qin et al. (2002) China, northern India,
Mongolia, southern Siberia
Verma and Reddy (1988) Tibetan plateau, Southwest
China
547
(2000) who showed that large errors in depth and focal
mechanism can arise in long-period CMT determina-
tions, such as those published by Harvard. Because of
this limitation, in 20 cases where more than one focal
mechanism solutions were available (both from Harvard
and Qin et al. 2002), we rejected the focal parameters
and CMT solution proposed by Harvard. We also com-
pared Harvard CMT catalogue with the Centennial Cat-
alog which uses an improved velocity model (Engdahl
and Villasenor 2002), as well as ISC and NEIC cata-
logues. Focal parameters of all common events were
adopted by the Centennial Catalog when available
(2,173 cases), otherwise from the corresponding solu-
tions of ISC or NEIC.
According to the seismicity distribution and the ma-
jor tectonic features (Fig. 5), the examined area was
divided into seven sub-regions in order to examine in
detail the stress variation in the vicinity of the major
active fault zones. Data in each one of these regions
were separated in smaller groups, according to the spa-
tial distribution and the type of the corresponding focal
mechanisms (Fig. 6). In this approach, earthquakes with
similar focal mechanisms, located near the same fault or
within a fault zone, were considered as members of the
same group. In three of these regions, earthquakes of
intermediate or large depth were also present; hence, an
additional separation according to focal depth was per-
formed. Following this procedure, we determined a total
number of 138 spatial data groups. Since no information
on the quality of the focal mechanisms was available
and since large earthquakes are not only important for
the stress estimation but also their focal mechanisms are
well defined, we weighted all events according to their
magnitude in order to minimize the influence of small
events to the results. Moreover, after initial test inver-
sions via FMSI, we excluded a limited number of outlier
focal mechanisms which exhibited a large misfit (F>
Time period Num of Focal mechanisms
covered data used by
1976–2009 3,822 GCMT
1800–2000 441 China Seismological Bureau, Holt et al. (1995),
Molnar and Lyon-Caen (1989), ISC bulletin,
NEIC bulletin
1951–1977 7 Verma and Reddy (1988), Shirokova (1979),
Chandra (1977 and 1981), Molnar and Chen
(1983)
548
Fig. 4 Distribution of focal mechanisms used in the present work. The color reflects the data source (black for Harvard CMT catalogue,
dark gray for Qin et al. 2002, and light gray for Verma and Reddy 1988)
40°) of either of the two nodal planes. The finally
employed number of data for each group is presented
in Appendix 1 in the electronic supplement of this
manuscript (Online Resource 1). The data for each one
of these groups was processed both with FMSI and FD-
BSM programs, and two stress models were defined for
every group, one from each algorithm.
4 Comparison of stress tensors obtained by both
approaches
Estimation of the stress tensors by the two proposed
methods often leads to solutions that exhibit significant
differences. We performed an indicative evaluation of
the performance of each method using the data of two
(out of seven) regions (randomly selected) in order to
check the final model robustness. For evaluation rea-
sons, the same test was also performed with a third,
recently proposed stress inversion method
(STRESSINVERSE) developed by Vavrycuk (2014).
J Seismol (2015) 19:541–565
This approach is a modification of Michael’s stress
inversion method (Michael 1984, 1987) where the Bfault
instability constrain^ proposed by Lund and Slunga
(1999) is used in order to improve the results by
inverting both for stress and fault orientations.
All original groups of regions 1 and 5 containing
more than ten focal mechanisms were randomly sepa-
rated in two half data sets, which were both processed
by FMSI, FD-BSM, and STRESSINVERSE algo-
rithms. Smaller groups were not used since every half
data set should include at least five focal mechanisms to
constrain a stress tensor solution. Using this procedure,
39 original data groups were used to create 78 new half
data groups.
For every new data set (half data group), the selected
stress models (by FMSI, FD-BSM, and
STRESSINVERSE) were compared with the corre-
sponding models of the original (complete data) groups.
The angular variance between the complete and half
data solutions was examined by: (a) the angular differ-
ence for each stress axis (maximum, medium, and
J Seismol (2015) 19:541–565
Fig. 5 Major tectonic features (plate boundaries and major faults)
for the Central Asia area, as these are reported by several re-
searchers (Taylor and Yin 2009; Walpersdorf et al. 2006; Walker
minimum compression) and (b) the dispersion quality
(best, medium, and worst distribution of the original
FMSI results; Fig. 7). In general, the obtained compar-
ison results were similar, regardless of the criterion
employed.
As can be seen from Fig. 7, this application revealed
locally significant differences between the three ap-
proaches. Although the stress axes angular differences
for the half data sets derived from the FMSI method are
more frequently less than 5° from the originally (com-
plete datasets) proposed axes, the corresponding angular
variance is generally quite larger than the one resulting
from the application of the FD-BSM algorithm. This is
mainly due to the fact that FMSI derives stress axes for
half data sets that vary up to 85° from the original
solutions (complete datasets); hence, it has the tendency
to exhibit local instabilities. Similar problems are noted
in the stress models proposed by the STRESSINVERSE
method. Best results are observed for the best
constrained principal stress axis which is quite stable
549
et al. 2004; Tapponnier et al. 1981; Tiberi et al. 2003; Manighetti
et al. 1997; Socquet and Pubellier 2005; Curray 2005, among
others)
(the angular difference between results from the half
data and the original data sets is often less than 10°),
but there are cases that the derived stress axes for half
data sets vary up to nearly 90° from the original solu-
tions. On the other hand, the angular difference between
the original and the half data proposed models by FD-
BSM never exceeds the value of 55°. Furthermore, the
results from the FD-BSM program are quite well de-
scribed by the theoretically expected half normal distri-
bution (chi probability density function with 1 degree of
freedom; see corresponding histograms in Fig. 7),
whereas results from FMSI and STRESSINVERSE ex-
hibit a significant number of outliers.
In practice, it is obvious that results from all evaluat-
ed methods will depend strongly on the number of data,
as well as on the quality of focal mechanisms that are
used in the process. Different data sets for the same
region may often lead to different stress models, espe-
cially if the stress state of the region is not uniform
enough. This problem is better handled by the modified
550
Fig. 6 Earthquake groups defined for all seven regions of the present study. Groups with larger focal depths in regions 2, 6, and 7 are
denoted by open ellipses
approach of FD-BSM since all three axes of the selected
stress model also depend on the Fisher mean of each
possible axis distribution. For smaller or different data
groups, the resulting axes distribution might be worse;
however, the Fisher mean is more robust, as it does not
change significantly (Fig. 7). Hence, the finally selected
model is closer to the one from a complete data set.
5 Results—comparison with the tectonic profile
Stress tensors calculated by both FMSI and FD-BSM
methods provide indirect information about the current
plate motions and the deformation of the broader study
area [see Appendix 2 in the electronic supplement
(Online Resource 1)]. A detailed examination of both
results for the entire region reveals interesting differences
between the corresponding stress tensors suggested by
the two methods for several data groups. Moreover,
detailed features of the stress-field variation are obtained
and compared with active tectonics, leading to a locally
revised view of the seismotectonic setting of the studied
areas. In the following, we present the main results for
J Seismol (2015) 19:541–565
the seven main sub-regions examined in the present
work.
Region 1 This area extends mostly in Iran, Afghanistan,
and Pakistan. Zagros, Caucasus, and the Alborz fault
zones, as well as the Copeh Dagh and Chaman faults are
some of the most typical tectonic features in this area
located between Caspian Sea, Persian Gulf, and Arabian
Sea. Focal mechanisms of 399 earthquakes separated in
26 groups were examined for this area. For 12 groups,
the results from both methods were identical.
Along Zagros Mountains, compression has a direc-
tion normal to the continental collision zone (Fig. 8).
The transition between Zagros and the oceanic subduc-
tion zone of Makran is accommodated in the Zendan-
Minab-Palami fault system (groups 1.16, 1.17, and
1.18). The first two groups include earthquakes from
reverse faults, with depths up to 60–70 km, whereas the
strike-slip focal mechanisms in group 1.18 occur at
shallower depths. Both methods suggest an almost N–
S compression for group 1.16. The direction of maxi-
mum compression axis, σ1, by FD-BSM for the other
two groups in this area is in agreement with the results of
Yamini et al. (2007) for deeper reverse (1.17) and
J Seismol (2015) 19:541–565
Fig. 7 Angular variation between original and half data group
results for the original FMSI (left), the modified FD-BSM ap-
proach (right), and the STRESSINVERSE method (middle).
shallower strike-slip (1.18) mechanisms around the
Strait of Hormoz, while the stress models by FMSI show
almost the same direction for σ1 (maximum compres-
sion of deeper reverse events) for both groups. The rest
of the shortening in this subregion is mainly accommo-
dated through the transform faults around Dasht-e-Lut,
the major fault zones around South Caspian Sea and the
Kopeh Dagh Mountains. Stress models by both methods
coincide for these tectonic features. The Caspian Sea
551
Diagrams are presented for the best, medium, and worst distribu-
tion of all calculated stress models. A half normal (chi) distribution
fit is presented for all distributions
moves northwestwards, underthrusting the Talesh
Mountains. Both methods reveal a compressive stress
regime in this region oriented almost perpendicular to
the thrust zone. Lyberis and Manby (1999), based on
geological evidence, pointed out that the Kopeh Dagh
structures continue NW to the Cheleken peninsula and
Balkhan region, gradually buried under a thick sedimen-
tary layer. They also came to the conclusion that the
oblique right lateral shortening of the entire belt might
552
Fig. 8 Study area 1: Major faults (bold lines), epicenters (circles),
and best stress model selected by FD-BSM (large arrows) and
FMSI (small arrows). Major fault names: CF Caucasus fault, KDF
Kopeh Dagh fault, A Alborz fault, TF Talesh fault, DF Doruneh
fault, NF Naybabd fault, MRF Main Recent fault, MZT Main
be the result of shortening and strike-slip movement on
separate faults. The FD-BSM model in Balkhan region
(1.3) fits well with these observations as it suggests a
compressive stress regime, while the model by FMSI
shows a completely different pattern (radial extensive).
This zone is a typical example of the robustness of FD-
BSM, in comparison to FMSI, allowing the determina-
tion of a reliable stress model, locally consistent with
regional tectonics.
Region 2 Hindu Kush, Pamir, and the fault belt of
Tien Shan are the dominant tectonic features in this
area. Beside the shallow seismicity, intermediate-
depth and deep earthquakes also occur in this region.
After examination of several depth profiles for the
regional data, we separated them in three sets ac-
cording to their depth range (0–60, 60–160, and
J Seismol (2015) 19:541–565
Zagros Thrust, ZFF Zagros Frontal fault, KZF Kazerun fault, M
Makran, HB Helmand block, CHF Chaman fault, HF Heart fault,
SFB Sulaiman fold belt, MFT Main Frontal Thrust, DT Dalrymble
Trough, MNZ Minab-Zendan fault
deeper than 160 km), similar to the proposal of
Pegler and Das (1998) for this area.
Regarding the stress field of the area, the shallow
seismicity in the Hindu Kush-Pamir seems to be uncorre-
lated to the earthquakes that occur at larger depths. Seis-
micity in this layer is probably mainly affected by the
Indian–Eurasian collision (Billington et al. 1977; Khan
2003). Data in this depth range were divided into 16
groups, taking into account the type of the earthquake focal
mechanisms and the major active faults. Notice that north-
eastward of Pamir (group 2.1.16), the orientation of the
compressive stress regime by FD-BSM is similar to the
orientation of the compressional axis proposed by both
programs for the neighboring groups 2.1.14 (Talash Fer-
gana fault) and 2.1.5 (Tien Shan), whereas the correspond-
ing model by FMSI changes, becoming almost parallel to
the direction of the compressive axis suggested for group
2.1.7 in the west.
J Seismol (2015) 19:541–565
Fig. 9 Study area 2: separated in three depth layers: (a) first layer
(2.1), depth range: 0–60 km, (b) second layer (2.2), depth range:
60–160 km, and (c) third layer (2.3), depth range: 160–300 km.
Major faults (bold lines), epicenters (circles), and stress tensors
selected by FD-BSM (large arrows) and FMSI (small arrows) are
Earthquakes with depths larger than 60 km (layers 2
and 3) are concentrated only in the Hindu Kush–Pamir
region in contrast with the outspread shallow seismicity.
The results from both methods are in good agreement
for all three groups of the second layer (Fig. 9, area 2.2).
The third layer (h>160 km) contains earthquakes which
occurred within a small region under Hindu Kush and
which are examined as a single group. Models selected
from both methods suggest a nearly horizontal maxi-
mum compression axis, oriented NNW–SSE (Fig. 9,
area 2.3). The stress regime according to FD-BSM is a
rather radial compression, whereas FMSI calculates a
simple uni-axial compression model.
Previous studies seem to rule out the hypothesis of
oceanic lithosphere subducting under Hindu Kush and
Pamir (Vinnik et al. 1977; Tapponnier et al. 1981; Searle
et al. 2001); however, the question about the presence of
one (Chatelain et al. 1980; Khan 2003) or two different
lithosphere slabs (Vinnik et al. 1977; Billington et al.
553
also shown. Major fault names: TFF Talas-Fergana fault, MPT
Main Pamir Thrust, MKT Main Karakorum Thrust, WTS West
Tien Shan, SBF South Boundary fault, NBF North Boundary fault,
JNF Junggar fault
1977; Pegler and Das 1998) is still open. From the depth
cross-sections in this area (Fig. 10), we can confirm the
abrupt subduction of the slab (dashed line) and the
occurrence of a second earthquake distribution in profile
2.3 (dashed dotted line). This second Bsupposed^ slab is
characterized by a low subduction angle oriented from
SW to NE, and the corresponding projections of the
selected stress models show extension perpendicular to
the slab direction (group 2.2.2). Although we cannot
conclude in certainty whether intermediate depth seis-
micity in this region is better explained by the one or the
two-slab hypothesis, the subduction direction of both
pieces of lithosphere is similar, an observation that is
more compatible with the single slab model. The two
seismicity clusters in this case might be explained by a
tear in the slab and the overturn of the piece under
Pamir, as proposed by Pegler and Das (1998).
A second observation is the occurrence of sparse
seismicity between intermediate and deeper earthquakes
554
Fig. 10 Depth variation of stress along selected profiles in the
broader Hindu Kush–Pamir region (profile half width: 100 km).
Maximum–minimum compression axes of the original focal
mechanism data are depicted in the top side of each profile with
small arrows, while projection of FMSI selected models are
(depths between 150 and 180 km), as observed in pre-
vious studies (Pegler and Das 1998; Searle et al. 2001).
According to Searle et al. (2001), this may represent the
depth at which the eclogitic root detaches and sinks into
the mantle. The lithosphere under Hindu Kush dips
steeply, as shown by both P and T axes of earthquake
J Seismol (2015) 19:541–565
plotted in the bottom side by small arrows. The corresponding
FD-BSM models are also shown with large arrows. The thick
dashed line depicts the suggested Benioff zone, while the dashed
dotted line shows the second earthquake distribution in profile 2.3
(A–B3)
data, as well from the selected stress models by both
methods; however, the orientation of the extensional
axes of the FD-BSM-derived tensors suggests a smooth-
er variation of the orientation with depth for groups
2.2.3 and 2.3.1. This almost vertical down-dip extension
indicates that subduction under Hindu-Kush is gravity
J Seismol (2015) 19:541–565 555

Fig. 11 Study area 3: Major faults (bold lines), epicenters (cir- fault, HR Hetao rift, A.Mts Altai Mountains, BF Bolnai fault, WSF
cles), and best stress model selected by FD-BSM (large arrows) West Sayan fault, ESF East Sayan fault, S.Mts Stanovoy
and FMSI (small arrows). Major fault names: GAF Gobi-Altay Mountains

Fig. 12 Study area 4: Major faults (bold lines), epicenters (cir- fault, SF Socotra fault, SR Sheba ridge, OF Owen fault, OFZ
cles), and best stress model selected by FD-BSM (large arrows) Owen Fracture Zone, CR Carlsberg ridge
and FMSI (small arrows). Major fault names: AFF Alula-Fartak
556
Fig. 13 Study area 5: Major faults (bold lines), epicenters (cir-
cles), and best stress model selected by FD-BSM (large arrows)
and FMSI (small arrows). Major fault names: HFT Himalayan
Frontal Thrust, KF Karakorum fault, JF Jiali fault, XF Xianshuhe
controlled. Stress models selected for groups 2.2.2 and
especially 2.2.1 under Pamir with an almost horizontal
extensional axis following the trend of the twisted seis-
mic zone are in good agreement with a slab deformed
due to flow in upper mantle as proposed by Pegler and
Das (1998).
Region 3 Part of the India–Asia collision influence is
expressed as a deformation of large tectonic features,
quite far from the collision zone, like the Altai Moun-
tains in South Mongolia and the Baikal rift system. The
available data were grouped in nine zones. In five cases,
both methods gave identical results (Fig. 11). Left lateral
movement on east–west-oriented faults and right lateral
on north–northeast faults in the Altai zone, as well as
extension in the Baikal rift system have been also iden-
tified as a result of this influence (Tapponnier and
Molnar 1979). Stress models for all groups from both
methods in this region are in good agreement with the
previous observations.
Region 4 This area is characterized by the Arabian plate
divergence from Africa, moving to the NE at a rate of
about 2 cm/year (Garfunkel 1981; Hubert-Ferrari et al.
2003) and propagating a discontinuous ridge in the Gulf
of Aden, one of the slowest plate boundaries on Earth.
The dextral Alula Fartak fault separates this Gulf from
Sheba ridge, and these two parts are offset by approxi-
mately 200 km (Taylor et al. 2009). On the other hand,
the eastern part of Sheba ridge and Carlsberg ridge are
J Seismol (2015) 19:541–565
fault, WKF West Kunlun fault, EKF East Kunlun fault, ATF Altyn
Tagh fault, LF Longmanshan fault, QDF Qinling-Dable fault,
HYF Haiyuan fault
also offset by the left lateral Owen transform fault. This
fault appears as the south continuation of the Owen
Fracture zone, but between this and the Owen transform
fault, there is a lack of seismicity in a region of about
250 km and they move in an opposite direction
(Fournier et al. 2001).
Data along the plate boundaries of Africa–Arabia–
India define a clear stress regime in all cases (extension
or strike-slip). Seismicity in this region is distributed
along the ridges and transform faults of the plate bound-
aries and the stress models proposed by both methods
are practically the same for almost all groups (Fig. 12).
Region 5 The most impressive result of the India–Asia
collision concerns the Tibetan plateau, which is charac-
terized by ENE–WSW to NW–SE trending strike-slip
faults and normal faults related to roughly NE–SW
lineaments and faults. Twenty-nine groups of data were
examined in this area. In 12 cases, the selected stress
models from both methods were the same (Fig. 13). The
stress regime over a large part of Tibet is extensional
compared to the compression along the Himalayan fron-
tal thrust and to the strike-slip stress regime along very
large transform faults that separate different geological
structures inside the plateau (Verma and Reddy 1988;
Taylor and Yin 2009). Eastward extraction around the
eastern Himalayan front is also observed in the GPS
measurements and neotectonic studies (Liu et al. 2007).
Stress models selected by both methods for groups in
this region follow the known general directions of
J Seismol (2015) 19:541–565
Fig. 14 Study area 6: examined in two depth layers: (a) first layer
(6.1) depth range: 0–90 km, (b) second layer (6.2) depth range:
90–160 km. Major fault names: LTF Litang fault, XF Xianshuhe
fault, GSF Gaoligong Shan fault, RRF Red River fault, WF
maximum or minimum compression quite consistently;
however, there are a few cases where the stress orienta-
tion seems to locally vary in comparison to the sur-
rounding groups. Maximum compression axes from
FMSI models for groups 5.15 and 5.22, as well as the
extensional axis of the second group (5.22), have a
different orientation with respect to the neighboring
selected stress models, a possible indication of the algo-
rithm instability previously noted, in contrast to FD-
BSM which exhibits more spatially coherent results,
indirectly verifying its robust behavior.
Region 6 Most of the data correspond to shallow events
(depth<60 km), and they were grouped into 15 sets
(Fig. 14, area 6.1). A few earthquakes have occurred at
557
Wanding fault, NNF Nantig fault, SF Sagaing fault, DBPF Dien
Bien Phu fault, WCF Wang Chao fault, MXF Mengxing fault,
NMF Nam Ma fault, LKF Lincang fault
depths of 60–90 km and were included in three of these
groups (6.1.3, 6.1.4, and 6.1.5). Deeper earthquakes
occur only in the western part of the region, where the
subduction zone has developed from the collision be-
tween the two plates; hence, these zones were examined
as a separate depth layer (Fig. 14, area 6.2).
The material flow from the Tibetan plateau to
Sundaland (Leloup et al. 1995; Liu et al. 2007) is well
presented by the stress models of both methods. Western
Yunnan (China) is considered as junction between Eur-
asia, India, Sundaland, and the South China block
(Socquet and Pubellier 2005). Gaoling and Red River
separate Sundaland from the South China block. This
fault system, along with the fault zone of Xianshuhe
and Litang, defines three areas with different stress
558 J Seismol (2015) 19:541–565
 J Seismol (2015) 19:541–565
ƒFig. 15 Depth variation of stress along selected profiles in the
broader Myanmar region (profile half width, 100 km). Maximum
and minimum compression axes of original focal mechanism data
are depicted on the top side of each profile with small arrows. The
projections of the FMSI-selected stress models are plotted at the
bottom side by small arrows, while the corresponding FDBSM
stress models are depicted by large arrows. The thick dashed lines
show the suggested Benioff zone
orientation. Xianshuhe-Litang is the boundary of the
eastward expansion of Tibet (Liu et al. 2007). East of this
fault zone, inside the China block, a strike-slip stress
regime with WNW–ESE maximum compression and
Fig. 16 Study area 7: examined in three layers: (a) first layer (7.1)
depth range: 0–60 km, (b) second layer (7.2) depth range: 60–
90 km, and (c) third layer (7.3) depth range: 90–230 km. Major
559
nearly N–S extension prevails. Between the Litang and
Gaoling faults, extension rotates almost 90° and occurs in
a WSW–ENE direction. West of the Red River system,
where extraction from Tibet continues, the maximum
compression maintains a constant NE–SW direction and
extension varies around a mean NW–SE direction. It
should be noted that the orientation of the maximum
compression axis of the FMSI selected stress model for
group 6.1.11 is rotated with respect to the compression
axes of the surrounding groups, again showing this occa-
sional instability. The right lateral Sagaing fault in the
west sets the boundary of India’s sliding along Sundaland
fault names: WCF Wang Chao fault, TPF Three Pagodas fault,
WAF West Andaman fault, SMF Sumatran fault, SEF Seuliman
fault, MNF Mentawai fault
560 J Seismol (2015) 19:541–565
 J Seismol (2015) 19:541–565
ƒFig. 17 Depth variation of stress along selected profiles in the
broader Sumatra region (profile half width, 100 km). Maximum
and minimum compression axes of original focal mechanism data
are depicted on the top side of each profile with small arrows. The
projections of the FMSI-selected stress models are plotted at the
bottom side by small arrows, while the corresponding FDBSM
stress models are depicted by large arrows. The thick dashed line
shows the suggested Benioff zone
in agreement with the northward movement of the Indian
plate across the Sunda block (Socquet et al. 2006).
Low angle dipping of the Indian plate under West
Burma block due to the oblique collision of the two
plates is shown in profiles 6.1–6.5 (Fig. 15). A steeper
dipping is observed in the second cross-section, proba-
bly due to the profiles’ orientation. Viewing these pro-
files from north to south, we observe that groups in
profile 6.1 concern only shallow earthquakes east of
the Sagaing fault. In profiles 6.2–6.4, extension prevails
in almost all projected stress models, as well as in the
corresponding original FPS data, providing a good pic-
ture of the subducting slab down to a depth of 160 km.
According to FD-BSM results, as well as the P and T
axes of the original data, the extension maintains a rather
stable orientation with depth, becoming steeper below
Fig. 18 Regional stress regime for the broader Central Asia, according to the final FD-BSM results for shallow seismicity (black:
compression, gray: strike-slip regime, light gray: extension)
561
the depth of 80 km, following the subduction trend. On
the contrary in FMSI models for groups 6.1.3, 6.1.4 are
projected as sub-horizontal E–W extension, not follow-
ing the general geotectonic pattern.
Region 7 Further south, the age, as well as the dip angle
and slip obliquity of the subduction zone, decrease from
the northern Andaman Sea to the Sumatra segment
(Kennet and Cummins 2005). Several depth cross-
sections suggested the data separation in three depth
layers, including earthquakes with depths 0–60, 60–
90, and deeper than 90 km. Shallow data in the first
layer were further separated in 24 spatial groups. Results
from both methods were identical in 12 cases (Fig. 16,
area 7.1), mainly for data groups inside the arc, where
the dominant stress field pattern is rather evident.
Convergent and strike-slip motion components are
partitioned between the subduction zone and the
Sagaing-Sumatran fault system, respectively (Fitch
1972; McCaffrey 1992). Stress models from both
methods along this fault system are consistent with this
strike-slip motion, as well as the extensional stress regime
calculated near normal faults, which were formed in this
562
area from the extension episodes which caused the
Andaman Sea opening. On the other hand, shallow seis-
micity along the arc front is more diffuse, leading to a
dominant compressive stress regime for most arc sec-
tions. Extensive stresses are observed for some groups,
mainly in the central and north part of the arc, probably as
a result of the high obliquity of the subducted zone. The
maximum compression of shallow seismicity maintains a
rather constant NE–SW orientation for the whole region
that shifts to almost E–W in the central and north part of
the frontal zone. An exception is observed for the corre-
sponding axis of the stress model selected by FMSI for
group 7.1.19, which is surprisingly oriented N–S, possi-
bly an additional indication of the aforementioned insta-
bility effect. Extension, on the other hand, changes from
E–W in the southern arc to NNW–SSE direction in the
northern part.
Profiles 7.1–7.5 (Fig. 17) have been drawn normal to
the main strike of the collision zone. All profiles show
the rather steep subduction to the north, changing grad-
ually to shallow low-angle dipping as we move south-
wards in agreement with Dasgumpta et al. (2003),
Kennett and Cummins (2005), and Radhakrishna et al.
(2008). Deeper seismicity in this area extends down to
200 km in agreement with a Benioff zone at this depth,
as proposed by Mukhopadhyay (1984). Stress
models in the second layer show the same charac-
teristics with other subduction zones, e.g., the Hel-
lenic arc, where the extension stress axes point to
the center of the arc (Fig. 16, down-dip, in-slab
extension) and the maximum compression is al-
most parallel to the front, both at the center and
close to the edges of the arc (Kiratzi and
Papazachos 1995; Papazachos et al. 2005).
6 Conclusions
Based on the idea that the adopted application of the
Fisher statistics on traditional stress inversion ap-
proaches can improve the results of the well-known
algorithm of stress inversion of Gephart and Forsyth
(1984), a modified method, FD-BSM, was developed.
From a statistical point of view, the new algorithm
results are less sensitive to different data sets or to a
smaller number of input data, as demonstrated by com-
paring the results from halved data sets between the
above approaches, as well as a third recently proposed
J Seismol (2015) 19:541–565
stress inversion method (Vavrycuk 2014). Moreover, the
improvement of the obtained results with the modified
FD-BSM approach was also verified in practice by the
detailed results obtained in the present work, which
provided encouraging evidence regarding the modified
algorithm efficiency. In general, results from FD-BSM
show a smoother spatial variation of the determined
stress field in agreement with the orientation change of
the major tectonic lines for almost all examined regions.
Similar observations can be made for the three depth
cross-sections concerning the areas of Pamir, Myanmar,
and Sumatra (Figs. 10, 15 and 17) where deeper earth-
quakes occur. In Hindu Kush and Pamir (Fig. 10), the
projection of stress axes determined from FMSI for
groups 2.1.12 (shallow events) and 2.2.3 (deeper events)
show significant deviations with respect to the orienta-
tion of P and T axes from the original data. A similar
Binconsistency^ can be observed in the FMSI results for
the profiles of Myanmar (Fig. 15). Groups 6.1.12, 6.1.1,
6.1.3, and 6.1.4 differ in orientation when compared to
the individual earthquake stress axes. Furthermore, in
the case of 6.1.1, the projection of the selected stress
model is compressive, whereas the corresponding
projected stress axes from the individual focal mecha-
nisms used, as well as the corresponding FD-BSM
results, is extensional.
Profiles in the Indian Ocean collision zone (Fig. 17)
reveal two similar cases (7.1.11 and 7.1.9). The FD-
BSM results for the first of these groups, concerning
shallow seismicity, show a compressive stress axis ori-
ented close to the middle of the corresponding compres-
sive directions between groups 7.1.12 and 7.1.9. On the
other hand, the model selected by FMSI shows a nearly
horizontal extension axis that does not agree with the
extension axes of the FPS data used. Group 7.1.9 marks
the beginning of crustal bending in profile 7.1 and the
extension axes of the original data follow the dipping
direction. The corresponding stress model proposed by
FMSI has a compression axis oriented similar to the
extension direction of the regional FPS in the same
profile, which further suggests a possible instability
problem.
Based on the above remarks, changes of minimum
(extension) or maximum (compression) stress orienta-
tion throughout the study region appear to be spatially
smoother and more coherent for the FD-BSM results
than in the models selected by the original FMSI ap-
proach. This can be considered as an additional indica-
tion that stress models selected by FD-BSM are more
J Seismol (2015) 19:541–565
robust and tolerant to data variability, especially in cases
of small data groups or complicated stress regime, in
agreement with the tests performed on halved data sets.
It should be noted that for large-scale study areas, like
the one examined in the present work, the differences
between results obtained by the two methods do not
always affect the general picture for the entire region.
From this perspective, both results often lead to similar
conclusions regarding the dominant stress regime over
large parts of this vast region. Compression prevails
close to the plate boundaries, where the relative motion
is normal to the collision zone, as is seen in the Zagros
Mountains, the Himalayan Frontal Thrust, and the
southern part of the Indian Ocean Deformation Front
(Fig. 18). The same stress field type is also found further
north in extended zones separating areas with different
geological and tectonic characteristics (Hindu-Kush,
Pamir, Tien Shan, etc.). Deformation is transferred in-
side the Asian continent through large transform fault
zones. A strike-slip stress regime is observed in these
cases, with most representative cases, the eastward ex-
traction of the Tibetan plateau to Sundaland. Extension,
combined with strike-slip faulting, is observed close to
the oceanic ridges created due to the differential plate
motion in this region (Arabia–Africa–Asia triple junc-
tion). An extensional stress regime is also identified in
blocks bounded by the transform faults inside the Tibet-
an plateau, the Baikal rift zone, as well as in several
smaller areas, depending on the regional tectonic
setting.
Acknowledgments We would like to thank the editor Jiri
Zahradnik for his constructive suggestions, as well as the three
anonymous reviewers for their helpful reviews and comments.
Most maps were drafted using the GMT software developed by
Wessel and Smith (1991).
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