Part 3 - Single-Stage Piston Compressor

Experiment Instructions
ET 513 Single-stage piston

compressor
ET 513 SINGLE-STAGE PISTON COMPRESSOR
All rights reserved, G.U.N.T. Gerätebau, Barsbüttel, Germany 10/2018
Experiment Instructions
Last modification by: Heike Grünewald
This manual must be kept by the unit.
Before operating the unit:

- Read this manual.
- All participants must be instructed on
handling of the unit and, where appropriate,
on the necessary safety precautions.
Version 0.1 Subject to technical alterations
i
Table of Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1 Intended use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2 Structure of safety instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.3 Safety instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4 Ambient conditions for the operating and storage location . . . . . . . . . 5
3 Description of the device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3.1 Device design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2 Process schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.3.1 Pressure switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.3.2 Pressure sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3.3 Manometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.3.4 Safety valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3.5 Non-return valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.4 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.5 Commissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.6 Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.7 Measurement data acquisition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.7.1 Installing the software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.7.2 Program operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.8 Care and maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
ii
4 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.1 Use of a compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2 Function of a compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.3 Characteristic variables of the piston compressor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.3.1 Characteristic curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.3.2 Isothermal efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.3.3 Volumetric efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.3.4 Pressure ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.3.5 Measuring the volumetric flow rate using a Venturi nozzle
(differential pressure sensor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.1 Series of measurements 1: Operating the compressor at
constant speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.1.1 Objective of the experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.1.2 Preparation for the experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.1.3 Conducting the experiment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.1.4 Measured values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.1.5 Analysis of the experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.1.6 Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.2 Series of measurements 2: Operating the compressor at
constant pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.2.1 Objective of the experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.2.2 Preparation for the experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.2.3 Conducting the experiment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.2.4 Measured values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.2.5 Analysis of the experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.2.6 Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.3 Consideration of both measurement series. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
iii
6 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.1 Technical data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.2 List of formula symbols and units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.3 Tables and graphs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.4 Worksheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.4.1 Worksheet 1: Measured values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.4.2 Worksheet 2: Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.4.3 Worksheet 3: Isothermal efficiency over pressure ratio . . . . 52
6.4.4 Worksheet 4: Volumetric efficiency over pressure ratio . . . . 53
6.4.5 Worksheet 5: Efficiency over compressor speed . . . . . . . . . 54

6.4.6 Worksheet 6: Volumetric efficiency over compressor
speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.4.7 Worksheet 7: Heating ratio over pressure ratio . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.4.8 Worksheet 8: Compressor characteristic volumetric
flow rate over compressor speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.4.9 Worksheet 9: Compressor characteristic pressure
difference over volumetric flow rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.4.10 Worksheet 10: Compressor characteristic volumetric
flow rate over pressure difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
iv
1 Introduction
To generate compressed air for industry and com-

merce, in which compressed air is used as an
energy source, equipment known as compressed
air generating systems are used. A central com-
ponent of these systems is the compressor. It is
responsible for increasing the air pressure by
means of mechanical energy. Compressed air
generating systems are used to drive machinery
in mining, for pneumatic controllers in assembly
plants or to inflate tyres at petrol stations.
The ET 513 Single-stage piston compressor,

together with the HM 365 Universal brake and
drive unit, forms a complete compressed air gen-
erating system.
The trainer is suitable for both practical training in

vocational schools and for laboratory experiments
at colleges and universities.
Learning objectives
• Design and operating behaviour of a com-
pressed air generation plant with single-stage
piston compressor
• Determining the characteristic curve
• Determining the volumetric efficiency
• Determining the isothermal efficiency
1 Introduction 1
2 Safety
2.1 Intended use
The unit is to be used only for teaching purposes.
2.2 Structure of safety instructions
The signal words DANGER, WARNING or

CAUTION indicate the probability and potential
severity of injury.
An additional symbol indicates the nature of the

hazard or a required action.
Signal word Explanation
Indicates a situation which, if not avoided, will result in

DANGER death or serious injury.
Indicates a situation which, if not avoided, may result in

WARNING death or serious injury.
Indicates a situation which, if not avoided, may result in

CAUTION minor or moderately serious injury.
Indicates a situation which may result in damage to

NOTICE equipment, or provides instructions on operation of
the equipment.
2 Safety 2
Symbol Explanation
Electrical voltage
Hazard area (general)
Hot surface
Rotating parts
Wear ear defenders
Notice
2 Safety 3
2.3 Safety instructions
Also observe the operating instructions for

the HM 365 Universal brake and drive unit
and the safety instructions specified
therein.
WARNING
Electrical connections are exposed when the
switch cabinet is open.

Risk of electrical shock.
• Before opening the switch cabinet: pull the plug
out.
• All work must be performed by trained electri-
cians only.
• Protect the switch cabinet from moisture.
WARNING
Rotating V-belt.
Risk of hand injuries.
• Do not touch the V-belt during operation.
WARNING
Noise emissions up to 90dB(A).
Risk of hearing damage.
• Wear ear protectors.
2 Safety 4
CAUTION
Hot components.
Risk of burns.
• Allow the plant to cool down before touching.
NOTICE
Possibility of damage to the compressor.
• Do not exceed the rated speed of 980min-1
during experiments with variable speed.
2.4 Ambient conditions for the operating and storage location
• Enclosed space.
• Free from dirt and humidity.
• Level and fixed surface.
• Frost-free.
2 Safety 5
3 Description of the device
In addition to the ET 513 Single-stage piston

compressor, a functional experimental setup
also includes the HM 365 Universal brake and
drive unit. The drive unit is coupled to the trainer;
the electric motor on the drive unit then drives the
compressor via a V-belt. The speed and torque of
the driving motor can be read off from the drive
unit.
The trainer consists of a single-stage piston com-
pressor. Relevant measured values are recorded

while this compressor is operated. These are dis-
played digitally and simultaneously transmitted to
a PC.
HM 365 Univer- ET 513 Single- They are available on the PC for further process-
sal drive and stage piston ing in a software program.
brake unit compressor
The compressor has one cylinder and is therefore
single-stage. Its rated speed is 980min-1. At a
Fig. 3.1 Functional experimental setup
positive operating pressure of 8bar, the compres-
sor delivers 105 litres of air per minute.
3 Description of the device 6

3.1 Device design
10 8
11
12
7
Suction
6
line
5
13
14
15 4
16 3
2
17
Pressure
line
18 1
19
20
21
22 23
1 Pressure vessel B2 13 Sound absorber X2

2 Pressure sensor P02 14 Solenoid valve V01
3 Manometer for delivery pressure P02 15 Non-return valve V04
4 Pressure switch PSH 16 Safety valve V07
5 Main switch 17 Manometer for intake pressure P01
6 Switch for solenoid valve 18 Pressure sensor P01
7 Pressure drop signal lamp 19 Intake valve V02
8 Switch cabinet 20 Differential pressure sensor PD03
9 Temperature sensor for supply line T02 21 Intake vessel B1
10 Compressor V1 22 Blow-off valve V03
11 Temperature sensor for suction line T01 23 Sound absorber X1
12 V-belt pulley
Fig. 3.2 Structure of ET 513 (figure shows device without belt guard)

The trainer is mounted on a mobile laboratory

frame.
The intake vessel and pressure vessel are
located in the bottom section. The sucked-in air is
calmed and the air volume flow measured by the
differential pressure sensor and the Venturi noz-
zle. There are drain plugs for the condensate on
the underside of both vessels. The pressure ratios
in both vessels are transmitted to the switch cab-
inet and the software via pressure sensors. In
addition, the pressure can be read off manome-
ters on the vessels.

The compressor and switch cabinet are located
in the top part of the frame. Temperature sensors
are located at the connections of the compressor
for intake and delivery lines. The speed of the
compressor is measured via a photoelectric reflex
switch. The compressor is driven via V-belt and
pulley. At the same time the cylinder is cooled via
blades in the pulley.
The delivery line is equipped with a safety valve
(set to 10bar). The solenoid valve is opened
manually via the switch and compressed air is
released via a sound absorber. The pressure
switch opens the solenoid valve at approx.
9,5bar. If the pressure switch fails, the safety
valve opens at 10bar. When the compressed air
is discharged (pressure drop), the signal lamp
lights up.
The positive pressure prevailing in the vessel is
discharged in a defined manner via the blow-off
valve.

3.2 Process schematic
Media
Air
Main components Measurement and control equipment

B1 Intake vessel P01 Suction pressure
B2 Pressure vessel P02 Delivery pressure
M1 Motor PD03 Differential pressure for volu-
metric flow rate
Valves and fittings PSH Pressure switch
V1 Compressor M01 Motor torque
V01 Solenoid valve n01 Motor speed
V02-V03 Hand valve n02 Compressor speed
V04 Non-return valve T01 Intake temperature
V05-V06 Condensate drain plug T02 Delivery temperature
V07 Safety valve
X1-X2 Sound absorber
Fig. 3.3 ET 513: process schematic

3.3 Components
3.3.1 Pressure switch
Pressure switches automatically switch motors of

pumps or compressors on and off in such a way
that the pressure in the pressure vessel does not
exceed an upper value or fall below a lower value.
The upper pressure value at which the pressure
switch interrupts the circuit is called the cut-out
pressure. The lower pressure value at which the
pressure switch closes the circuit is called the cut-

in pressure. The cut-off pressure and cut-in pres-
Fig. 3.4 Pressure switch sure can be adjusted on the pressure switch
within the range described in the pressure dia-
gram (Fig. 3.5).
The coordinates of a cut-out pressure of 8bar and
Cut-in pressure in bar
a cut-in pressure of 6bar intersect at a point within

the shaded area. These two values can therefore
be set on this pressure switch.
The coordinates of a cut-out pressure of 2bar and
a cut-in pressure of 1bar intersect at a point out-
side the shaded area of the diagram. This value
pair can therefore not be set on this pressure
switch.
The pressure switch is supplied already set. The
Cut-out pressure in bar
cut-in pressure and the cut-out pressure must not
Fig. 3.5 Pressure diagram be changed.

The diagram also provides additional information:

• the highest and lowest value of the cut-out
pressure that can be set on the pressure switch
• the highest and lowest value of the cut-in pres-
sure that can be set on the pressure switch
• the possible cut-in pressure values for a given
value of the cut-out pressure
• the possible cut-out pressure values for a given
value of the cut-in pressure
• the smallest and largest pressure difference

that can be set on the pressure switch
3.3.2 Pressure sensor
For measurement data acquisition, the pressures

are measured by pressure sensors.
The pressure acts via a pressure line (1) directly
on a ceramic membrane (2), which deforms when
pressure is applied.
1 2 The electronics applied to the back of the ceramic
membrane are influenced by the deformation of
the ceramic when pressure is applied. The
change is a measure of the pressure.
1 Pressure line
2 Ceramic membrane
Fig. 3.6 Pressure sensor

(Fig. similar)

3.3.3 Manometer
Bourdon
tube
Dial plate
Needle
Fig. 3.7 Dial-gauge manometer Fig. 3.8 Type Bourdon tube pressure gauge
(Fig. similar)
The dial-gauge manometers used are of the

Bourdon tube pressure gauge style.
Bourdon tubes are circular curved tubes with an
oval cross-section. The pressure being measured
affects the inside of the tube, whereby the oval
cross-section approaches a circular shape, since
the pressure strives to change the cross-section
of the tube to a circle shape. The curvature of the
Bourdon tube causes cyclic stress, which bends
the spring. The unrestrained end of the spring
moves. A mechanism converts the size of this
movement into a rotary motion, which then moves
the needle and displays the pressure reading on
the scale.

3.3.4 Safety valve
Safety valves are used to protect vessels and

pipes from excessive pressure loads in the event
of failure of upstream automatic control and mon-
itoring devices.
The safety valves are only supplied already set,
i.e. the response pressure cannot be changed.
Fig. 3.9 Safety valve
3.3.5 Non-return valve
Compressor Non-return valves are installed at the end of the

compressed air line upstream of the pressure ves-
sel and prevent the vessel pressure escaping
after the compressor has been switched off.
Pressure vessel
Fig. 3.10 Non-return valve

3.4 Installation
The trainer must be coupled to the HM 365 Uni-

versal brake and drive unit in order to create a
functional experiment arrangement.
1. To do this, align the two units so that they
can be connected to each other using the
snap locks (there are 2 snap locks on the
front and 2 snap locks on the back of the
Snap lock
frame).
Small tabs welded to the frames make it

easier to join them together.
2. Secure both frames with the lockable cast-
ers to prevent them from rolling away.
HM 365 ET 513 Attach the V-belt and tension it.
Fig. 3.11 Functional experiment

arrangement
Tensioning the V-belt is described in
the HM 365 manual.
The large diameter of the pulley results in a

reduction ratio of 2,18 : 1. For example, a
drive motor speed of 2000min-1 corre-
sponds to a compressor speed of 917min-1.

3.5 Commissioning
NOTICE
The compressor is already installed on the trainer
ready for operation.
NOTICE
Risk of damage to the device.
• Before connecting to the electrical power sup-

ply:
Make sure that the laboratory power supply
meets the specifications on the device's rating
plate.
1. Connect the mains plug to the electrical

power supply of HM 365.
2. Connect the data transfer cable from the
switch cabinet to the HM 365 Universal
brake and drive unit.
3. Connect a PC to the universal brake and
drive unit via USB.
4. Make sure that the compressor is filled with
oil.
5. Make sure that the V-belt is properly ten-
sioned.
6. Attach the protective hood.
7. Connect the universal brake and drive unit to
the power supply.
The experiment arrangement is now ready.

3.6 Operation
During operation, the compressor fills the pres-

sure vessel (1) until the pressure switch (4)
11 responds and the solenoid valve (11) is opened.
4 Since the compressor is not switched off, it contin-
1 ues to run while the solenoid valve is open. If for
13
any reason the pressure switch does not respond,
19 the safety valve (13) is opened at 10bar. For
longer experiments, the blow-off valve (19) should
be opened so that the pressure build-up is consid-
erably delayed. The blow-off valve is used to

adjust the air volume flow.
Fig. 3.12 8. Set the main switch on the universal brake

and drive unit to "ON".
9. Set the speed controller to 0.
10. Set the torque knob to 10.
11. Turn the main switch on the trainer to "ON".
The sensors and displays are activated.
12. Set the switch for the direction of rotation on
the universal brake and drive unit to "anti-
clockwise".
13. Turn motor switch to "I".
14. Slowly set the rated speed of the compres-
sor to 980min-1.
Read the speed display on the switch cabi-
net of ET 513, not the display on HM 365).

3.7 Measurement data acquisition
3.7.1 Installing the software
Required for installation:

• A ready-to-use PC with USB port (for minimum
requirements see Chapter 6, Page 46).
• G.U.N.T. CD-ROM
All components required to install and operate
the program are included on the CD-ROM pro-
vided by GUNT.
Installation procedure
NOTICE
While installing the software, the trainer may not
be connected to the USB port on your PC. The
trainer may only be connected after the software
has been successfully installed.
• Start the PC.

• Insert GUNT CD-ROM.
• Start the installation software "Start.bat".
• Follow the installation procedure on screen.
• Installation will run automatically after starting
it. The following software components are
installed onto the PC:
– Software for PC-based acquisition of meas-
urement data.
– LabVIEW runtime and driver routines.
– G.U.N.T. libraries.
• After installation of the software, restart the PC.

3.7.2 Program operation
• Select the program and run it via:

Start / Programs / G.U.N.T. / ET 513
• The language may be changed at any time in
the "Language" menu.
• Various pull-down menus are available for
other functions.
• For detailed instructions on use of the program
refer to its Help function. The help function is
accessed by the "?" button.
Saved measurement data can be imported into a

spreadsheet program (e.g. Microsoft Excel®) for
further processing.

3.8 Care and maintenance
Maintenance
Interval Activity
At every fitting and removal Check the V-belt for dam-

of the V-belt, at least once a age such as cracks and
year cuts. Replace the damaged
V-belt.
See the manufacturer's Check the oil level at the

instructions for the com- compressor using the sight
pressor glass. Top up with oil if nec-
essary.
Monograde oil SAE 30 is

recommended.
At regular intervals Remove condensate from

Before the first experiment the intake vessel and pres-
of the day sure vessel. To do this,
open the drain plug (a) on
the underside of the ves-
sels when cold
(see Fig. 3.13).
a
Care
At regular intervals Clean the device with a soft

cloth.
Do not use caustic or dis-
Fig. 3.13 Drain plug solving cleaning agents.

4 Fundamentals
The basic principles set out in the following make

no claim to completeness. For further theoretical
explanations, refer to the specialist literature.
4 Fundamentals 20
4.1 Use of a compressor
Compressors are components of compressed

air generation systems. These types of system
are used wherever compressed air is used as an
energy source. Compressed air is used instead of
electrical energy, particularly in work places
where there is a risk of explosion due to flamma-
ble gases, such as mining or in the chemical
industry.
• Mining: Driving machinery
• Chemical industry: Control and regulation tech-

nology
• Workshops, petrol stations: Tools, paint spray-
ing, tyre air
• Assembly companies: Automation, pneumatic
controls
7 6 5 4
3
2
8
Fig. 4.1 Compressed air generating system
4 Fundamentals 21
Such a system essentially consists of:

– Compressor (3)
– Drive motor (5)
– Pressure vessel (1)
– Safety valve (6)
– Pressure switch (electric drive) (7)
– Manometer (8)
– Lines (4)
– Frame (2)
Air coolers, pressure reducers, water separators
etc. may also be present.
The compressor is the central component of a
compressed air generation system. In it, the
mechanical energy supplied is converted into a
pressure increase of the air.
4 Fundamentals 22
4.2 Function of a compressor
Compressors are driven machines that pump

gaseous media – in our case air – from regions of
low pressure into regions of higher pressure. The
energy supplied by driving machines for this pur-
pose – such as by electric motors or internal com-
10 9 bustion engines – increases the pressure accord-
ing to the intended use, but also heats up the air.
8
Part of the heat is dissipated back into the envi-
ronment by cooling fins.
7
6 Fig. 4.2 shows the basic design of a piston com-
5
pressor.
The volume of air enclosed within the cylinder is
4 compressed by the rising compressor and
3
pumped through a pressure valve into the pres-
sure line.
2 In its downward movement, the piston sucks in
new air through the suction valve.
1
A crank mechanism, consisting of crankshaft and
connecting rod, generates the piston's necessary
upwards and downwards movement from a uni-
1 Oil sump
form rotary motion.
2 Crank case
3 Crankshaft The lubricating oil required to lubricate the moving
4 Connecting rod parts is collected in the oil sump.
5 Piston pin
6 Piston
7 Cylinder
8 Cylinder cover
9 Suction valve
10 Pressure valve
Fig. 4.2 Piston compressors
4 Fundamentals 23
The processes in the compressor can be most

clearly represented in a p-v diagram.
The p-v diagram shows the pressure in the cylin-
der over the volume of the respective cylinder.
The separate phases of compression are shown
in the figures below. The p-v diagram is drawn
p1 p2
rotated 90° to the right and thus corresponds to
the piston stroke.
– Compression
v 1 Starting from point 1, the bottom dead centre
(BDC), the piston compresses the air in the cyl-

inder. As the volume decreases, the pressure
increases.
p1 p2
– Discharge
2 In point 2 the pressure in the cylinder has
reached the pressure p2 in the pressure line.
v 1 The pressure valve opens and the compressed
air flows into the pressure line.
– Re-expansion
p1 p2 In point 3 the piston has reached the top dead
3 centre (TDC) and reverses its direction of
2 movement. The pressure valve closes and the
air remaining in the cylinder re-expands. The
v 1
pressure drops.
– Intake
In point 4 the pressure has fallen to the ambient
p1 p2
pressure p1, so that the suction valve opens
4 3 and fresh air flows into the cylinder. The pro-
2 cess continues until the piston reaches the bot-
v 1 tom dead centre (BDC). Here, at point 1, the
whole process is repeated.
Fig. 4.3 p-v diagram
4 Fundamentals 24
4.3 Characteristic variables of the piston compressor
4.3.1 Characteristic curves
Curves characterise components and systems.

Compressor characteristics characterise the
operating behaviour of compressors.
When it comes to compressors, often we are
interested in the relationship between pressure
Pressure differential p
difference p between intake side and delivery

·
side and volumetric flow rate V . Among other
things, this relationship is measured using com-

pressor test benches and presented in the form of
compressor characteristics.
For compressor characteristics, the inverse func-
·
· tion V = f p  is also common in addition to the
Volumetric flow rate V ·
representation p = f  V  .
Fig. 4.4 Compressor characteristic,
·
representation p = f  V  Compressor characteristics are often needed in
practice, especially when designing systems.
During the design process, the system's pressure
differential is estimated for the desired volumetric
flow rate. This anticipated operating point (head,
dependent on volumetric flow rate) is checked to
see if it fits well with the compressor characteris-
tic.
Compressor characteristics are based on a con-
stant speed. Specifying this speed is part of the
compressor characteristics. Changed speeds
result in changed compressor characteristics.
4 Fundamentals 25
Therefore compressor characteristics are

recorded at constant speed. The measured val-
Volumetric flow rate V
·
ues are changed by throttling in the system.

The volumetric flow rate is reduced significantly
with increasing pressure differential.
Piston compressors are usually fitted with a safety
valve to protect against exceeding the permitted
positive pressure.
Pressure differential p
Fig. 4.5 Compressor characteristic,

representation V· = f p 
Another possibility is to display the volumetric flow

·
rate depending on the compressor speed

·
V = f  n  at constant pressure.
Fig. 4.6 shows the nearly linear profile of this com-
pressor characteristic.
Compressor speed n
Fig. 4.6 Compressor characteristic
4 Fundamentals 26
4.3.2 Isothermal efficiency
The mechanical power Pmech of the compressor

is calculated according to:
P mech = 2    n 2  M (4.1)
Pmech Mechanical power of the compressor

 Mathematical constant  = 3,14
n2 Compressor speed
M Compressor torque
The isothermal power Pisoth of the compressor

(where p1 = 1bar) is:
·  p2 
P isoth = p 1  V  In  -----
- (4.2)
 p1 
Pisoth Isothermal power of the compressor
p1 Intake pressure (absolute pressure)
p2 Delivery pressure (absolute pressure)
·
V Volumetric flow rate
If Pmech and Pisoth are known, the isothermal

efficiency  isoth of the compressor can be calcu-
lated:
P
 isoth = ---------------
isoth
- (4.3)
P mech
4 Fundamentals 27
4.3.3 Volumetric efficiency
The volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the

pumped mass to the theoretical mass. The volu-
metric efficiency shows the utilisation of the dis-
placed volume Vstroke by the pumped medium,
thus representing the volumetric efficiency of the
compressor.
·
V
 L = ---------------------------
m
- (4.4)
V stroke  n 2
L Volumetric efficiency
·
Vm Volumetric flow rate
Vstroke Displaced volume
n2 Compressor speed
Volumetric efficiency
VE =  L  100% (4.5)
4.3.4 Pressure ratio
The pressure ratio  indicates the ratio of deliv-

ery pressure p2 to intake pressure p1.
p
 = -----2- (4.6)
p1
 Pressure ratio
p1 Intake pressure (absolute pressure)
p2 Delivery pressure (absolute pressure)
4 Fundamentals 28
4.3.5 Measuring the volumetric flow rate using a Venturi nozzle (differential
pressure sensor)
Differential pressure / Volumetric flow rate:

The differential pressure in a venturi nozzle is pro-
portional to the square of the volumetric flow rate:
·  dp-
V = An  2
------------- (4.7)

Where:
·
dp
V = Volumetric flow rate in m3 /s
dp = Differential pressure in N/m2
 = Density in kg/m3
An = Cross-section area
(narrowest flow cross-section)
Fig. 4.7 Venturi nozzle / Pressure
curve
Density of air:
The density  of air is dependent upon the ambi-
ent temperature T and the air pressure p0. If we
assume that the air behaves similarly to an ideal
gas, then we get:
100  p
 = -----------------------------------
0
(4.8)
R s   T + 273 
Where:
p0 = Ambient pressure 1013mbar
Rs = Specific gas constant of air
287J   kg  K 
T = Ambient temperature in °C.
4 Fundamentals 29
5 Experiments
The selection of experiments makes no claims of

completeness but is intended to be used as a
stimulus for your own experiments.
The results shown are intended as a guide only.
Depending on the construction of the individual
components, experimental skills and environmen-
tal conditions, deviations may occur in the experi-
ments. Nevertheless, the laws can be clearly
demonstrated.
The experiments measure the relevant pressures

p2 and p1, the speed n1 and torque M1 of the drive
motor, the speed n2 of the compressor, the
·
sucked-in air volumetric flow rate V and the rele-
vant temperatures T1 and T2. This allows us to
calculate the most important key figures for the
compressor.
5 Experiments 30
5.1 Series of measurements 1: Operating the compressor at constant

speed
5.1.1 Objective of the experiment
In this experiment, the delivery pressure of the

compressor is gradually changed while the intake
pressure and the speed remain constant.
Various characteristics are measured and calcu-
lated. How the characteristics depend on the
pressure ratio is shown.
5.1.2 Preparation for the experiment
1. Before the first experiment of the day: Drain

the pressure vessel.
To do this, open the condensate drain plugs
V05 and V06. Close them as soon as no
more water escapes.
2. Commission the compressor in accordance
with Chapter 3.5, Page 15.
3. Open valves V02 and V03.
4. Set the main switch on the universal brake
6. Set the torque knob to 10.
clockwise".
5 Experiments 31

sor to 820min-1.
5.1.3 Conducting the experiment
11. Measure and note down: Air pressure and

ambient temperature.
12. Wait until a steady state has been reached.

13. Take the following measurements:
Motor speed n1, motor torque M1, intake
pressure p1, delivery pressure p2, volumet-
·
ric flow rate V , intake temperature T1 and
delivery temperature T2.
14. Reduce the air volumetric flow rate using the
blow-off valve V03 so that the delivery pres-
sure increases by approx. 1bar.
15. Repeat steps 12 to 14 until the delivery pres-
sure reaches approx. 9bar.
16. Open the blow-off valve V03.
18. Turn motor switch to "0".
19. Turn the main switches of the trainer ET 513
and the universal brake and drive unit to
"OFF".
5 Experiments 32
5.1.4 Measured values
Speed Torque Suction Delivery Volumetric Intake tem- Delivery

Meas- Motor Motor pressure pressure flow rate perature tempera-
ure- ture
ment ·
series n1 M1 p1 p2 V T1 T2
in min-1 in Nm in bar abs in bar g in L/min in °C in °C
1 1785 1,64 1,0 0,1 117 22,1 66,4
2 1789 2,31 1,0 1,2 111 22,4 94,1
3 1786 2,60 1,0 2,0 106,2 23,4 111,6

4 1785 2,90 1,0 3,1 101 24,6 131,0
5 1786 3,13 1,0 4,1 97 25,4 148,0
6 1781 3,32 1,0 5,1 93 27,0 164,5
7 1785 3,45 1,0 6,0 89 27,9 174,0
8 1788 3,59 1,0 7,0 86 28,6 179,0
9 1782 3,69 1,0 8,2 83 29,3 181,0
10 1788 3,86 1,0 9,3 81 29,7 189,2
Tab. 5.1 Example measured values
5 Experiments 33
5.1.5 Analysis of the experiment
Power Power Isothermal Volumet- Volumet- Pressure Pressure

Meas- Motor Compres- efficiency ric effi- ric effi- ratio difference
ure- sor ciency ciency
ment
series  isoth
Pmech in W Pisoth in W in % L VE in %  p
1 303 38 11 0,93 93 1,1 0,1
2 432 150 35 0,89 89 2,2 1,2
3 486 195 41 0,84 84 3,0 2,0

4 545 233 43 0,80 80 4,1 3,1
5 584 257 44 0,77 77 5,1 4,1
6 619 275 44 0,73 73 6,1 5,1
7 644 282 44 0,71 71 7,0 6,0
8 672 290 43,75 0,69 69 8,0 7,0
9 693 302 43,25 0,66 66 9,2 8,2
10 716 308 43 0,65 65 10,3 9,3
Tab. 5.2 Calculated values
5 Experiments 34
Isothermal efficiency  isoth and volumetric effi-

ciency  L over the pressure ratio  = p2 /p1 are
represented as a curve in a chart.
100
Isothermal efficiency  isoth in %
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Pressure ratio 
Fig. 5.1 Isothermal efficiency over pressure ratio at constant speed
1,0
Volumetric efficiency  L
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Pressure ratio 
Fig. 5.2 Volumetric efficiency over pressure ratio at constant speed
5 Experiments 35
5.1.6 Evaluation
The characteristics provide the following results:

– the pressure difference decreases with
increasing volumetric flow rate.
– the isothermal efficiency increases with
increasing pressure ratio and remains almost
constant from a pressure ratio of approx. 4.
– the volumetric efficiency decreases with
increasing pressure ratio.
5 Experiments 36
5.2 Series of measurements 2: Operating the compressor at constant pres-

sure
5.2.1 Objective of the experiment
In this experiment, the speed of the compressor is

changed gradually, while the delivery pressure p2
remains constant, by adjusting it with the blow-off
valve V03.
Various characteristics are measured and calcu-
lated. How the characteristics depend on the
pressure ratio is shown.
5.2.2 Preparation for the experiment
1. Drain the pressure vessel before the first

experiment of the day.
To do this, open the condensate drain plugs
V05 and V06. Close them as soon as no
more water escapes.
2. Commission the compressor in accordance
with Chapter 3.5, Page 15.
3. Open valves V02 and V03.
4. Set the main switch on the universal brake
6. Set the knob for torque to 10.
clockwise".
5 Experiments 37

sor to 980min-1.
5.2.3 Conducting the experiment
11. Measure and note down: Air pressure and

ambient temperature.
12. Wait until a steady state has been reached.

13. Take the following measurements:
Motor speed n1, compressor speed n2,
motor torque M1, intake pressure p1, deliv-
·
ery pressure p2, volumetric flow rate V .
14. Reduce the speed by 90...100min-1.
15. Set the blow-off valve V03 so that the deliv-
ery pressure corresponds to the delivery
pressure of the first measured value record-
ing, such that this remains constant.
16. Repeat steps 12 to 15 until the delivery pres-
sure of the first measured value recording is
no longer reached.
17. Open the blow-off valve V03.
19. Turn motor switch to "0".
20. Turn the main switches of the trainer ET 513
and the universal brake and drive unit to
"OFF".
5 Experiments 38
5.2.4 Measured values
Speed Torque Suction Delivery Speed Volumetric

Meas- Motor Motor pressure pressure Compres- flow rate
ure- sor
ment ·
series n1 M1 p1 p2 n2 V
in min-1 in Nm in bar abs in bar g in min-1 in L/min
1 2132 3,87 1,0 9,0 980 93
2 1929 3,88 1,0 9,0 883 85
3 1724 3,80 1,0 9,0 789 78

4 1530 3,69 1,0 9,0 704 70
5 1330 3,69 1,0 9,0 608 59
6 1130 3,48 1,0 9,0 518 49
7 930 3,56 1,0 9,0 426 41
8 730 3,56 1,0 9,0 338 33
9 600 3,80 1,0 9,0 275 24
Tab. 5.3 Example measured values
5 Experiments 39
5.2.5 Analysis of the experiment
Meas- Power Power Isothermal Volumetric Volumetric

ure- Motor Compressor efficiency efficiency efficiency
ment
series Pmech in W Pisoth in W  isoth in % L VE in %
1 860 348 40 0,62 62
2 780 321 41 0,63 63
3 689 297 43 0,64 64
4 592 264 45 0,65 65
5 480 230 45 0,64 64
6 415 191 46 0,63 63

7 347 156 45 0,63 63
8 274 125 45 0,62 62
9 230 96 38 0,60 60
Tab. 5.4 Calculated values
100
·
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Compressor speed n2 in min-1
Fig. 5.3 Compressor characteristic
Isothermal efficiency  and volumetric efficiency

 L are represented in a chart as a curve over the
compressor speed n2.
5 Experiments 40
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Speed n2 in min-1
Fig. 5.4 Isothermal efficiency over compressor speed at constant pressure
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Speed n2 in min-1
Fig. 5.5 Volumetric efficiency over compressor speed at constant pressure
5 Experiments 41
5.2.6 Evaluation
The characteristics provide the following results:

– The volumetric flow rate increases proportion-
ately with the speed.
– The isothermal efficiency decreases slightly
with increasing speed or is almost constant.
– The volumetric efficiency remains almost con-
stant even with increasing speed.
5 Experiments 42
5.3 Consideration of both measurement series
Isothermal efficiency
As far as efficiency is concerned, it can be said
that  isoth is above all a function of the pressure
ratio  . This is confirmed not only by the results,
but also by the equation for calculating the effi-
ciency.
Volumetric efficiency
The ratios for the volumetric efficiency are not

quite so clear: The volumetric efficiency is made
up of three different terms:
L = D  F  A (5.1)
 D is referred to as the throughput rate and

shows the influence of leaks in piston rings,
valves and packing glands. It is set to 1 for well
maintained and new machines.
 F is referred to as the filling ratio and is the quo-
tient of the indicated suction volume V and the dis-
placement per cylinder Vstroke. The filling ratio
measures the flow and throttle losses as well as
the volume decrease due to the re-expansion.
 A is referred to as the heating ratio and is used
to assess volume losses due to heating of the
pumped medium during suction. The temperature
rise of the gases during suction T1 is caused by
their heating at the walls of the working area. As
the mean cylinder temperature increases with
increasing pressure ratio  , and thus also the
temperature at compression T2, the heating ratio
5 Experiments 43
becomes smaller. These relationships can be rep-

resented approximately as equations:
T1
------ (5.2)
T2
Fig. 5.5 shows the heating ratio as a function of

the pressure ratio  .
Heating ratio  A
0,35
0,3
0,25
0,2
0,15
0,1
0,05
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Pressure ratio 
Fig. 5.6 Heating ratio as a function of pressure ratio
5 Experiments 44
For the two measurement series, the volumetric

efficiency curves are evaluated as follows:
– Series of measurements 1
As the pressure ratio increases, the volumetric
efficiency is mainly influenced by the heating
ratio and decreases accordingly.
– Series of measurements 2
The volumetric efficiency decreases with
increasing volumetric flow rate (corresponds to
increasing speed), as the throttle losses

increase with increasing volumetric flow rate.
The re-expansion  0 can be neglected in the

compressor being studied because of the small
dead space and the relatively low pressure ratios.
5 Experiments 45
6 Appendix
6.1 Technical data
Dimensions
Length x Width x Height 900 x 800 x 1,510 mm
Weight approx. 130 kg
Voltage supply
Voltage 230 V
Frequency 50 Hz
Phases 1
Nominal consumption (power) 0,4 kW
Alternatives optional, see rating plate
Noise emissions up to 90 dB(A)
Compressor 1 cylinder, single-stage

Power consumption 0,75 kW
Rated speed 980 min-1
Positive operating pressure 8 bar
Max. pressure 10 bar
Intake capacity at 8bar g 105 L/min
Inner diameter 65 mm
Stroke 46 mm
Oil quality SAE 30
Oil quantity 0,25 L
Oil top-up quantity 0,13 L
NOTICE
The compressor is not operated with refrigerant
but rather with air. Only use oil appropriate for air.
6 Appendix 46
V-belt
Type SPA
Length 1,500 mm
Speed sensor
Type Photoelectric reflex switch
Measuring range 0...1.000 min-1
Safety valve
Blow-off pressure 10 bar
Pressure vessel
Volume 20 L
Maximum pressure 16 bar
Intake vessel
Volume 20 L
Pressure measurement
Delivery pressure 0...16 bar
Intake pressure -1...1,5 bar
Pressure sensor
Measuring range 0...16 bar abs.
Temperature measurement
Temperature sensor type Pt100
Measuring range -50...300 °C
Venturi nozzle differential pressure sensor

Narrowest flow cross-section An 113 mm2
6 Appendix 47
Measurement data acquisition

Software environment:
LabVIEW Runtime
System requirements:
PC with Pentium IV processor, 1GHz
Minimum 1024MB RAM
Minimum 1GB free hard disk space
1 CD-ROM drive
1 USB port
Graphic card resolution min. 1024 x 768 pixels, True Color
Windows 7 / Windows 8 / Windows 10
6.2 List of formula symbols and units
Formula symbols Mathematical/physical variable Unit

An Venturi nozzle cross-section area mm2
i Transmission ratio –
M1 Motor torque Nm
n2 Compressor speed
min-1
n1 Motor speed
p1 Suction pressure
bar
p2 Delivery pressure
Pisoth Isothermal power
W, kW
Pmech Mechanical power
Rs Specific gas constant J/  kg  k 
T1 Intake temperature
°C
T2 Delivery temperature
VE Volumetric efficiency %
Vstroke Displaced volume dm3
·
V Volumetric flow rate
· m3/h
V meas Measured volumetric flow rate
0 Re-expansion –
6 Appendix 48
Formula symbols Mathematical/physical variable Unit

p Differential pressure bar
A Heating ratio –
D Throughput rate –
F Filling ratio –
L Volumetric efficiency –
 Pressure ratio –
 Density kg/m3
6.3 Tables and graphs
Unit L/s L/min L/h m3/min m3/h

1L/s 1 60 3600 0,06 3,6
1L/min 0,01667 1 60 0,001 0,06
1L/h 0,000278 0,01667 1 0,00001667 0,001
3
1m /min 16,667 1000 60000 1 60
1m3/h 0,278 16,667 1000 0,01667 1
Tab. 6.1 Conversion table for units of volume flow
Unit bar mbar Pa hPa kPa mm WC *

1bar 1 1,000 100,000 1,000 100 10,000
1mbar 0,001 1 100 1 0,1 10
1Pa 0,00001 0,01 1 0,01 0,001 0,1
1hPa 0,001 1 100 1 0,1 10
1kPa 0,01 10 1,000 10 1 100
1 mm WC * 0,0001 0,1 10 0,1 0,01 1
Tab. 6.2 Conversion table for units of pressure

* rounded values
6 Appendix 49
6.4 Worksheets
6.4.1 Worksheet 1: Measured values
Ambient temperature: _______

Ambient pressure: _______
Motor (HM 365) Compressor (ET 513)
Meas- ·
urement n1 in min-1 M1 in Nm p1 in bar p2 in bar T1 in °C T2 in °C n2 in min-1 V in L/min
series
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
6 Appendix 50
6.4.2 Worksheet 2: Calculations
Ambient temperature: _______

Ambient pressure: _______
Meas-
ure-
Pmech in kW Pisoth in kW  isoth in % L VE in %  p in bar
ment
series
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
6 Appendix 51
6.4.3 Worksheet 3: Isothermal efficiency over pressure ratio
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Pressure ratio 
6 Appendix 52
6.4.4 Worksheet 4: Volumetric efficiency over pressure ratio
1,0
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Pressure ratio 
6 Appendix 53
6.4.5 Worksheet 5: Efficiency over compressor speed
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
6 Appendix 54
6.4.6 Worksheet 6: Volumetric efficiency over compressor speed
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
6 Appendix 55
6.4.7 Worksheet 7: Heating ratio over pressure ratio
0,35
Heating ratio  A
0,3
0,25
0,2
0,15
0,1
0,05
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Pressure ratio 
6 Appendix 56
6.4.8 Worksheet 8: Compressor characteristic volumetric flow rate over com-

pressor speed
100
Volumetric flow rate V in L/min
90
·
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
6 Appendix 57
6.4.9 Worksheet 9: Compressor characteristic pressure difference over volu-

metric flow rate
10
Pressure difference p in bar
0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
·
6 Appendix 58
6.4.10 Worksheet 10: Compressor characteristic volumetric flow rate over

pressure difference
150
125
·
100
75
50
25
0
0 5 10
Pressure difference p in bar
6 Appendix 59

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Experiment Instructions

ET 513 Single-stage piston

Last modification by: Heike Grünewald

This manual must be kept by the unit.

Before operating the unit:

Version 0.1 Subject to technical alterations

3 Description of the device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

(differential pressure sensor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

6.4.5 Worksheet 5: Efficiency over compressor speed . . . . . . . . . 54

To generate compressed air for industry and com-

plants or to inflate tyres at petrol stations.

The ET 513 Single-stage piston compressor,

The trainer is suitable for both practical training in

2.1 Intended use

The unit is to be used only for teaching purposes.

2.2 Structure of safety instructions

The signal words DANGER, WARNING or

An additional symbol indicates the nature of the

Signal word Explanation

Indicates a situation which, if not avoided, will result in

Indicates a situation which, if not avoided, may result in

Indicates a situation which, if not avoided, may result in

Indicates a situation which may result in damage to

Hazard area (general)

Wear ear defenders

2.3 Safety instructions

Also observe the operating instructions for

switch cabinet is open.

during experiments with variable speed.

2.4 Ambient conditions for the operating and storage location

3 Description of the device

In addition to the ET 513 Single-stage piston

pressor. Relevant measured values are recorded

3 Description of the device 6

3.1 Device design

1 Pressure vessel B2 13 Sound absorber X2

3 Description of the device 7

The trainer is mounted on a mobile laboratory

ters on the vessels.

3 Description of the device 8

3.2 Process schematic

Main components Measurement and control equipment

Fig. 3.3 ET 513: process schematic

3 Description of the device 9

3.3.1 Pressure switch

Pressure switches automatically switch motors of

pressure switch closes the circuit is called the cut-

a cut-in pressure of 6bar intersect at a point within

3 Description of the device 10

The diagram also provides additional information:

• the smallest and largest pressure difference

3.3.2 Pressure sensor

For measurement data acquisition, the pressures

Fig. 3.6 Pressure sensor

3 Description of the device 11

The dial-gauge manometers used are of the

3 Description of the device 12

3.3.4 Safety valve

Safety valves are used to protect vessels and

Fig. 3.9 Safety valve

3.3.5 Non-return valve

Compressor Non-return valves are installed at the end of the

Fig. 3.10 Non-return valve