Journal of Materials Processing Technology 152 (2004) 176–184

Experimental and simulative results in sheet incremental

forming on CNC machines
Elisabetta Ceretti∗ , Claudio Giardini, Aldo Attanasio
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
Received 27 January 2003; received in revised form 22 March 2004; accepted 23 March 2004

Abstract

The use of light weight components in automotive industries is very important in improving engine efficiency and reducing fuel
consumption and pollution. In the same way the development of new production technologies, characterized by high flexibility in sheet
forming (like the flexible forming process, the dieless sheet forming process or the sheet fluid forming process), allows the use of new
concept products. The present research reports the results obtained from a new sheet forming process based on a general purpose CNC
machine equipped with a special tool. All the tool components are designed by FEM simulations which have furnished the value of the
applied loads. The experimental results show that the sheet incremental forming by CNC machines has good potential for use in producing
prototypes of industrial components. When complex shapes are referred to, a preliminary study for the identification of the optimal process
parameters needs to be done in order to obtain safe parts.
© 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Incremental forming; Experimental validation; FEM simulation

1. Introduction The application in question comes from industry while the

In recent years all the techniques related to tube and sheet
forming processes [1] have been under study in order to
develop new production procedures characterized by high
flexibility, such as hydroforming and incremental forming
[2]. These techniques are characterized by the possibility of
being easily adapted to produce small production batches
using low cost tooling. This research focuses on incremen-
tal forming which presents a big advantage: the use of gen-
eral purpose CNC machines [3–11]. These machines are
equipped with special tools (designed and built by the re-
searchers of the University of Brescia) able to deform the
sheet following a suitable tool path. The experimental equip-
ment consists of a CNC milling machine with a horizontal
spindle, a die, with a negative or positive shape of the part
to be realized, a blank holder, to keep the sheet in the right
position during the whole forming process, and a suitable
punch mounted on the spindle to form the sheet. The die
presence under the sheet is very important in order to assure
the accomplishment of the part geometry and dimensional
tolerances, furthermore it is not necessary to use an expen-
sive material for the die (such as particularly resistant steel)
since the working loads are low.
∗ Corresponding author.
goal of the analysis is to determine the working ability of the
process when forming sheets whether for small production
parts or for making shells for concrete dies.
Different materials [12], different sheet dimensions and
multiple pass incremental forming have been tested to
optimize the process and obtain safe parts. The present
study reports relevant results in experimenting this new
high-potential technique.
2. The state of the art in the innovative sheet metal
forming processes
Nowadays many innovative processes have been intro-
duced in sheet metal forming:
1. Flexible stretch forming machine: Developed by the
Institute for Metal Forming and Metal Forming Ma-
chine Tools (IFUM) of the University of Hannover [13],
it utilizes tools with simple geometry to form a metal
sheet bounded on a mobile clamp frame and deformed
by the loads applied by the punch and the die. This ma-
chine is able to operate with two different methods: the
stretchforming process and the deep drawing process.
2. Sheet dieless forming: Developed by AMINO Corpora-
tion [2]. The machine is very simple but can form the

0924-0136/$ – see front matter © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2004.03.024
 E. Ceretti et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 152 (2004) 176–184
sheet with high accuracy. The main components of this
machine are the punch and the blocking system. A PC
controls the machine, moving the sheet along the X-, Y-
and Z-directions; the tool can apply the load necessary
to deform the piece.
3. Sheet fluid forming: Developed by AMINO Corporation
[2] too, this overcomes the limits of conventional sheet
forming processes. The die is substituted by a water
chamber. The punch moves vertically and the pressurized
water works like a deformable die.
3. The sheet incremental forming process
This experimental process is based on the local deforma-
tion of a sheet, obtained by means of a punch moved by a
CNC machine.
The main components of the equipment are (Fig. 1) [14]:
1. a punch, designed by the authors and mounted on the
spindle of the CNC machine;
2. the die, which reproduces the part geometry;
3. the blank holder to keep the sheet in the right position
during the process.
Differently from the processes described above, a die is
present in order to assure the correctness of geometry and
dimensions of the piece produced.
The die is mounted on the table of the CNC machine and
the moving punch deforms the sheet up to the die. The punch
path must be optimized by means of an accurate study of the
final geometry, in order to obtain a good surface finishing.
The blank holder is moved by four hydraulic actuators to
keep the sheet working position steady in relation to the
punch position (along Z-axis).
The punch has a cylindrical body with a spherical head
(Fig. 2). The head can be fixed or can rotate around the
spindle axis. In the second case the tool generates a rolling
friction between sheet and punch instead of a sliding one.
As a consequence, a better surface finishing can be obtained.
It is also possible to apply to the punch a control system for
the force applied in order to guarantee the machine and the
Fig. 1. The setup components.
177
Fig. 2. The punch.
sheet security. This system allows the punch to move back
when the working load is too high for the actual process. The
backward motion is obtained by a spring designed with an
appropriate stiffness and pre-load (Fig. 3). This is important
to guarantee a safe operation when the punch applies the load
necessary to deform the material. The maximum load value
has been identified by FEM simulations as described below.
The punch is moved by the CNC machine, so all CAD,
CAM and CAE techniques are relevant in defining the tool
path. It is important to underline that the diameter of the
punch head affects the geometries that can be worked. For
our application a diameter of 10 mm for the spherical head
of the punch has been used, but different configurations are
possible depending on the workpiece to be produced.
The die design (which reproduces the object geometry
(Fig. 4)) is very important in obtaining a good part. As a
consequence it is necessary to consider the sheet material,
the sheet springback and the sheet thickness. The die can be
characterized by different production methods and materi-
als, but it must satisfy two requirements: to resist working
stresses, to prevent die crashing, and to have very good sur-
face finishing, producing high quality parts.
Another relevant issue is the cost of the die; in fact the die
material can contribute to reducing the overall production
cost. The die materials, suitable for sheet incremental form-
ing on CNC machine, may be: steels, polymeric materials,
Fig. 3. The punch retraction system.
178 E. Ceretti et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 152 (2004) 176–184
Fig. 4. The die with positive shape.
Fig. 5. The blank holder.
thermosetting resins, hardwood and any other materials
which satisfy the strength, stiffness and surface finishing
requirements.
The die cost can also be reduced by using rapid prototyp-
ing technologies.
The blank holder is made by two frames which retain the
sheet on its boundary (Fig. 5). The retaining system controls
the sheet position and, at the same time, lowers the sheet to
maintain it in the right place during the punch work.
Four actuators can be applied to the blank holder to obtain
a more accurate sheet movement. In this case the movement
mechanism is controlled by a closed loop system which
guarantees an accurate process. The blank holder retraction
system controls the position of the sheet depending on the
punch position (along Z-axis) so as to synchronize the two
movements and to prevent sheet deflection.
4. The part geometry of the application
The geometry of the actual part under study (cover of
a truck differential) is shown in Fig. 6. This part can be
Fig. 6. The part geometry.
considered representative in evaluating the capability of the
incremental forming technique in realizing complex figures.
In fact, different geometrical features can be highlighted
in the part:
• The hemispherical dome: Which can be considered ideal
for dieless sheet forming, the stress and strain fields being
equal along the two tangential directions.
• The two lateral sides: A sudden change in the material
direction (about 90◦ ) is present.
• The nose: Presents a very complex shape due to a sudden
change in the material direction and the presence of small
fillet radii.
As already mentioned, this geometry highlights perfor-
mances and limits of sheet incremental forming on CNC
machines.
5. The punch design
The punch is the component that deforms the sheet; all the
loads which are applied are generated by this component,
so an accurate design of the punch is necessary.
The design must consider the stresses generated during
the work, the tool movement, the part geometry and the tool
retraction system to limit the maximum load applied. As
a consequence a unique tool cannot be identified, being a
function of the part in question and of the CNC machine.
We can identify three steps in the punch design:
• The FEM analysis to evaluate loads applied and the value
of stresses and deformations acting in the sheet.
• The tool dimensioning according to the compression and
bending action, referring to the load values obtained by
the previous step.
• The dimensioning of the spring which causes the tool’s
backward motion.
5.1. The FEM analyses
Several FEM simulations, using DEFORM software, al-
lowed the identification of the maximum load applied to
the tool and the stress and strain distributions in the sheet.
These values are fundamental in determining the correct tool
dimensions and stiffness, the elastic spring coefficient and
its pre-load value in order to avoid punch plastic deflection
 E. Ceretti et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 152 (2004) 176–184
Fig. 7. The FEM geometries under study.
during the deformation and also overloads on the machine
spindle.
The FEM analyses aimed to identify the magnitude of
the loads acting on the punch. They did not simulate the
whole deformation process, but were limited, in this study,
to the effect of the punch movements on local stress and
strain distributions (Fig. 7 reports the different directions
from which the punch approaches).
The FEM analyses have been conducted on the three typi-
cal geometries characterizing the piece (Figs. 6 and 7). These
studies were very important in identifying the magnitude of
the critical loads during the incremental forming process.
The FE model was a bidimensional plane strain. Naturally,
this is a simplification of the real process but, as already
mentioned, this preliminary study aims to identify the mag-
nitude of stresses and strains acting on the tool during three
typical punch movements.
The sheet material flow stress was characterized by
EUROPA METALLI S.p.A. by using tensile stress tests.
These values were used as input in the simulation model.
As already mentioned during the operation the sheet un-
dergoes local deformation, caused by the punch as shown in
Fig. 8 where strain distribution is reported.
The sheet deformation, estimated by the simulation pro-
gram (Fig. 8), shows that the sheet presents deformed zones
and non deformed zones according to the punch movement
which changes the Z-position at fixed
Z-values (vertical
pitch) during the different passes of the simulative process.
The most important information for correct punch dimen-
sioning has been obtained from simulation sets (b) and (c)
as indicated in Fig. 7. In fact, these are the most critical
working conditions for the punch, which is subjected to a
vertical load and bending.
The vertical and tangential loads, used to design the punch
dimensions, have been calculated from the effective stresses
Fig. 9. Compression (a) and bending (b) of the punch.
179
Fig. 8. Effective strain distribution.
obtained in the simulations and multiplied by a proper safety
coefficient. In particular, the load values identified for com-
pression and bending (Fig. 9) are equal to 1000 N.
In order to guarantee a maximum vertical load equal
to 1000 N, a punch retraction system has also been de-
veloped. This mechanism is based on a pre-loaded spring
with an appropriate stiffness, which causes backward motion
of the punch when the load becomes greater than 1000 N
(Fig. 3).
5.2. The tool path
The tool path design is important for a good working
process. The punch movement must be gradual in order to
progressively deform the sheet. Various elements determine
the right tool path choice: the die geometry, the sheet mate-
rial, the sheet thickness, the surface finishing and the CNC
machine.
The tool path optimization was obtained using the most
innovative CAD/CAM techniques. Pro/Engineer was the 3D
CAD/CAM software used to model the die and to generate
the best tool path. This software generates the tool path after
defining all the parameters that characterize the working
operation such as the tool dimensions, the feed rate, the step
depth, etc. The path generation is automatic: the software
evaluates and identifies the best tool path for the operation
we want to do. Finally the 3D CAD/CAM uses a specific
postprocessor to convert the CL file so obtained into a file
executable by the CNC machine (Fig. 10).
180 E. Ceretti et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 152 (2004) 176–184
Fig. 10. Example of the tool path developed.
Fig. 11. Different tool path in nose formation.
Two different tool path strategies have been tested in this
research. The first moves the punch from the die top along
a spiral path so the tool passes over the nose (Fig. 11a). The
second moves the punch from the die top along increasing
circumferences with constant Z-values: in this case the tool
rotates around the nose (Fig. 11b).
6. Experimental results
In order to study the possibility of obtaining defect-free
parts with this new technique a trial and error procedure has
been followed, varying the working conditions. In particular,
we studied the influence of:
• part geometry;
• tool path;
• sheet retaining mechanism and movement (blank holder);
• sheet material;
• sheet thickness.
The influence of punch feed and rotation along its axis
have not been considered in the present paper but are cur-
rently under study since they are significant parameters for
the process optimization.
Here below, we report the improvement and the results
obtained working Cu DHP and AISI 304.
The results must be considered valid not only for the spe-
cific case, but also as global values, furnishing important
suggestions for the definition of the limits in sheet incre-
mental forming techniques.
6.1. Experimental results on a Cu DHP sheet
Many experimental tests have been carried out to define
the correct machining set up to obtain safe parts. The sheet
material is Cu DHP (deoxidized high phosphorus) charac-
terized by a high formability. A lot of changes have been
introduced, starting from the very first machining setup, to
solve the problems that arose during the experimental tests.
In particular, the tool path, the blank holder movement, the
punch and path dimensions and the sheet thickness are the
optimized variables.
The most important results are presented below.
The first machine setup was very simple. Two frames
retained the sheet boundary and four tire bars guaranteed
the vertical sheet movement (realized manually). The punch
was made by a steel cylindrical body with a spherical head
coated with Teflon to decrease friction. The tool followed a
spiral movement.
The first problem that arose was the rotation of the sheet
in the holding frame. This was caused by the sliding friction
between punch and sheet which generates tangential forces.
To solve it, four pins were introduced between the blank
holder and the sheet. Another blank holder improvement was
the introduction of a mechanical system based on the thrust
of four pre-loaded springs (Fig. 12). This system allows the
sheet to move vertically as the working depth of the punch
changes, without human intervention. As a consequence the
working time decreases.
Fig. 12. Blank holder system based on the thrust of four springs.
 E. Ceretti et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 152 (2004) 176–184 181

Fig. 13. First part obtained.

Fig. 14. Metallic balls.

During the forming operation of the first part the sheet
was unable to flow and follow the material deformation.
Moreover, the Teflon used as lubricant lost its performance
very quickly. As a consequence (see Fig. 13), the part pre-
sented breakages in the critical zones, i.e. the nose and the
lateral sides. Furthermore, during the nose formation the
punch broke.
It is evident how several changes were necessary to im-
prove the sheet flow. The blank holder configuration was
completely changed. A new kind of tire bar was utilized to
lower the sheet; metallic balls (Fig. 14) were introduced be-
tween the sheet and blank holder frame to allow the sheet
to move according to the material flow. This provides new Fig. 15. Second part obtained.
material in the deformation area and prevented the defor-
mation that takes place by reducing the sheet thickness. In
fact, in this case, once the maximum exploitable thickness nose itself. Also in this case the punch broke during the
is reached the sheet breaks. nose formation.
Also the lubrication was improved because the spherical Some considerations should be given to the orientation of
head of the punch, coated with Teflon, did not guarantee fibers of the metallic sheet. In fact, if the rolling direction
the necessary sliding, so the sheet, too, was lubricated with is orthogonal to the lateral side of the part (Fig. 16a), the
engine oil to decrease the local friction. forming process can obtain this feature without breakage.
After these changes the part obtained (Fig. 15) still pre- Meanwhile, if the rolling direction is parallel to the lateral
sented breakages on the nose area. The crack nucleation side, the operation fails and the part is broken (Fig. 16b).
was especially localized along the frontal surface of the This is due to the work hardening level of the material which

Fig. 16. The influence of orientation of fibers.

182 E. Ceretti et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 152 (2004) 176–184
Fig. 17. Part obtained from annealed sheet.
is higher along the rolling direction; the material already
being stressed, its capacity to resist additional deformation
is reduced. The control of the blank sheet rolling direction
gives the possibility to solve the lateral side workability; no
improvements are present in realizing the nose.
As a further step the sheet material has been heat-treated
to change its physical and mechanical specifications. The
objective was to increase the elongation after deformation,
reducing the necking value.
In particular, the sheets were annealed by heating the ma-
terial for 4 h at 450 ◦ C. By means of this heat treatment, the
metallurgical structure of the Cu DHP changed: the grain
size increased from 0.015 up to 0.200 mm. As a conse-
quence, the hardness and the limit stress decreased, then the
elongation increased and the necking value reduced, so im-
proving the overall material formability.
Using the heat-treated sheets, several new tests were per-
formed without obtaining safe parts (Fig. 17) but improving
the operation performance (a small crack is present).
This is due to the high sheet formability that generates
an improved material flow, so the sheet thickness decreases
Fig. 18. The bulged ring in the tool working area.
Fig. 19. The 3D model of the preformed part.
without cracking. At the same time, this improved sheet
formability results in a bulged ring at the tool working area
(Fig. 18).
Although the annealed Cu DHP gives higher working
depth, thanks to its deformability, a different solution was
tested and the sheet thickness has been changed from 1 to
2 mm. In this case too, the sheet breaks during the nose pro-
duction; while the bulged ring zone is reduced.
The solution, at this point, was to realize the nose ge-
ometry in different steps so reducing the local deformation.
The die geometry was changed in the nose area. By adding
polyurethane foam, a preforming shape was defined and the
tool path was changed as a result (Fig. 19).
This part was then used to run the finishing operation.
The operation was stopped, because the geometry of the
preformed part was characterized by a big gap between pre-
formed sheet and die at the nose position. As a consequence
the sheet wrinkled around the nose (Fig. 20) and to continue
the working operations was dangerous for the tool and sheet
integrity.
A further step was to reproduce the part until the nose
creation began. Then the die was modified one more time
by polyurethane foam and the preforming program was run
to obtain a new preformed part (Fig. 21). In this case the
gap between preformed sheet and die at the nose position is
absent. After that, the old CNC part program was used to
finish the part. In this way safe parts were produced.
Fig. 20. The finishing operation.
 E. Ceretti et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 152 (2004) 176–184 183

Fig. 21. Second type of preformed part. Fig. 23. The modified sheet.

6.2. The experimental results on AISI 304 sheet

experiment was not completed in order to guarantee the
tool integrity.
The designed working technique was applied also on AISI
Same modifications were introduced to optimize the
304 sheets to evaluate the process suitability. The AISI 304
process. A blank holder without metallic balls was used
was chosen for its high formability and elongation capability.
to increase the stretch of the sheet and a modified sheet
The machine setup, the blank holder, the die and the tool
(Fig. 23) was used to reduce the bending generation.
used to carry out the tests were the same used for the Cu
The resulting pieces were not acceptable, even if they
DHP sheets. The tool movement had constant Z-values as
were less wrinkled than in the previous case. The bendings
reported in Fig. 11b.
generated at the end of the working phase and the surface
The problems that arose in this test are linked to the
finish were improved (Fig. 24).
material elasticity. As a consequence of the high Young’s
The experiments carried out on AISI 304 produced parts
modulus, an uncontrolled material flow, which causes sheet
which did not respect the piece geometry and tolerances.
bending and wrinkling (Fig. 22), was generated. Moreover,
These results are caused by the material properties and the
the springback causes the sheet to detach from the die. This
inefficiency of the blank holder, which does not allow an
accurate holding force.

Fig. 22. First part on AISI 304. Fig. 24. Second part on AISI 304.
184 E. Ceretti et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 152 (2004) 176–184
7. Conclusions and future works
This technique presents several positive aspects. The die
presence under the sheet guarantees parts which respect di-
mensional and geometrical tolerances. This cannot be so
easily achieved when the punch works without the die. The
die material may be very cheap so decreasing the operation
cost. The process can be suitable also for realizing complex
geometry shape although an accurate study on preforming
steps, both in terms of geometry and tool path, has to be
conducted. In this way the technique can be applied to small
batch production, rapid tooling (concrete die production)
and flanging operations without die.
Future developments will include the execution of an FLD
analysis to identify the limit deformations for the blank sheet
material, the design of a new blank holder that improves
the sheet flow together with a movement synchronized with
the tool, the development of an accurate 3D FEM study to
calculate the loads applied by the punch.
Acknowledgements
This work has been made possible thanks to the MIUR
founds and to the cooperation of IVECO S.p.A.
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