WEST ASIA ARCHITECTURE

Geographical
Provides much of the background of the western civilization
Covers the Arab states, Israel, Cyprus, Turkey, Persia (Iran), and
Trans-Caucasian republics of the former USSR, Iraq
(Mesopotamia)
Three broad zones comprise the greater part of West Asia:
❏ Arabian peninsula with its desert extending to Syria;
❏ Yemen stretching from the Mediterranean coastal plain;
Palestine through north Syria and Iraq to the head of the
Gulf, lies the zone of grasslands, foot hills, alluvial river
plains known as the Fertile Crescent,
❏ Mountains and plateaus of Anatolia, mountains and lakes
of Turkey and Iran, mountain ranges of Zargos
Fertile Crescent-cradle of Civilization
• -rich soil
• -flooding of water from Rivers Tigris, Euphrates
(Mesopotamia and Nile (Egypt) due to melting of
snow from Anatolia and Persian mountains
made the soil fertile and good for agriculture
• -irrigation (technology) increased food security
• -earliest settlements were found along these
rivers
• -consisted of Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel ,
part of Egypt, Turkey (Anatolia), Iran (Persia),
Iraq (Mesopotamia)
Climatic
• Western Persia and Mesopotamia, warmer climate good for growth of settlements, part of
the Fertile Crescent
• Little rain but water came from snow found in the mountain ranges of Anatolia and Persia
• The melting of snow caused annual flooding of Tigris and Euphrates River good for
agriculture

• Dry climate in Northern Mesopotamia, water from Tigris and Euphrates Rivers to irrigate
farmlands

• Southern Mesopotamia, fertile land good for agriculture - first complex societies of south-
west Asia evolved

• Mesopotamia lacks natural defensive boundaries

• Syria is open to maritime due to its location along the Mediterranean; has fertile lands
good for agriculture
 Geological

• Limestone in northern Egypt

• Basalt, Red volcanic tuff in Jordan and Anatolia
 Culture
• Babylonia and Assyrian
belief
• gods of heaven-Anu, Anu
• Enlil god of wind, earth
and storm; and
• Ea-god of ritual,
purification Triad of
Heaven
Triad of Heaven, Anu in the
northern, Enlil in the middle
and Ea in the southern zone.
Enlil
Eanna for the Sumerians
and Ishtar for the Assyrians
Ea
• Goddess of love, fertility The god was the ruler. The kings
were the representatives of the god
Mesopotamian Civilization

• Babylonian
• Sumerian
• Assyrian
Mesopotamian Civilization
Geographical
location

• Part of the Fertile Crescent

• Bounded by two rivers-
Euphrates and Tigris

In Greek Terms
• meso- city
• Potamus -river
Babylonian Civilization
• The city of Babylon started 4000 years ago along the Euphrates River
• King Hammurabi made the city one of the biggest during that time
• Several centuries later, city became a strong empire stretching from Persia to
Mediterranean Sea
• This period marked the construction of beautiful structures making the city one of the most
beautiful during the ancient world
• Persia conquered Babylon that caused it downfall
Famous structures
• Tower of Babel
• City walls
• Nebuchadnezzar palaces
• Hanging Garden of Babylon
• Ishtar gate
 Babylonian Civilization
• Babylonia abundance of mud brick, lack of
stone
• Use of colored brick
• Use of pilaster-imbedded column for
ornamentation
• Frescoes on walls-frescoes technique in
painting on wall while the plater is still wet
• Use of reliefs-carvings on the walls
pilaster

Low relief

frescoes
Geological

• Mud clay from the rivers

• stone and timber were rare
• Developed a technology of making
bricks
• Structures in brick
• Brick architecture
Culture
Cuneiform writing-
• Developed during 3500-3000BCE by
the Sumerians of Mesopotamia
• start of the historic written period in
the history of civilization

Sumerians influenced their culture

Neo-Babylonian Architecture
❏ Influenced by earlier architecture
of Mesopotamia and Assyria
City of Babylon
• Rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar II (605-563
BC) after being destroyed by
Sennacherib (689 BC)
• Heavily fortified
• Inner town- square in plan of 1300m
containing principal buildings and
Euphrates River at the west side
• Few main streets intersect at right
angles terminating in tower framed
gates where they met the walls
• Tiered dwelling, business houses,
temples, chapels and shrines were along
the streets
Fortified city of Babylon with Euphrates river
dividing the city
City of Babylon
• Principal sites lined the riverfront behind them
ran the processional way; its vista closed to the
north by the Ishtar Gate glowing in coloured
bricks patterned with yellow and white bulls
and dragons
• Nebuchadnezzar’s palace complex on the water
side was the Hanging Gardens 275x183m., its King Nebuchadnezzar II build the
long facade decorated with polychrome glazed Hanging Garden of Babylon(r. 605-
bricks 562 BCE).
• The central site of the river was occupied by the Photo based on artist interpretation
temple of the gods the city, Marduk
• To the north was the Tower of Babel, a ziggurat
of Mesopotamian and Assyrian influence, 90
square splan with seven stages and summit
temple of blue bricks
Ishtar Gate
• The Ishtar Gate was constructed by the
Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II circa 575
BCE.
• It was the eighth gate of the city of Babylon (in
present day Iraq) and was the main entrance
into the city.
• The Ishtar Gate was part of Nebuchadnezzar's
plan to beautify his empire's capital and during
the first half of the 6th century BCE, he also
restored the temple of Marduk and built the
renowned wonder: the Hanging Gardens as part
of this plan
Ishtar Gate
• The front of the gate is adorned with glazed
bricks with alternating rows of dragons and
bulls.
• The beasts are furnished in yellow and brown
tiles, while the bricks surrounding them are
blue.
• The blue enameled tiles are thought to be of
lapis lazuli, but there is some debate to this
conjecture.
• The gates measured more than 38 feet (11.5 m)
high with a vast antechamber on the southern
side.
Hanging Garden of Babylon-gift of King Nebuchadnezzar II to his
homesick wife Amitis
Sumerian civilization-
• the rivers Tigris and Euphrates about 4000 BC
• Sumerian communities were city states organized around a temple headed by a
priest
• The god is the divine ruler of the people. The king and the priests were
representatives of the god
• Social base were servant-slaves
Sumerian contributions
• System of writing (cuneiform),
• plow for farming,
• social and economic organization and
• units of time (one day equivalent to24 hours and 60 minutes to one hour)
Sumerian Architecture
Buildings
Ziggurats-
Artificial hill
• Sun-baked brick for the interior
• Burnt brick for the exterior
• Designed in such a way to protect the core from the elements
Functions
• Residence of the heavenly gods during the earthly visit
• Grain store room- grains as tribute from the citizen
• Residence of the priest
• Altar at the top of the hill for religious rites and rituals
• Access through the use of stairs
Uruk or Warka (2900-2340 BC)
❏ Largest Sumerian City with 9 km
perimeter
❏ One third of the city occupied by temples
❏ Two important areas in the city were
Eanna and Anu associated with mother
goddess and sky god
Ziggurat of Ur-Nammu
• City of Ur consisted of courts and
ziggurats, secondary courts and three
great temples
• Remodelled by Ur-nammu and his
predecessors
• Contained ziggurats, courts, three great
temples on a great rectangular platform
• 62m x 43m at its base and 21m high
• Normal orientation
Ziggurat of Ur-Nammu
The monument has now elements of modern
reconstruction based on how scholars believed it
once looked
❏ Solid core of mud brick and covered with
burned brick
❏ Designed in such a way to protect the core
from the elements
❏ A building with rooms approached with
long flight of steps
Ziggurat of Ur-Nammu
• The square-shaped holes that we see on
the sides are not windows (as some might
think) but a way for excess moisture to
escape the structure

• There were important geometric

properties and solar alignments that
were incorporated into the ziggurat’s
design

• The different levels have dimensions that

follow numerical ratios that are important
to the Sumerians
Ziggurat of Ur-Nammu
• The proportion of the width and length
for the ground level are very close to the
exact ratio of 3:2
• The second level maintains a dimension of
4:3
• Upper levels are celestially aligned
towards the summer solstice sunrise with
a grand staircase facing the rays of the
summer sun
Ziggurat of Ur-Nammu
• The great ziggurat was dedicated to the
moon god Nanna who was the patron deity
of the city
• Ziggurats may have functioned as
representations of the gods’ homes
(because the Sumerian gods were
commonly linked to the Eastern mountain)
There is no known text that explains precisely
what Ziggurats were intended to symbolize,
however, modern scholars were able to determine
that:
- The ancient Mesopotamians believed that
ziggurats were the Earthly homes of their
many deities
- The people of Ur believed that the Ziggurats
were a place on Earth where the moon god
Nanna chose to dwell and a single small
shrine was placed on the summit
Ziggurat of Ur-Nammu
• Ancient mesopotamians believed that the
gods had needs like humans, thus, there’s
a bedchamber provided for Nanna in the
Shrine
• It was occupied by a high priest or maiden
who was chosen to be the God’s
companion
• There was a kitchen which may be build
for the preparation of the god’s food OR
the high priest’s food
• The outer enclosure of the Ziggurats
contained a temple storehouse, the
houses of the priests, and a royal
ceremonial palace
 Anu District
• the Anu district consists of a
single massive terrace, the
Anu Ziggurat, dedicated to the
Sumerian sky god Anu.

• Sometime in the Uruk III

period the massive White
Temple was built atop of the
ziggurat.
White Temple in the Mesopotamian City of Uruk
• Functions: religious and secular
• sloping sides, three of which had flat
butresses;
• a broad square platform of similar
height overlapped the north corner
long flight of steps with circuitous
ramp.
• Originally white washed mud bricks -
had an end to end wall with a span of
4.5m. Flanked on both sides with a
series of smaller rooms, three of which
contained stairway leading to the roof.
White Temple in the Mesopotamian City of Uruk

• Of the four entrances, the chief was placed

asymmetrically on one long side giving a
“bent axis” approach to the sanctuary,
marked by an altar platform 1.2m high in
the north corner of the hall.

• Centrally nearby was a brick offering table,

adjointed by a low semi-circular hearth.
Shallow buttresses formed the principal
decoration of the hall and the external
walls. The platform stood 13 m high
White Temple in the Mesopotamian City of Uruk

• The White Temple could be seen from a

great distance across the plain of Sumer, as
it was elevated 21m and covered in
gypsum plaster which reflected sunlight
like a mirror.

• For this reason it is believed the White

Temple is a symbol of Uruk's political
power at the time.
Ziggurat of Tchoga Zanbil
The ziggurat stands at the site of the ancient city of
Elam, in today’s Khuzestan province in southwest Iran.

• Built by Untash-Gal in 13th BC

• Five tiers; the lowest, the
shallowest
• Base is 107 m; hieght is 53m
• Flights of steps recessed in the
mass led to the first tier on the
center on the south-west side
• Rest of the height was to be
scaled on the south east, the
principal facade
Ziggurat of Tchoga Zanbil

• Choga Zanbil was built around 1250

BCE by the king Untash-Napirisha to
honor the great god Inshushinak.

• Before the ziggurat could be

completed, the king died and
construction of the complex was
abandoned. When the Assyrians
attacked Choga Zanbil six centuries
later, there were still thousands of
bricks stacked at the site.
Ziggurat of Tchoga Zanbil

The ziggurat is only a part of the

complex. There are also temples, a total
of eleven, dedicated to the lesser gods
at the site.
It is believed that king Untash-Napirisha
originally planned twenty-two temples,
which some scholars believe was an
attempt to create a new religious
center.
Temple Complex, Ischali
• 2nd millennium BC
• Terraced type without a ziggurat
• Rectangular in plan with a large
main terrace court and upper one
in which the temple lay at right
angles to the chief axis
• On the corresponding side of the
main court were two minor courts
all were lined with rooms

• Application of plinth- or raised

temple base or platform in
anticipation of annual flooding
Temple Oval AT Khafaje
• Northeast of Bagdhad was an unusual
complex dating from early Dynastic
period
• Within the ovals, the layout was
rectilinear, corner oriented to the four
cardinal points
• Consisted of three ascending terraces;
the lowest had many roomed building
for administrative or dwelling of the
priest
• Second terrace was with rooms used for
stories and workshops
• Near the staircase was a sacrificial altar
• Elsewhere were well and two basin for
ritual ablution
Building Materials
Sumerian masonry was usually mortarless although bitumen was
sometimes used. Brick styles, which varied greatly over time, are
categorized by period.
The favored design was rounded bricks, which are somewhat unstable,
so Mesopotamian bricklayers would lay a row of bricks perpendicular to
the rest every few rows.

The advantages to plano-convex bricks were the speed of manufacture

as well as the irregular surface which held the finishing plaster coat better
than a smooth surface from other brick types.
Royal Cemetery At Ur
• Early Dynastic period
• Displays best engineering skills of the
Sumerian architects
• Used rough limestones
• Rubble masonry
• Roofed tomb with chamber with vault
and dome
• Connecting doors were often spanned
with arch
Structural concepts developed during this
period

Corbel vault -uses architectural

technique of corbelling to cover
corbel arch-”false arch” is a space in a structure to span a
an arch-like construction space or void in a structure.
method. Stones are
placed one on top of the
other where part of the
lower stones protrude to
close the opening
keystone
Developed by the Assyrians
Used for openings on wall to support
voussoir upper part of the structure

Composed of wedge-like stones

(voussoir) and a keystone at the center to
lock the arch
 Dome on pendentive
• Dome- hemispherical structure evolved
from the arch, usually forming a ceilin or
roof
• Pendentive is the term given to a
construction element that allows
a dome to be placed over square or
rectangular spaces
vaults

• Sumerians developed the earliest barrel

vault
• The earliest known example of a barrel
vault is found under the Sumerian
ziggurat in Nippur, Babylonia, dating from
around 4000 BC, built of fired bricks
connected by clay mortar.

• A barrel vault, also known as a tunnel

vault or a wagon vault, is an architectural
element formed by the extrusion of a
single curve (or pair of curves, in the case
of a pointed barrel vault) along a given
distance
Assyrian Architecture
• 2nd millennium BC include old Assyrian
and Middle Assyrian period
• First innovation-Polychrome ornamental
brickwork was introduced
• Second innovation-high plinths or dadoes
placed on edge and usually carved low-
relief sculpture
• Temples with or without ziggurats
• Palaces were numerous emphasizing
central role of the monarchy
• Excavations at Tell Rimah showed the use
of barrel-vaulting
Social
Assyrian civilization-
Assyria was located in the northern part of Mesopotamia, which corresponds to most
parts of modern-day Iraq as well as parts of Iran, Kuwait, Syria, and Turkey
The great cities of the Assyrian empire were Nimrud, Ashur and Nineveh
Assyrian cities were beautiful
• Aqueducts-supply of fresh water
• Impressive Palaces for the king
• Walled city
• Canal system
Inventions
• First system of writing
Assyrian Architecture
• Use of glazed colored bricks
• Sculptured wall decoration
• Free-standing sculptures
• Wall reliefs
• Build ziggurats, temples palaces.
• Famous palace was Palace of
Sargon at Khorsabad
• Use of corbel vaults, corbel
arches, domes in pendentive
Lamassu -Winged human-headed lion,
Mesopotamian deity appearing on
entrance way believed to be a protector
CIty Of Ashur
❏ Center Assyrian state as administrative
capital located above Tigris River
❏ The first shrine was dedicated to Ishtar-
goddess of love and war
❏ During the reign of Ashur and his
successors, the Assyrian architects
displayed the ability to experiment with
architectural combinations showing
intentional divergence with Babylonian
prototypes
Tell Rimah
❏ Temple built by Shamshi-Adad, the
strongest ruler of Assyria in 2nd BC
❏ Had central citadel mound, a palace, and
outer town
❏ Excavations on the south side of the
mound revealed 3 phases of building
using “pitched” brick vaulting, and
domical vault using thinner bricks
❏ Voussoirs were used
❏ The temple was of Babylon plan, with
radial vaulting, 277 engaged columns, 50
of which were in complex palm-truck and
spiralform patterns
City of Nimrud
❏ Restored by Ashurnasirpal II 883-859
BC
❏ Consisted of a ziggurat with temples on
the north side, large public court; south
side huge throne room and private
wing of the palace
❏ Carbed slabs with scenes of war and
domestic chores adorned the palace
City of Nimrud
❏ The walls are surrounded by bas-relief
Bas-relief created either by carving
away material or adding material to the
top of an otherwise smooth surface
(hardened clay)
➔ Influenced the Mesopotamian
Architecture along with ancient
Greek and Roman sculptures
Plan of Nimrud
 Head of a Lion in White
Limestone

Pavement
Winged Human Headed Lion Slab
(Lamassu) Gypsum Alabaster
City of Khorsabad
❏ Built by Sargon II (722 - 705 BC)
❏ Square planned with defensive perimeter
nearly 1 mile
❏ Contained a citadel and palaces
❏ “Palace without Rival”
Palace of Sargon
❏ Northeastern part of the City of
Khorsabad
❏ Contained courts, corridors, and
rooms covering 23 acres
❏ Each of the building was raised with
terrace
❏ Palace site was approached by broad
ramps
Palace of Sargon
❏ Main entrance to the palace grand court
was flanked with two towers and
guarded by a man-headed winged bull,
3.8m high supporting a semicircular arch
decorated with coloured glazed bricks
❏ Has 3 main parts, on the left were
temples; on the right were service
quarters and administrative, and
opposite were private residential
apartments, state chambers behind
Terracotta drains to carry rain water in
the mud-brick platform
City of Nineveh
❏ Capital of Assyrian empire 705-681 BC built by Sargon’s son Sennacherib
❏ Considerable labor spent in securing foundation platform
❏ More places built by Sennacherib successors
❏ Reliefs showed activity of hunting and bloody war against the Kingdom Elam
❏ Before its downfall, Nineveh was given extra rampart on the east side but was never
finished
❏ The city fell in the war against Babylonian in 612 BC and never to rise again
❏ Water was the primary concern of Assyrian Kings
❏ Ashurnasirpal II dug a canal from river Zab to irrigate the land near the Nimrud
❏ Sennacherib built an arched aqueduct of stone construction, which may be said to
anticipate Roman achievements of this class
ARCHITECTURAL
STYLES
 Houses
❏ mud brick, mud plaster, and wooden doors,
which were all naturally available around the city
❏ Most houses had a square center room with
other rooms attached to it, but a great variation in
the size and materials used to build the houses
suggest they were built by the inhabitants
themselves.
❏ The smallest rooms may not have coincided with
the poorest people; in fact, it could be that the
poorest people built houses out of perishable
materials such as reeds on the outside of the
city, but there is very little direct evidence for this.
Mesopotamian Ornamentations

Confronted animals- 2
animals facing each
other

Relief sculptures carvings on the walls

Mesopotamian mosaic-
pieces of colored stones,
shells, ivory placed together
to form figures
Ishtar Gate -Glazed blue bricks with animals
Decorated with relief images of lions, symbol of
love and war goddess Ishtar. dragon Marduk the
lord of gods and bull Adad, the storm god
Persian Civilization
Religion Zoroastrianism
• World’s oldest monotheistic religion
• Founded by prophet Zoroaster around 3500 years ago in (currently:
Iran)
• Official religion of pre-Islamic Iranian Empire (650-600BC)
• Zoroastrians believe in one god called Ahura Mazda - Wise Lord
• They believe that Ahura Mazda created the world and designed it to
exist in a way that is perfect/righteous
• “LAW OF ASHA”
- “Holiness is the best of all good: it is also happiness. Happy the man
who is holy with perfect holiness!” - Ashem Vohu (prayer)
Good and evil
Heaven and hell
Excellent Abode and Worst Existence

Islam, Christianity, and Judaism are all said to be influenced by Zoroastrian

beliefs of a single deity, a dualistic universe, and final judgmentReligion
 Persian Architecture 3500BCE TO 1500 BCE

Achaemenid architecture- during the

Persian empire, Achaemenid rule,
beautiful structures flourished glorify the
city
Monuments and audience halls were
constructed

Persepolis –capital of Achaemenid empire

550 BC-330 BC and was burned by Alexander
the Great as retaliation for burning Athens
in 480 BC.
Apadana Hall- biggest structure
audience hall in the city of
Persepolis constructed by Darius
he Great in 6 BC and continued by
Xerxes

Double bull capital

 Throne hall- Hall of Hundred Columns
• Built by Xerxes and was continued by his
son Artaxerxes by the end of the 5th
century BC
• Second largest structure in Persepolis
• Used for assembly for military
gatherings and representatives of
nations under the empire. Later became Hall of Hundred Columns
museum of the empire.
• Double bull capital
• Wall frescoes

Wall frescoes
finish