Chapter 08 Learning and Decision Making: Answer Key

Chapter 08 - Learning and Decision Making
Chapter 08 Learning and Decision Making Answer Key
True / False Questions
1. (p. 259) Learning refers to the process of generating and choosing from a set of alternatives to
solve a problem.
FALSE
AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge
Difficulty Level: Easy
Learning Objective: 08-01 What is learning; and how does it affect decision making?
Topic: Learning And Decision Making
2. (p. 259) Decision making reflects relatively permanent change in an employees' knowledge or
skills that result from experience.
FALSE

3. (p. 259) Research shows that the difference between experts and novices is almost always a
function of intelligence as opposed to the more popular view that learning makes the
difference.
FALSE
AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Topic: Why Do Some Employees Learn To Decisions Better Than Others?
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4. (p. 260) Explicit knowledge is what employees can typically learn only through experience.
FALSE

Learning Objective: 08-02 What types of knowledge can employees gain as they learn and build expertise?
Topic: Types Of Knowledge
5. (p. 260) Tacit knowledge is the kind of information that can be easily communicated during
training sessions or written down in a manual.
FALSE

6. (p. 261) The entire process of reinforcement is a continuous cycle, and the repetition of
behaviors is strengthened to the degree that reinforcement continues to occur.
TRUE

Learning Objective: 08-03 What are the methods by which employees learn in organizations?
Topic: Reinforcement
7. (p. 261) For positive reinforcement to be successful, an employee needs to see a direct link
between his or her behavior and the desired outcome.
TRUE

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8. (p. 262) Positive reinforcement should necessarily be in the form of material rewards to be
effective.
FALSE

Topic: Methods Of Learning
9. (p. 264) Variable interval schedule is the simplest schedule of reinforcement and happens
when a specific consequence follows each and every occurrence of a desired behavior.
FALSE

10. (p. 264) Research has consistently shown that fixed reinforcement schedules lead to higher
levels of performance than variable schedules.
FALSE

11. (p. 264) Research shows that desired behaviors tend to disappear much more quickly when
reinforcement is discontinued under variable plans.
FALSE

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12. (p. 264) When employees observe the actions of others, learn from what they observe, and
then repeat the observed behavior, they are engaging in cognitive modeling.
FALSE

Topic: Observation
13. (p. 267) Performance-oriented individuals enjoy working on new kinds of tasks, even if they
fail during their early experiences.
FALSE

Topic: Goal Orientation
14. (p. 267) Those with a performance-prove orientation focus on demonstrating their
competence so that others will not think poorly of them.
FALSE

15. (p. 267) Because of their tacit knowledge, experts sometimes cannot put into words why they
know that a problem exists, why a solution will work, or how they accomplished a task.
TRUE

Learning Objective: 08-04 What two methods can employees use to make decisions?
Topic: Methods Of Decision Making
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16. (p. 270) The rational decision-making model offers a step-by-step approach to making
decisions that maximize outcomes by examining all available alternatives.
TRUE

17. (p. 271) The rational decision-making model assumes that people are very rarely perfectly
rational.
FALSE

18. (p. 271) To be rational decision makers, we should evaluate each alternative as soon as we
think of it.
FALSE

Learning Objective: 08-05 What decision-making problems can prevent employees from translating their learning into accurate decisions?
Topic: Limited Information
19. (p. 273) Perception is the process of selecting, organizing, storing, and retrieving information
about the environment.
TRUE

Topic: Faulty Perceptions
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20. (p. 273) Stereotyping results when decision makers select the first acceptable alternative
considered.
FALSE

21. (p. 273) Projection bias causes problems in decision making because it limits our ability to
develop appropriate criteria for a decision and evaluate decisions carefully.
TRUE

22. (p. 273) Social identity theory holds that people identify themselves by the groups to which
they belong and perceive and judge others by their group memberships.
TRUE

23. (p. 274) The fundamental attribution error argues that people have a tendency to judge others'
behaviors as due to internal factors.
TRUE

Topic: Faulty Attributions
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24. (p. 274) The self-serving bias occurs when we attribute our own failures to external factors
and our own successes to internal factors.
TRUE

25. (p. 276) Escalation of commitment refers to the decision to continue to follow a failing
course of action.
TRUE

Topic: Escalation of Commitment
26. (p. 280) Learning is moderately correlated with task performance.

TRUE

Learning Objective: 08-06 How does learning affect job performance and organizational commitment?
Topic: How Important Is Learning?
27. (p. 279) Learning has a weak positive effect on commitment.

TRUE

Difficulty Level: Difficult
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28. (p. 280) Communities of practices are groups of employees who work together and learn
from one another by collaborating over an extended period of time.
TRUE

Learning Objective: 08-07 What steps can organizations take to foster learning?
Topic: Application: Training
29. (p. 275) Recency is the tendency to judge things erroneously based on a reference that is near
to them.
FALSE

30. (p. 280) Communities of practice are groups of employees who work together and learn from
one another by collaborating over an extended period of time.
TRUE

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Multiple Choice Questions
31. (p. 259) Which of these reflects relatively permanent changes in an employee's knowledge or
skill that result from experience?
A. Decision making
B. Learning
C. Intuition
D. Consensus
E. Heuristics
Learning reflects relatively permanent changes in an employee's knowledge or skill that result
from experience. The more employees learn, the more they bring to the table when they come
to work.

32. (p. 259) _____ refers to the process of generating and choosing from a set of alternatives to
solve a problem.
A. Decision making
B. Learning
C. Intuition
D. Consensus
E. Heuristics
Decision making, refers to the process of generating and choosing from a set of alternatives to
solve a problem. The more knowledge and skills employees possess, the more likely they are
to make accurate and sound decisions.

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33. (p. 259) The knowledge and skills that distinguish experts from novices and less experienced
people is referred to as:
A. halo effect.
B. expertise.
C. heuristics.
D. satisficing.
E. bounded rationality.
Expertise refers to the knowledge and skills that distinguish experts from novices and less
experienced people. Research shows that the differences between experts and novices is
almost always a function of learning as opposed to the more popular view that intelligence or
other innate differences make the difference.

34. (p. 259) Research shows that the differences between experts and novices are almost always
a function of:
A. intelligence.
B. consensus.
C. heuristics.
D. gender.
E. learning.
Research shows that the differences between experts and novices is almost always a function
of learning as opposed to the more popular view that intelligence or other innate differences
make the difference.

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35. (p. 259) True learning only occurs when:

A. employees forget to mimic the behaviors of experts.
B. experts play the role of novices'.
C. changes in behavior become relatively permanent.
D. the first time an employee makes the right decision.
E. learning is not that easy.
True learning only occurs when changes in behavior become relatively permanent and are
repeated over time. Understanding why some employees prove better at this than others
requires understanding what exactly employees learn and how they do it.

36. (p. 260) Employees learn two basic types of knowledge:

A. verbal and written.
B. explicit and tacit.
C. internal and external.
D. observed and expressed.
E. individual and group.
Employees learn two basic types of knowledge, both of which have important implications for
organizations. Explicit knowledge is the kind of information you are likely to think about
when you picture someone sitting down at a desk to learn. Tacit knowledge, in contrast, is
what employees can typically learn only through experience. It's not easily communicated but
could very well be the most important aspect of what we learn in organizations.

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37. (p. 260) Information that is relatively easily communicated and a large part of what
companies teach during training sessions is:
A. inherent knowledge.
B. inferred knowledge.
C. implicit knowledge.
D. tacit knowledge.
E. explicit knowledge.
Explicit knowledge is the kind of information you are likely to think about when you picture
someone sitting down at a desk to learn.

38. (p. 260) When Jeff asked Joanna how to fix the error message he keeps getting on his
computer, Joanna wrote the step-by-step instructions down for Jeff so that he can take care of
the problem relatively easily. The type of knowledge described in this situation is called
A. consensus-based knowledge.
B. tacit knowledge.
C. explicit knowledge.
D. intuition knowledge.
E. inherent knowledge.
someone sitting down at a desk to learn. Since Joanna wrote down a set of instructions for Jeff
on how to fix an error so that he can take care of the problem relatively easily, the knowledge
imparted to Jeff is by sitting down at a desk to learn. This type of knowledge imparted is
called explicit knowledge.

Bloom's Taxonomy: Application
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39. (p. 260) When you read a textbook, the authors are communicating which of the following
knowledge to you?
A. Popular
B. Tacit
C. Intuition
D. Explicit
E. Inherent
someone sitting down at a desk to learn.

40. (p. 260) The knowledge that employees can typically learn only through experience is
called:
B. tacit knowledge.
D. book-based knowledge.
E. experiential knowledge.
Tacit knowledge is what employees can typically learn only through experience. It's not easily
communicated but could very well be the most important aspect of what we learn in
organizations.

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41. (p. 260) Information that is not easily communicated but could very well be the most
important aspect of what we learn in organizations is:
B. book-based knowledge.
D. tacit knowledge.
E. unambiguous knowledge.
organizations.

42. (p. 260) Terms used to describe tacit knowledge are all of these except:
A. intuition.
B. mental models.
C. consensus.
D. practical intelligence.
E. insight.
Terms used to describe tacit knowledge are intuition, mental models, practical intelligence
and insight.
Consensus is used to describe explicit knowledge.

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43. (p. 260) Becca has been referred to as the resident expert at ABC International when it comes
to media and all media related issues. Many people have tried to work under her to learn but
have not been very successful because she is so good at what she does but cannot really
explain it to others. Becca can be described as having which of this knowledge?
A. Popular
B. Tacit
C. Book-based
D. Explicit
E. None of these
organizations.
Becca is having tacit knowledge due to her experience in the field of media and media related
issues.

44. (p. 260) Which of the following is not a characteristic of explicit knowledge?
A. Easily transferred through written communication
B. General information
C. Can be learned through books
D. Highly personal in nature
E. Always conscious and accessible information
Characteristics of explicit knowledge are easily transferred through written communication.

General information can be learned through books, always conscious and accessible
information. Highly personal in nature is a characteristic of tacit knowledge.

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45. (p. 260) Which of the following is a characteristic of tacit knowledge?

A. Highly personal in nature
B. Always conscious and accessible information
C. Can be learned through books
D. General information
E. Easily transferred through written communication
The characteristics of explicit knowledge are always conscious and accessible information can
be learned through books, general information, easily transferred through written
communication. Highly personal in nature is a characteristic of tacit knowledge.

46. (p. 260) Which of the following is a characteristic of explicit knowledge?

A. Highly personal in nature
B. Very difficult to articulate to others
C. Typically job-and/or situation-specific
D. Always conscious and accessible information
E. Based on experience
The characteristics of explicit knowledge are, highly personal in nature, very difficult to
articulate to others, typically job - and/or situation - specific and based on experience are
characteristics of tacit knowledge. Always conscious and accessible information is a
characteristic of explicit knowledge.

Topic: Types Of Learning
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47. (p. 261) From an organization's perspective, the _____ knowledge its employees accumulate
may be the single most important strategic asset a company possesses.
A. consensus-based
B. book-based
C. explicit
D. tacit
E. popular
organizations.

48. (p. 261) Originally known as _____, B.F. Skinner was the first to pioneer the notion that we
learn by observing the link between our voluntary behavior and the consequences that follow
it.
A. explicit knowledge
B. operant conditioning
C. social identity theory
D. tacit knowledge
E. heuristics
Originally known as operant conditioning, B.F. Skinner was the first to pioneer the notion that
we learn by observing the link between our voluntary behavior and the consequences that
follow it.

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49. (p. 261) Organizations use four specific consequences to modify employee behavior. They
are known as the:
A. attribution biases.
B. communities of practice.
C. contingencies of reinforcement.
D. climates of transfer.
E. heuristics.
Two contingencies of reinforcement are used to increase desired behaviors. Positive

reinforcement occurs when a positive outcome follows a desired behavior. Negative
reinforcement occurs when an unwanted outcome is removed following a desired behavior.

50. (p. 261-262) Janell, a newly promoted manager at Island Properties, Inc. (IPI) is interested in
learning about what she can do to increase desired behaviors at IPI. Which two contingencies
of reinforcement she should focus on?
A. Punishment and extinction
B. Positive reinforcement and punishment
C. Punishment and negative reinforcement
D. Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement
E. Negative reinforcement and extinction
Two contingencies of reinforcement are used to increase desired behaviors. Positive

reinforcement occurs when a positive outcome follows a desired behavior. Negative
reinforcement occurs when an unwanted outcome is removed following a desired behavior.

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51. (p. 261) Jack recently received a $100 gift certificate and the quarterly attendance award at
Dri-Fit Manufacturers. Jack's award can be described as which of these contingencies of
reinforcement?
A. Heuristics
B. Negative reinforcement
C. Punishment
D. Extinction
E. Positive reinforcement
Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive outcome follows a desired behavior. The $100
gift certificate and the quarterly attendance award is a positive outcome that has followed
Jack's good attendance record which is a desired behavior expected from Dri- Fit
Manufacturers.

52. (p. 262) _____ occurs when an unwanted outcome is removed following a desired behavior.
A. Heuristics
C. Punishment
D. Extinction
Negative reinforcement occurs when an unwanted outcome is removed following a desired

behavior. There are some tasks that a job requires that employees don't enjoy. If the manager
removes these responsibilities specifically because the concerned employees perform well at
another aspect of your job, then this could also be seen as negative reinforcement. It is
important to remember that even though the word "negative" has a sour connotation to it; it is
designed to increase desired behaviors.

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53. (p. 262) If you do your homework and assignments for your OB class just to avoid being
yelled at by your professor, you have learned this behavior through the use of
A. punishment.
B. extinction.
C. negative reinforcement.
D. heuristics.
E. positive reinforcement.

behavior. There are some tasks that a job requires that employees don't enjoy. If the manager
removes these responsibilities specifically because the concerned employees perform well at
another aspect of your job, then this could also be seen as negative reinforcement. It is
important to remember that even though the word "negative" has a sour connotation to it; it is
designed to increase desired behaviors.

54. (p. 262) Which of these occurs when an unwanted outcome follows an unwanted behavior?
A. Heuristics
C. Punishment
D. Extinction
Punishment occurs when an unwanted outcome follows an unwanted behavior.

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55. (p. 262) Suspending an employee for showing up to work late, assigning job tasks generally
seen as demeaning for not following safety procedures, or even firing an employee for gross
misconduct are all examples of:
A. heuristics.
B. punishment.
C. negative reinforcement.
D. extinction.
E. positive reinforcement.
Punishment occurs when an unwanted outcome follows an unwanted behavior. Punishment is

exactly what it sounds like. In other words, the employee is given something he or she doesn't
like as a result of performing a behavior that the organization doesn't like. Suspending an
employee for showing up to work late, assigning job tasks generally seen as demeaning for
not following safety procedures, or even firing an employee for gross misconduct are all
examples of punishment.

56. (p. 262) Which two contingencies of reinforcement are designed to decrease undesired
behaviors?
A. Punishment and extinction
B. Positive reinforcement and punishment
C. Punishment and negative reinforcement
D. Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement
E. Negative reinforcement and extinction
The two contingencies of reinforcement used to decrease undesired behaviors are punishment
and extinction. Punishment occurs when an unwanted outcome follows an unwanted behavior.
Extinction occurs when there is the removal of a consequence following an unwanted
behavior.

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57. (p. 262) _____ occurs when there is the removal of consequences following an unwanted
behavior.
A. Heuristics
C. Punishment
D. Extinction

behavior. The use of extinction to reinforce behavior can be purposeful or accidental. Perhaps
an employee receives attention from coworkers when he or she acts in ways that are
somewhat childish at work. Finding a way to remove the attention would be a purposeful act
of extinction.

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58. (p. 261-262) Corey has a tendency to be a smart-mouth in all meetings. He had a sarcastic
comment for anything anyone said. In the beginning, coworkers and his manager used to
smile, nod, or say that was a good one Corey. This can be described as a _____. Such
feedback gave him a boost and he started doing so much that now it was becoming annoying.
The manager and other coworkers decided to ignore his remarks and keep moving ahead with
their agenda in the next meeting onwards. Faced with new situation, after few meetings,
Corey stopped making any inappropriate comments. This strategy can be described as _____.
A. punishment; extinction
B. positive reinforcement; extinction
C. punishment; negative reinforcement
D. positive reinforcement; negative reinforcement
E. negative reinforcement; extinction
Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive outcome follows a desired behavior. Extinction
occurs when there is the removal of a consequence following an unwanted behavior.
During meetings Corey's coworkers and manager used to smile and nod at his sarcastic
comments which resulted in positive reinforcement for Corey's behavior. This gave him a
boost and he started doing so much that now it was becoming annoying. Corey stopped
making inappropriate comments once his coworkers and manager started ignoring his
comments which acted as an extinction contingency.

59. (p. 261-262) In general, _____ and _____ should be the most common forms of reinforcement
used by managers to create learning among their employees.
A. Punishment; extinction
B. negative reinforcement; extinction
C. punishment; negative reinforcement
D. positive reinforcement; negative reinforcement
E. positive reinforcement; extinction
Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive outcome follows a desired behavior. Extinction
occurs when there is the removal of a consequence following an unwanted behavior.

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60. (p. 263) Which of these is the simplest schedule of reinforcement?

A. Variable ratio
B. Variable interval
C. Fixed ratio
D. Continuous
E. Fixed interval
Continuous reinforcement is the simplest schedule and happens when a specific consequence
follows each and every occurrence of a desired behavior. For most jobs, continuous
reinforcement is impractical. It's a good thing that research also shows that under many
circumstances, continuous reinforcement might be considered the least long-lasting, because
as soon as the consequence stops, the desired behavior stops along with it.

61. (p. 263) Which of the following happens when a specific consequence follows each and
every occurrence of a desired behavior?
A. Fixed interval schedule
B. Variable ratio schedule
C. Fixed ratio schedule
D. Variable interval schedule
E. Continuous reinforcement schedule

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62. (p. 263) Which of these, according to research, is the least long-lasting or most difficult to
maintain the high level of performance?
A. Continuous
B. Variable ratio
C. Fixed ratio
D. Variable interval
E. Fixed interval

63. (p. 263) John believes in praising every desired behavior of all of his employees. John is
engaging in which of these reinforcement schedules?
A. fixed interval
B. variable ratio
C. continuous
D. fixed ratio
E. variable interval
follows each and every occurrence of a desired behavior. John believes in praising every
desired behavior of all his employees which shows that every praise is a specific consequence
that follows every desired behavior of employees.

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64. (p. 263) The single most common form of reinforcement schedule is:
A. fixed interval.
B. variable ratio.
C. continuous.
D. fixed ratio.
E. variable interval.
A fixed interval schedule is probably the single most common form of reinforcement
schedule. With this schedule, workers are rewarded after a certain amount of time, and the
length of time between reinforcement periods stays the same.

65. (p. 263) Every time an employee gets a paycheck after a predetermined period of time,
he/she is being reinforced on a:
A. variable ratio schedule.
B. fixed interval schedule.
C. continuous schedule.
D. fixed ratio schedule.
E. variable interval schedule.
length of time between reinforcement periods stays the same. Every time an employee gets a
paycheck after a predetermined period of time, he or she is being reinforced on a fixed
interval schedule.

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66. (p. 263) As owner of Mountain City Coffee, Yashmi gives all her employees a paycheck
every two weeks. This is an example of which form of reinforcement schedule?
A. Variable interval
B. Variable ratio
C. Continuous
D. Fixed ratio
E. Fixed interval
interval schedule. Since all the employees are getting a pay check every two weeks, the owner
of Mountain City Coffee Yashmi follows a fixed interval reinforcement schedule.

67. (p. 263) A supervisor walking around at different points of time every day is a good example
of a:
A. variable ratio schedule.
B. fixed interval schedule.
C. continuous schedule.
D. variable interval schedule.
E. fixed ratio schedule.
Variable interval schedules are designed to reinforce behavior at more random points in time.
A supervisor walking around at different points of time every day is a good example of a
variable interval schedule.

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68. (p. 263) Several times a month, Danny, the Dean of the College of Business walks by faculty
offices at different times of the day and connects with and congratulates those who are doing
an outstanding job or who he has heard good comments about from other individuals. This is
an example of which form of reinforcement schedule?
A. Variable interval
B. Variable ratio
C. Continuous
D. Fixed ratio
E. Fixed interval
Danny, the Dean of the College of Business walks by faculty offices at different times of the
day and connects with and congratulates those who are doing outstanding job or who he has
heard good comments about from other individuals. This is an example of variable interval
reinforcement schedule.

69. (p. 263) _____ schedules are designed to reinforce behaviors at more random points in time.
A. Fixed ratio
C. Continuous
D. Variable ratio
E. Fixed interval
A supervisor walking around at different points of time every day is a good example of a
variable interval schedule.

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70. (p. 264) Which schedule reinforces behaviors after a certain number of them have been
exhibited?
A. Continuous
C. Variable ratio
D. Fixed ratio
E. Fixed interval
Fixed ratio schedules reinforce behaviors after a certain number of them have been exhibited.
Employees know ahead of time how many items they have to produce to be reinforced.

71. (p. 264) Clothing International operates two factories where employees sew different
garments. Employees are paid on a piece-rate pay basis. Number of completed pieces by each
employee determines their pay. Clothing International uses which of these reinforcement
schedules?
A. Continuous
B. Fixed interval
C. Variable ratio
E. Fixed ratio
Employees know ahead of time how many items they have to produce to be reinforced. Since
employees at Clothing international know that their pay is based on a fixed piece rate basis,
Clothing International follows fixed ratio schedules.

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72. (p. 264) When BJ Radio pays all of its advertising sales representatives on a commission
basis, it is using which of these reinforcement schedules?
A. Continuous
B. Fixed interval
C. Variable ratio
E. Fixed ratio
Variable ratio schedules reward people after a varying number of exhibited behaviors.
Salespeople, for example, are often compensated based on commission because they receive
extra pay every time they sell an item.

73. (p. 264) A salaried paycheck is an example of _____ reinforcement schedule whereas piece-
rate pay is an example of _____ reinforcement schedule.
A. continuous; fixed interval
B. fixed interval; fixed ratio
C. variable ratio; variable interval
D. variable interval; fixed ratio
E. fixed ratio; continuous
interval schedule.
Some manufacturing plants have created piece-rate pay systems in which workers are paid
according to the number of items they produce. Employees know ahead of time how many
items they have to produce to be reinforced.

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74. (p. 264) A slot machine is an example of a _____ reinforcement schedule.

A. continuous
B. fixed interval
C. fixed ratio
D. variable interval
E. variable ratio
Variable ratio schedules reward people after a varying number of exhibited behaviors. Take a
slot machine as an example. The machine doesn't reward you for every lever pull or even
every 10 lever pulls you never know when the next winning pull will be.

75. (p. 264) Which theory argues that people in organizations have the ability to learn through
the observations of others?
A. Social learning theory
B. Decision making theory
C. Bounded rationality theory
D. Social identity theory
E. Attribution theory
Social learning theory argues that people in organizations have the ability to learn through the
observation of others. In fact, many would argue that social learning is the primary way by
which employees gain knowledge in organizations.

Topic: Observation
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76. (p. 265-266) When employees observe the actions of others, learn from what they observe, and
then repeat what they have observed, they are engaging in:
A. structural modeling.
B. behavioral modeling.
C. dynamic modeling.
D. cognitive modeling.
E. hierarchical modeling.
Not only do employees have the ability to see the link between their own behaviors and their
consequences, they can also observe the behaviors and consequences of others. When
employees observe the actions of others, learn from what they observe, and then repeat the
observed behavior, they are engaging in behavioral modeling.

77. (p. 266) Which of these represent the first step in the behavior modeling process?
A. Reinforcement
B. Production processes
C. Attentional processes
D. Retention processes
E. Attribution processes
In the attentional processes learner focuses attention on the critical behaviors exhibited by the
model.

Topic: Observation
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78. (p. 266) In the second step of behavioral modeling, the learner actually needs to remember
exactly what the model's behavior was and how they did it. This is the:
A. fabrication process.
B. production process.
C. attentional process.
D. attribution process.
E. retention process.
In the retention process the learner must remember the behaviors of the model once the model
is no longer present.

Topic: Observation
79. (p. 266) In the third step of behavioral modeling, not only must the learner have the requisite
knowledge and physical skills to be able to perform the task; they must translate what they
have observed into action. This is the:
A. reinforcement process.
C. attentional process.
D. attribution process.
E. retention process.
In the production process the learner must have the appropriate skill set and be able to
reproduce the behavior.

Topic: Observation
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80. (p. 266) Because tacit knowledge is so difficult to communicate, _____ might be the single
best way to acquire it.
A. written reports
B. process manuals
C. extinction
D. modeling
E. attribution process
The learner can observe the consequences of the model having exhibited the behavior
(positive reinforcement or punishment), which in itself will help ingrain the desirability of
performing the behavior. In addition, it's important for the learner to receive reinforcement
after replicating the behavior. If the newly acquired behaviors are positively reinforced, the
likelihood of continued behavior increases.

Topic: Observation
81. (p. 266) The last step of behavior modeling is:

A. reinforcement.
C. attention process.
D. retention process.
E. attribution process.
The last step of behavior modeling is reinforcement. This reinforcement can come from
observation, direct experience, or both.

Topic: Observation
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82. (p. 267) When an individual has a(n) _____, building competence is deemed more important
than demonstrating competence.
A. intuition
B. learning orientation
C. projection bias
D. explicit knowledge
E. bounded rationality
Learning orientation is where building competence is deemed more important than

demonstrating competence. "Learning-oriented" persons enjoy working on new kinds of
tasks, even if they fail during their early experiences. Such people view failure in positive
terms as a means of increasing knowledge and skills in the long run.

83. (p. 267) Susan always focuses on demonstrating her ability so that her co-workers think
favorably of her. Susan can be said to have a(n):
A. projection bias.
B. availability bias.
C. performance-prove orientation.
D. self-serving bias.
E. performance-avoid orientation.
Those with a performance-prove orientation focus on demonstrating their competence so that

others think favorably of them. Susan always focuses on demonstrating her ability so that her
co-workers think favorably of her. Susan can be said to have a performance-prove orientation.

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84. (p. 267) Chris has consistently tried to demonstrate his ability so that his colleagues will not
think poorly of him. Chris appears to have a(n)
A. projection bias.
B. availability bias.
D. self-serving bias.
E. performance-avoid orientation.
Performance-avoid orientation focus on demonstrating their competence so that others will

not think poorly of them. Chris has consistently tried to demonstrate his ability so that his
colleagues will not think poorly of hi. Chris appears to have a performance-avoid orientation.

85. (p. 267) Decisions that become somewhat automatic because a person's knowledge allows
them to recognize and identify a situation and the course of action that needs to be taken are
called:
A. programmed decisions.
B. learning orientations.
C. communities of practice.
D. non-programmed decisions.
E. surface decisions.
Programmed decisions are decisions that become somewhat automatic because a person's
knowledge allows him or her to recognize and identify a situation and the course of action
that needs to be taken. Experts often respond to an identified problem by realizing that they've
dealt with it before. That realization triggers a programmed decision that is implemented and
then evaluated according to its ability to deliver the expected outcome.

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86. (p. 267) For experts who possess high levels of explicit and tacit knowledge, many decisions
they face are:
A. nonprogrammed decisions.
B. nonroutine decisions.
C. programmed decisions.
D. unstructured decisions.
E. surface decisions.
Programmed decisions are decisions that become somewhat automatic because a person's
knowledge allows him or her to recognize and identify a situation and the course of action
that needs to be taken. Experts often respond to an identified problem by realizing that they've
dealt with it before. That realization triggers a programmed decision that is implemented and
then evaluated according to its ability to deliver the expected outcome. For experts who
possess high levels of explicit and tacit knowledge, many decisions they face are of this
programmed variety.

87. (p. 267) _____ can be described as emotionally charged judgments that arise through quick,
nonconscious, and holistic associations.
A. Performance-avoid orientation
B. Intuition
C. Performance-prove orientation
D. Non-programmed decisions
E. Rational decisions
Intuition can be described as emotionally charged judgments that arise through quick,
nonconscious, and holistic associations. Because of their tacit knowledge, experts sometimes
cannot put into words why they know that a problem exists, why a solution will work, or how
they accomplished a task.

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88. (p. 270) A new, complex, and not recognized situation calls for:
A. performance-avoid orientation.
B. programmed decisions.
D. non-programmed decisions.
E. irrational decisions.
When a situation arises that is new, complex and not recognized, it calls for a non
programmed decision on the part of the employee. Organizations are complex and changing
environments, and many workers face uncertainty on a daily basis. In these instances,
employees have to make sense of their environment, understand the problems they are faced
with, and come up with solutions to overcome them.

89. (p. 270) The first step in rational decision making is to:
A. generate the list of available alternatives.
B. identify the criteria that are important in making the decision.
C. evaluation of alternatives.
D. implement the alternative.
E. choose the solution that maximizes value.
Experts tend to recognize problems more quickly than novices.

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90. (p. 270) The second step in rational decision making is to:
A. choose the solution that maximizes value.
B. identify the criteria that are important in making the decision.
C. evaluate the alternatives.
D. implement the alternative.
E. generate a list of all available alternatives.
The second step is to generate a list of all available alternatives that might be potential
solutions to the problem.

91. (p. 272) The notion that decision makers simply do not have the ability or resources to
process all available information and alternatives to make an optimal decision refers to:
A. heuristics.
B. communities of practice.
C. bounded rationality.
D. projection bias.
E. performance-prove orientation.
Although most employees perceive themselves as rational decision makers, the reality is that
they are all subject to bounded rationality. Bounded rationality is the notion that decision
makers simply do not have the ability or resources to process all available information and
alternatives to make an optimal decision.

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92. (p. 272) _____ refers to when decision makers select the first acceptable alternative
considered.
A. Heuristics
B. Communities of practice
C. Rational decision making
D. Satisficing
E. Stereotyping
Satisficing results when decision makers select the first acceptable alternative considered.

93. (p. 272) To be a rational decision maker, we should do all of these except:
A. boil the problem down to something that is easily understood.
B. develop an exhaustive list of alternatives to consider as solutions.
C. evaluate all the alternatives simultaneously.
D. use accurate information to evaluate alternatives.
E. pick the alternative that maximizes value.
To be a rational decision maker, we should develop an exhaustive list of alternatives to

consider as solutions, evaluate all the alternatives simultaneously, use accurate information to
evaluate alternatives and pick the alternative that maximizes value. To be a bounded
rationalist, we should boil the problem down to something that is easily understood.

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94. (p. 272) Bounded rationality says that we are likely to:
A. pick the alternative that minimizes value.
B. evaluate each alternative as soon as we think about it.
C. use accurate information to evaluate alternatives.
D. develop an exhaustive list of alternatives to consider as solutions.
E. pick the first acceptable alternative.
Bounded rationality is the notion that decision makers simply do not have the ability or
resources to process all available information and alternatives to make an optimal decision.
Bounded rationality says that we are likely to pick the first acceptable alternative.

95. (p. 272) Bounded rationality says we are likely to do all of these except:
A. pick the alternative that maximizes value.
B. evaluate each alternative as soon as we think of it.
C. use distorted and inaccurate information during the evaluation process.
D. satisfice.
E. boil the problem down to something that is easily understood.
Bounded rationality says we are likely to evaluate each alternative as soon as we think of it,
use distorted and inaccurate information during the evaluation process, satisfice, and, boil the
problem down to something that is easily understood. To be a rational decision maker we
should pick the alternative that maximizes value.

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96. (p. 273) _____ can be very useful because they help us to make sense of the environment
around us, but they can often become distorted versions of reality.
A. Perceptions
B. Positive reinforcements
C. Heuristics
D. Stereotypes
E. Negative reinforcements
As decision makers, employees are forced to rely on their perceptions to make decisions.
Perception is the process of selecting, organizing, storing, and retrieving information about
the environment.

97. (p. 273) The tendency for people to see their environment only as it affects them and as it is
consistent with their expectations is called:
A. climates of transfer.
B. selective perception.
C. availability action.
D. satisficing.
E. thin-slicing.
Selective perception is the tendency for people to see their environment only as it affects them
and as it is consistent with their expectations.

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98. (p. 273) The belief that others think, feel, and act the same way as you do refers to:
A. availability bias.
B. anchoring.
C. bandwagon effect.
D. projection bias.
E. halo effect.
Projection bias. That is, people project their own thoughts, attitudes, and motives onto other
people. Projection bias causes problems in decision making because it limits our ability to
develop appropriate criteria for a decision and evaluate decisions carefully. The bias causes
people to assume that everyone's criteria will be just like theirs and that everyone will react to
the decision just as they did.

99. (p. 273) All the following statements about projection bias are true except:
A. it holds that people identify themselves by the groups to which they belong and perceive
and judge others by their group memberships.
B. people project their own thoughts, attitudes, and motives onto other people.
C. it causes problems in decision making because it limits our ability to develop appropriate
criteria for a decision and evaluate decisions carefully.
D. it causes people to assume that everyone's criteria will be just like theirs and that everyone
will react to the decision just as they did.
E. it is the belief that others think, feel, and act the same way they do.
All the following statements about projection bias are true. People project their own thoughts,
attitudes, and motives onto other people. It causes problems in decision making because it
limits our ability to develop appropriate criteria for a decision and evaluate decisions
carefully. It causes people to assume that everyone's criteria will be just like theirs and that
everyone will react to the decision just as they did. It is the belief that others think, feel, and
act the same way they do. It holds that people identify themselves by the groups to which they
belong and perceive and judge others by their group membership, this statement holds true for
Social identity theory.

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100. (p. 273) At a World Issues Conference, all the participants were asked to develop responses
to two case situations. People naturally split themselves up into teams based on their
occupations. Which of the following helps to explain why the participants acted this way?
A. Self-fulfilling prophecy
B. Bandwagon effect
C. Social identity theory
D. Projection bias
E. Needs theory
Social identity theory holds that people identify themselves by the groups to which they
belong and perceive and judge others by their group memberships.

101. (p. 273) When assumptions are made about someone based on their membership in a social
group, which of these occurs?
A. Availability bias
B. Bandwagon effect
C. Self-fulfilling prophecy
D. Projection bias
E. Stereotype
A stereotype occurs when assumptions are made about others on the basis of their
membership in a social group. Although not all stereotypes are bad per se, our decision
making process becomes faulty when we make inaccurate generalizations.

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102. (p. 274) _____ are simple, efficient, rules of thumb that allow us to make decisions more
easily.
A. Heuristics
B. Extinction effects
C. Self-fulfilling prophecies
D. Climates of transfer
E. Attributions
Use heuristics simple, efficient, rules of thumb that allow us to make decisions more easily.
In general, heuristics are not bad. In fact, they lead to correct decisions more often than not.
However, heuristics can also bias us toward inaccurate decisions at times.

103. (p. 274) The tendency for people to base their judgments on information that is easier to
recall refers to the:
B. bandwagon effect.
C. self-fulfilling prophecy.
D. projection bias.
E. stereotype.
The availability bias is the tendency for people to base their judgments on information that is
easier to recall. It is significantly easier for almost everyone to remember words in which R is
the first letter as opposed to the third.

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104. (p. 275) The tendency to rely too heavily on one trait or piece of information when making
decision refers to which of these biases?
B. Confirmation bias
C. Anchoring
D. Gambler's fallacy
E. Halo effect
The tendency to rely too heavily, or "anchor," on one trait or piece of information when
making decisions even when the anchor might be unreliable or irrelevant.

105. (p. 274) A biased prediction, due to the tendency to focus on the most salient and
emotionally charged outcome, is the:
A. projection bias.
B. choice-supportive bias.
C. self-serving bias.
D. availability bias.
E. hindsight bias.
The availability bias is the tendency for people to base their judgments on information that is
easier to recall. It is significantly easier for almost everyone to remember words in which R is
the first letter as opposed to the third.

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106. (p. 275) The tendency to assume that individual random events are influenced by previous
random events is:
A. anchoring.
B. the recency effect.
C. the halo effect.
D. gambler's fallacy.
E. the false consensus effect.
Representativeness The tendency to assess the likelihood of an event by comparing it to a

similar event and assuming it will be similar. Sometimes referred to as the "gambler's
fallacy".

107. (p. 275) Eric, a professor at Teach All University, has applied for Teacher of the Year
award eight years in a row. He feels that he has been turned down so many times that he is
bound to win the award sooner or later. This is an example of which of these biases?
C. Anchoring
E. Halo effect
Representativeness The tendency to assess the likelihood of an event by comparing it to a

similar event and assuming it will be similar. Sometimes referred to as the "gambler's
fallacy".

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108. (p. 274) If Sandy comes to the group meeting late and you feel that she is coming late
because she has a low motivation for work, it could reflect a(n):
A. self-serving bias.
B. fundamental attribution error.
C. anchoring error.
D. illusion of control error.
E. halo effect.
The fundamental attribution error argues that people have a tendency to judge others'
behaviors as due to internal factors. This error suggests that you would likely judge Sandy as
having low motivation, poor organizational skills, or some other negative internal attribute.
What if you yourself had showed up late? It turns out that we're less harsh when judging
ourselves.

109. (p. 274) Miranda has always had the tendency to blame something external for her lateness
or other failures but is quick to take the credit when she does something right. Which of these
best describes Miranda's tendency?
A. Self-serving bias
B. Fundamental attribution error
C. Anchoring
D. Illusion of control
E. Halo effect
The self-serving bias occurs when we attribute our own failures to external factors and our
own successes to internal factors. Miranda has always had the tendency to blame something
external for her lateness or other failures but is quick to take the credit when she does
something right, hence self-serving bias best describes Miranda's tendency.

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110. (p. 274) "Does Mary tend to act differently in other circumstances?" is a question that
answers which of these elements about attribution?
A. Consistency
B. Extinction
C. Consensus
D. Control
E. Distinctiveness
Low distinctiveness (Mary is irresponsible with other commitments as well).

111. (p. 275) "Does Mary always come late for department meetings?" is a question that answers
which of these elements about attribution?
A. Consistency
B. Extinction
C. Consensus
D. Control
E. Distinctiveness
Low consistency (Mary has never come late to meetings before).

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112. (p. 274-276) An internal attribution will occur if there is low ______; low ______; and high
______.
A. consensus; consistency; extinction
B. consensus; distinctiveness; consistency
C. consistency; distinctiveness; consensus
D. extinction; consistency; distinctiveness
E. none of these
Consensus: Did others act the same way under similar situations? In other words, did others
arrive late on the same day?
Distinctiveness: Does this person tend to act differently in other circumstances?
Consistency: Does this person always do this when performing this task?
An internal attribution, such as laziness or low motivation will occur if there is low consensus,
low distinctiveness, and high consistency.

113. (p. 274-276) An external attribution will occur if there is high ______; high ______; and low
______.
A. consensus; consistency; extinction
B. consensus; distinctiveness; consistency
C. consistency; distinctiveness; consensus
D. extinction; consistency; distinctiveness
E. none of these
Distinctiveness: Does this person tend to act differently in other circumstances?
Consistency: Does this person always do this when performing this task?
An external attribution, such as bad traffic or a power outage, will occur if there is high
consensus, high distinctiveness, and low consistency.

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114. (p. 276) "Throwing good money after bad" captures which of these common decision
making errors?
C. Escalation of commitment
E. Halo effect
Escalation of commitment refers to the decision to continue to follow a failing course of

action. The expression "throwing good money after bad" captures this common decision-
making error.

Topic: Escalation of Commitment
115. (p. 279) Learning has _____ effect on performance and _____ effect on commitment.
A. a moderate negative; a moderate positive
B. a strong positive; a moderate negative
C. a weak negative; a strong positive
D. a moderate positive; a weak positive
E. a weak positive; a moderate negative
Learning has a moderate positive effect on Performance. Employees who gain more
knowledge and skill tend to have higher levels of Task Performance.

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116. (p. 280) Which of the following statements about the effects of learning on performance
and commitment is false?
A. Learning has a moderate positive effect on performance.
B. Employees who gain more knowledge and skill tend to have higher levels of task
performance.
C. Learning is strongly relevant to citizenship behavior and counterproductive behavior.
D. Employees who gain more knowledge and skill tend to have slightly higher levels of
affective commitment.
E. Learning has a weak positive effect on commitment.
The following statement about the effects of learning on performance and commitment is true.
Learning has a moderate positive effect on performance. Employees who gain more
knowledge and skill tend to have higher levels of task performance.
Employees who gain more knowledge and skill tend to have slightly higher levels of affective
commitment. Learning has a weak positive effect on commitment. Not much is known about
the impact of learning on Citizenship Behavior and Counterproductive Behavior.

117. (p. 280) _____ are groups of employees who work together and learn from one another by
collaborating over an extended period of time.
A. Heuristics developers
C. Control moderators
D. Climates of transfer
E. Attribution anchors
Communities of practice are groups of employees who work together and learn from one
another by collaborating over an extended period of time. Many companies are adopting this
newer form of informal social learning. Communities of practice introduce their own unique
complications, but their potential for transferring knowledge through employees is significant.

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118. (p. 281) Which of these occurs when the knowledge, skills, and behaviors used on the job
are maintained by the learner once training ends and generalized to the workplace once the
learner returns to the job?
A. Heuristics
C. Illusion of control
D. Transfer of training
E. Attribution anchoring
Transfer of training occurs when the knowledge, skills, and behaviors used on the job are
maintained by the learner once training ends and generalized to the workplace once the
learner returns to the job.

119. (p. 281) Transfer of training can be fostered if organizations create a _____, an environment
that can support the use of new skills.
A. locus of control
B. communion striving
C. climate for transfer
D. community of practice
E. noncynical climate
Transfer of training can be fostered if organizations create a climate for transfer an

environment that can support the use of new skills.

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120. (p. 281) Which of the following is perhaps the most important factor that can help
organizations foster a climate for transfer?
A. Training ensures that employees have the ability to observe and learn from those in the
company with significant amounts of tacit knowledge.
B. The degree to which the trainee's manager supports the importance of the newly acquired
knowledge and skills and stresses its application to the job.
C. Opportunities to use the learned knowledge are crucial because practice and repetition are
key components of learning.
D. The degree of peer support because having multiple trainees learning the same material
reduces anxiety and allows the trainees to share concerns and work through problems.
E. Groups of employees working together can learn from one another by collaborating over an
extended period of time.
There are a variety of factors that can help organizations foster such a climate. The degree to
which the trainee's manager supports the importance of the newly acquired knowledge and
skills and stresses their application to the job is perhaps the most important factor. Peer
support is helpful, because having multiple trainees learning the same material reduces
anxiety and allows the trainees to share concerns and work through problems. Opportunities
to use the learned knowledge are also crucial, because practice and repetition are key
components of learning. Because companies have a huge stake in increasing and transferring
knowledge within their employee base, creating a climate for the transfer of that knowledge is
imperative to the success of formal learning systems.

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True / False Questions
Scenario: Teach-All University

Christine is an Organizational Behavior professor at Teach-All University. Christine has a
very strict attendance policy and gets very upset when students come to class late. Anyone
who comes late gets a special 10 question oral quiz in front of the class. Students come to
class early just to avoid the embarrassment of being put on the spot. She also encourages class
participation and rewards students every time they step up and participate. One day last week,
when Christine was talking about knowledge that employees typically learn only through
experience, Maya came late for the fourth time and this time instead of asking questions in
front of the class, Christine asked Maya to wait outside until the class was over. During the
class, Scott was acting quite goofy and making smart remarks. Instead of her usual praise for
participation, Christine completely ignored Scott's remarks and by the middle of the class time
Scott minimized his goofy behavior and stopped the smart remarks.
121. (p. 260) When Maya came late, Christine was talking about explicit knowledge.
FALSE
Tacit knowledge is what employees can typically learn only through experience.

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Multiple Choice Questions
122. (p. 261) Which contingency of reinforcement does Christine use to get students to
participate in class?
A. Heuristics
C. Punishment
D. Extinction
Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive outcome follows a desired behavior. Christine
encourages class participation and rewards students every time they step up and participate.
This is positive reinforcement used by Christine to get students to participate in class.

123. (p. 262) Which contingency of reinforcement does Christine use to get students to come to
class on-time or early?
A. Heuristics
C. Punishment
D. Extinction

behavior. Students come to class early just to avoid being put on the spot and the
embarrassment. This is negative reinforcement used by Christine on her students to come to
class on time or early.

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124. (p. 262) Which contingency of reinforcement did Christine use with Maya?
A. Heuristics
C. Punishment
D. Extinction
Punishment occurs when an unwanted outcome follows an unwanted behavior. When Maya
came late for the fourth time and instead of asking questions in front of the class, Christine
asked Maya to wait outside until the class was over. Here Christine uses punishment on Maya.

125. (p. 262) Which contingency of reinforcement did Christine use with John?
A. Heuristics
C. Punishment
D. Extinction

behavior. Scott was acting quite goofy and making smart remarks. Instead of her usual praise
for participation, Christine completely ignored Scott's remarks and by the middle of the class
time Scott minimized his goofy behavior and stopped the smart remarks. Clearly Christine is
using extinction on John.

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126. (p. 263) Which schedule of reinforcement does Christine use for rewarding class
participation?
A. Variable ratio
C. Fixed ratio
D. Continuous
E. Fixed interval
follows each and every occurrence of a desired behavior. Christine encourages class
participation and rewards students every time they step up and participate.

Scenario: ABC Consultants

ABC Consultants is a fast growing company looking to fill several key spots in their growing
west coast region. Gary and Cathy are exploring the potential candidate applications for the
west coast positions. Cathy, looking at the applications of potential candidates, remarks that
there are too many Asians in the pool and all Asians talk funny with weird accents. Gary
immediately indicates that he has heard that Asians are very hardworking individuals and so
ABC will be hiring Asians only. Gary goes on to say that every hire he has made has been
very successful because he has the "gut-feel" and he uses his interviewing skills to get the
success. He says that the only two times that this did not work was when the HR department
messed up with the interviewing questions. Jerry, just walking into the conversation, and says,
"Well, if we go through enough hiring, we are bound to get a good employee sooner or later.
No big deal."
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127. (p. 273) Cathy's remark represents a(n):

B. bandwagon effect.
C. self-fulfilling prophecy.
D. projection bias.
E. stereotype.
A stereotype occurs when assumptions are made about others on the basis of their
membership in a social group. She feels that all Asians speak with a funny accent.

128. (p. 274) Gary appears to be engaging in a:

A. self-serving bias.
B. fundamental attribution error.
C. gambler's fallacy.
D. primacy effect.
E. bandwagon effect.
The self-serving bias occurs when we attribute our own failures to external factors and our
own successes to internal factors. Gary feels that he has the interviewing skills to achieve the
results which shows that he is engaging in self serving bias.

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129. (p. 275) When Gary says ABC will hire Asians only, he is representing which decision
making bias?
C. Anchoring
E. Halo effect
Anchoring is the tendency to rely too heavily, or "anchor," on one trait or piece of information
when making decisions even when the anchor might be unreliable or irrelevant. When Gary
says that ABC will hire Asians only, he is representing an anchoring types of bias.

130. (p. 275) Jerry's comment reflects which of these?

C. Anchoring
E. Halo effect
Representativeness, the tendency to assess the likelihood of an event by comparing it to a

similar event and assuming it will be similar. Jerry, just walking into the conversation, says
well if we go through enough hiring, we are bound to get a good employee sooner or later
clearly showing a bias of representatives.

8-93
Essay Questions
131. (p. 260) Define explicit and tacit knowledge. Identify the differences between the two types
of knowledge.
Explicit knowledge is relatively easily communicated and a large part of what companies
teach during training sessions whereas tacit knowledge is what employees can typically learn
only through experience. Refer Table 8-1 on page 260 in the text for differences between
explicit and tacit knowledge.

132. (p. 262) Describe the process of operant conditioning. Explain the consequences typically
used by organizations to modify employee behavior. Provide an example of each.
The components of operant conditioning are antecedent, behavior, and consequences. Refer
Figure 8-1 on page 262 in the text shows the operant conditioning process. The four specific
consequences used by organizations to modify employee behavior are positive reinforcement,
negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction.
Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive outcome follows a desired behavior.
behavior.
Punishment occurs when an unwanted outcome follows an unwanted behavior.
behavior.
Refer Figure 8-2 on page 263 in the text for contingencies of reinforcement. Student
responses to the last part of the question for examples will vary.

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133. (p. 263-264) Compare and contrast the five schedules of reinforcements. Provide an example
of each.
The five schedules of reinforcements are:

Continuous reinforcement is the simplest schedule and happens when a specific
consequence follows each and every occurrence of a desired behavior. Example: Praise
In a fixed interval schedule, workers are rewarded after a certain amount of time, and the
length of time between reinforcement periods stays the same. Example: Paycheck.
Variable interval schedules are designed to reinforce behavior at more random points in
time. Example: Supervisor walk-by.
Fixed ratio schedules reinforce behaviors after a certain number of them have been
exhibited. Example: Piece-rate pay.
Variable ratio schedules reward people after a varying number of exhibited behaviors.
Example: Commission pay.
Refer Table 8-2 on page 264 in the text.

Bloom's Taxonomy: Analysis
134. (p. 264-266) Define social learning theory and explain the four steps of the modeling
process.
Social learning theory argues that people in organizations have the ability to learn through the
observation of others. The four steps of the modeling process are as follows: First, the learner
must focus attention on an appropriate model and accurately perceive the critical behavior the
model exhibits. Second, the learner needs to remember exactly what the model's behavior was
and how they did it. Third, the learner must undertake production processes, or actually be
able to reproduce what the model did. The last step of behavior modeling is reinforcement.
This reinforcement can come from observation, direct experience, or both. Refer Figure 8-3
on page 266 in the text for the modeling process.

Topic: Observation
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135. (p. 267-270) Explain the two methods that employees can use to make decisions using a
visual model.
The two methods that employees can use to make decisions are programmed and
nonprogrammed methods. Programmed decisions are decisions that become somewhat
automatic because people's knowledge allows them to recognize and identify a situation and
the course of action that needs to be taken. When a situation arises that is new, complex, and
not recognized, it calls for a nonprogrammed decision on the part of the employee. Refer
Figure 8-4 on page 269 in the text for programmed and non-programmed decisions visual
model.

136. (p. 270-272) Compare and contrast rational decision making and bounded rationality.
The rational decision-making model offers a step-by-step approach to making decisions that
maximize outcomes by examining all available alternatives. Bounded rationality is the notion
that decision makers simply do not have the ability or resources to process all available
information and alternatives to make an optimal decision. Refer Table 8-3 on page 272 in the
text.

Bloom's Taxonomy: Synthesis and Evaluation
Topic: Decision-Making Problems
137. (p. 274) Define the term heuristic. Give an example of a heuristic.
Heuristics are simple, efficient, rules of thumb that allow us to make decisions more easily.
However, they can also bias us toward inaccurate decisions at times. Refer Table 8-4 on page
275 in the text. It describes 15 of the most well-researched decision making biases.

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138. (p. 274-277) Bianca has just showed up for a very important company meeting - one hour
late. What questions might we ask to determine whether or not Bianca's behavior can be
attributed to internal or external reasons.
The three questions of attribution are consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency.

Distinctiveness: Does this person tend to act differently in other circumstances? In other
words, is Bianca responsible when it comes to personal appointments, not just work
appointments?
Consistency: Does this person always do this when performing this task? In other words,
has Bianca arrived late for work before?
Refer Figure 8-5 on page 277 in the text for the model of such an analysis.

139. (p. 279-280) Describe the effects of learning on job performance and organizational
commitment.
Learning has a moderate positive effect on performance. Learning has a weak positive effect
on commitment. Refer Figure 8-7 on page 279 in the text for the effects of learning on job
performance and organizational commitment.

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140. (p. 280-281) Discuss the steps an organization can take to foster learning. Provide an
example of each.
Traditional training and knowledge transfer can help foster learning and knowledge retention
by an organization. Training represents a systematic effort by organizations to facilitate the
learning of job-related knowledge and behavior. Knowledge transfer can take the form of
behavior modeling training as well as communities of practice. Transfer of training occurs
when the knowledge, skills, and behaviors used on the job are maintained by the learner once
training ends and generalized to the workplace once the learner returns to the job. Transfer of
training can be fostered if organizations create a climate for transfer. Student examples will
vary.

8-98

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Chapter 08 Learning and Decision Making Answer Key

True / False Questions

AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

26. (p. 280) Learning is moderately correlated with task performance.

AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

27. (p. 279) Learning has a weak positive effect on commitment.

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

Multiple Choice Questions

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

35. (p. 259) True learning only occurs when:

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

36. (p. 260) Employees learn two basic types of knowledge:

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

Characteristics of explicit knowledge are easily transferred through written communication.

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

45. (p. 260) Which of the following is a characteristic of tacit knowledge?

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

46. (p. 260) Which of the following is a characteristic of explicit knowledge?

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

AACSB Standard: Business Knowledge and Analytic Skills

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

Two contingencies of reinforcement are used to increase desired behaviors. Positive

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills

Two contingencies of reinforcement are used to increase desired behaviors. Positive

AACSB Standard: Reflective Thinking Skills