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EXAMPLE 4.7
Two surge tanks are placed in series so that the
exit flow from the top tank flows into the lower
tank, as shown in Fig. 4.4. If an exit flow rate
is proportional to liquid level (or head) in that
tank, derive the transfer function that relates
changes in the exit flow rate 𝑞2 of the lower tank
to changes in the inlet flow rate to the top tank
qi. Show how this overall transfer function,
𝑄2′   (s)∕𝑄𝑖 ′   (s), is related to the individual transfer
functions, 𝐻1′ (s)∕ 𝑄𝑖′ (s), 𝑄1′ (s)∕ 𝐻1′ (s),
𝐻2′ (s)∕ 𝑄1′ (s), and 𝑄2′ (s)∕ 𝐻2′ (s). 𝐻1′ (s) and
𝐻2′ (s) denote the Laplace transforms of the
deviations in Tank 1 and Tank 2 levels,
respectively. Assume that the two tanks have
cross-sectional areas, 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 , and valve
resistances, 𝑅1 and 𝑅2, respectively.

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EXAMPLE 4.10
As shown in Chapter 2, a continuous stirred-tank reactor with a single first-order
chemical reaction has the following material and energy balances:

If the reaction rate coefficient 𝑘 is given by the Arrhenius equation,

this model is nonlinear. However, it is possible to find approximate transfer

functions relating the inputs and outputs. For the case where the flow rate (𝑞 or 𝑤 )
and inlet conditions (𝐶𝐴𝑖 and 𝑇𝑖) are assumed to be constant, derive the transfer
function relating changes in the reactor concentration 𝐶𝐴 to changes in the coolant
temperature 𝑇𝑐.

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SOLUTION
For this situation, there is a single input
variable 𝑇𝑐 and two output variables 𝐶𝐴
and 𝑇. First, the steady-state operating
point must be determined (Step 1 in Fig.
4.6). Note that such a determination will
require iterative solution of two nonlinear
algebraic equations; this can be done
using a Newton–Raphson method or
similar algorithm (Chapra and Canale,
2014). Normally, we would specify 𝑇𝑖,
𝐶𝐴𝑖 , and 𝐶𝐴 and then determine
𝑇 and 𝑇𝑐 that satisfy Eqs. 2-66 and 2-
68 at steady state. Then we can proceed
with the linearization of Eqs. 2-66 and
2-68. Defining deviation variables 𝐶′𝐴 ,
𝑇′ , and 𝑇′𝑐 , gives the following
equations:

Note that Eq. 2-66 does not

contain input variable 𝑇𝑐 , so
no 𝑇′𝑐 term appears in Eq. 4-
88. We can convert Eqs. 4-88
and 4-89 into a transfer
function between the coolant
temperature 𝑇′𝑐 (s) and the
tank outlet concentration
𝐶′𝐴 (s) via Laplace
transformation:

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Chapter 5: Dynamic Behavior of First-Order and Second-Order Processes

The general first-order transfer function is given by

where K is the steady-state gain and τ is the time constant. The transfer
function was useful in describing the dynamics of the blending system in
Section 4.4. Now we investigate some particular forms of input U(s),
deriving expressions for the response, y(t).

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5.2.1 Step Response

For a step input of magnitude M, U(s) = M/s, and Eq. 5-14 becomes

Using Table 3.1, the time-domain response is

The plot of this equation in Fig. 5.3 shows that a first-order process does not
respond instantaneously to a sudden change in its input. In fact, after a time
interval equal to the time constant (t = τ), the process response is still only
63.2% complete. Theoretically, the process output never reaches the new steady-
state value except as t → ∞; it does approximate the final steady-state value
when t ≈ 5τ, as shown in Table 5.1.

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EXAMPLE 5.1
A stirred-tank heating system is used to preheat a reactant containing a
suspended solid catalyst at a constant flow rate of 1000 kg/h. The volume in
the tank is 2 m3, and the density and specific heat of the suspended mixture
are, respectively, 900 kg/m 3 and 1 cal/g ∘C. The process initially is operating
with inlet and outlet temperatures of 100 and 130 ∘C, respectively. The steady-
state energy input is 3 × 107cal/h. The transfer function is

The following questions concerning process operations are posed:

(a) What are the values of K and τ?
(b) If the heater input is suddenly increased by +30%, how long will it take
for the tank temperature to achieve 99% of the final temperature change?
(c)If the inlet temperature is increased suddenly from 100 to 120 ∘C, how long
will it take before the outlet temperature changes from 130 to 135 ∘C?
SOLUTION
(a) Using Eq. 5-17, the gain and time constants can be determined

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(b) Table 5.1 indicates that the time required to attain the 99% response
following a step change of a n y magnitude in heater input will be 5τ that is, 9
h. The steady-state change in temperature due to a change of +30% in Q (9 ×
106 cal/h) can be calculated from the Final Value Theorem, Eq. 3-53:

Note that the calculated outlet temperature change as a result of the input
change; hence, the outlet temperature at the final steady state is 130 ∘C + 9 ∘C
= 139 ∘C. However, use of the Final Value Theorem is an unnecessary
formality when a transfer function is written in the standard form with gain
and time constant. The input change need only be multiplied by the steady-
state gain to obtain the ultimate change in the process output, assuming that
the final value does in fact exist and is finite. In this case
T′(t → ∞) = KΔQ = (10−6 ∘C∕cal ⋅h)(9 × 106 cal∕h) = 9 ∘C.

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5.2.2 Ramp Response

We now evaluate the response of a first-order system to a ramp input, U(s) = a/𝑠2
of Eq. 5-8. Performing a partial fraction expansion yields

5.2.3 Sinusoidal Response

As a final example of the response of first-order processes, consider a
sinusoidal input 𝑢(t) = A sin ωt,with

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5.3 RESPONSE OF INTEGRATINGPROCESSES

In Section 2.4 we briefly considered a liquid-level system with a pump attached to the
outflow line. Assuming that the outflow rate 𝑞 can be set at a ny time by adjusting the
speed of the pump, Eq. 2-54 becomes

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hence the term, integrating process. Integrating processes do not have a

steady-state gain in the usual sense. For such a process operating at steady
state, a n y positive step change in q𝑖 (increase in q𝑖 above 𝑞) will cause the
tank level to increase linearly with time in proportion to the difference, q𝑖(t)
− q(t), while a positive step change in q will cause the tank level to decrease
linearly. Thus, no new steady state will be attained, unless the tank
overflows or empties. In contrast, a tank with an exit line valve, rather than
a pump, will reach a steady state when the outflow rate becomes equal to the
inflow rate. This process is described by a first-order transfer function
rather than an integrator (cf. Example 4.8).

EXAMPLE 5.3
A vented cylindrical tank is used for storage between a tank car unloading facility
and a continuous reactor that uses the tank car contents as feedstock (Fig. 5.5).
The reactor feed exits the storage tank at a constant flow rate of 0.02 𝑚 3 /s.
During some periods of operation, feedstock is simultaneously transferred from
the tank car to the feed tank and from the tank to the reactor. The operators have
to be particularly careful not to let the feed tank overflow or empty. The feed tank
is 5 𝑚 high (distance to the vent) and has an internal cross-sectional area of
4
𝑚2.
Suppose that after a long period of operation, the storage tank level is 2 𝑚 at the
time the tank car empties. How long can the reactor be operated before the feed
tank is depleted?
(b) Another tank car is moved into place and connected to the tank, while flow
continues into the reactor at 0.02 𝑚 3 /s. If flow is introduced into the feed tank
just as the tank level reaches 1 𝑚 , how long can the transfer pump from the tank
car be operated? Assume that it pumps at a constant rate of 0.1 𝑚 3 /s when
switched on.

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SOLUTION
(a) For this system, there is no unique steady-state level corresponding to a particular
value of input and output flow rate. Suppose the initial level is h = 2 m and the constant
flow rate from the feed pump to the reactor, q = 0.02 𝑚 3 /s, is the basis for defining
deviation variables for h, q, and q𝑖. Then

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Inversion to the time domain yields h(t) = 1 + 0.02t. Thus, the transfer pump can be operated for 200 s until
h(t) = 5 m, when the tank would overflow. Note that this time (as well as the time to empty the tank in (a)) can
be calculated without using Laplace transforms, simply by using the constant rate of inflow (or outflow) and
the tank volume.

5.4 RESPONSE OF SECOND-ORDER PROCESSES

As noted in Chapter 4, a second-order transfer function can arise physically

whenever two first-order processes are connected in series. For example, two
stirred-tank blending processes, each with a first-order transfer function relating
inlet to outlet mass fraction, might be physically connected so that the outflow
stream of the first tank is used as the inflow stream of the second tank. Figure 5.6
illustrates the signal flow relation for such a process. Here

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where 𝐾 = 𝐾1𝐾2. Alternatively, a second-order process transfer function will

arise upon transforming either a second-order differential equation process
model such as the two coupled first-order differential equations, for the CSTR
(Eqs. 4-88 and 4-89). In this chapter

we consider second-order transfer functions in the standard form

In Eq. 5-38, K and τ have the same importance as for a first-order transfer
function. K is the steady-state gain, and τ determines the speed of response (or,
equivalently, the response time) of the system. The damping coefficient ζ (zeta) is
dimensionless. It provides a measure of the amount of damping in the system—
that is, the degree of oscillation in a process response after an input change. Small
values of ζ imply little damping and a large amount of oscillation, as, for example,
in an automobile suspension system with ineffective shock absorbers. Hitting a
bump causes a vehicle to bounce up and down dangerously. In some textbooks,
Eq. 5-38 is written in terms of ω 𝑛 = 1/τ, the undamped natural frequency of the
system. This name arises because it represents the frequency of oscillation of the
system when there is no damping (ζ=0).

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There are three important classes of second-order systems, as shown in Table

5.2 The case where ζ < 0 is omitted here because it corresponds to an unstable
second-order system that has an unbounded response to any input (effects of
instability are covered in Chapter 11). The overdamped and critically damped
forms of the second-order transfer function most often appear when two first-
order systems occur in series (see Fig. 5.6). The transfer functions given by Eqs.
5-37 and 5-38 differ only in the form of the denominators. Equating the
denominators yields the relation between the two alternative forms for the
overdamped second-order system:

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