Berkeley

Mixers: An Overview

Prof. Ali M. Niknejad

U.C. Berkeley
Copyright
c 2014 by Ali M. Niknejad

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm

Mixers

Information
Mixer
PSD

fc

The Mixer is a critical component in communication circuits.

It translates information content to a new frequency.
On the transmitter, baseband data is up-converted to an RF
carrier (shown above).
In a receiver, the same information is ideally down-converted
to baseband.

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm

Mixers Specifications

Conversion Gain: Ratio of voltage (power) at output

frequency to input voltage (power) at input frequency
Downconversion: RF power in, IF power out
Up-conversion: IF power in, RF power out
Noise Figure
DSB versus SSB
Linearity
Image Rejection, Spurious Rejection
LO Feedthrough
Input
Output
RF Feedthrough

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm

Mixer Implementation

f(x) 1 2
Two tones 2nd order IM
1, 2
Non-linear 1 + 2

We know that any non-linear circuit acts like a mixer

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm

Squarer Example

x x2 y

Product component:
y = A2 cos2 ω1 t + B 2 cos2 ω2 t + 2AB cos ω1 t cos ω2 t

What we would prefer: LO

vRF = vRF cos ω1 t
IF
vLO = vRF cos ω1 t
RF
vIF = 2vLO · vRF cos (ω1 ± ω2 ) t
A true quadrant multiplier with good dynamic range is
difficult to fabricate

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm

LTV Mixer

f1 + f 2 LTI f1 + f 2 No new frequencies

f1 + f 2 LTV New tones in output

No new frequencies for a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system

But a Linear Time-Varying (LTV) “Mixer” can act like a

multiplier

Example: Suppose the resistance of an element is modulated

periodically
vo (IF )
vo = iin · R (t)
R(t) iin (t)(RF ) = Io cos (ωRF t) · Ro cos (ωLO t)
vLO
Io R o
= {cos (ωRF + ωLO ) t+cos (ωRF − ωLO ) t}
2
Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm
Periodically Time Varying Systems
In general, any periodically time varying system can achieve
frequency translation
X∞
p (t + T ) = p (t) = cn e jωo nt vi (t)
v (t) = p (t) vi (t) n=−∞

ZT
1
cn = p (t) e −jωo nt dt
T
0

e jω1 t + e −jω1 t
 
vi (t) = A (t) cos ω1 t = A (t)
2

∞
X e j(ωo nt+ω1 t) + e +j(ωo nt−ω1 t)
vo (t) = A (t) cn
−∞
2

Consider n=1 plus n=-1

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm
Desired Mixing Product

c1 = c−1

c1 j(ωo t−ω1 t) c−1 −j(ωo t+ω1 t)

vo (t) = e + e
2 2

= c1 cos (ωo t − ω1 t)

Output contains desired signal (plus a lot of other signals).

Must pre-filter the undesired signals (such as the image band).

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm

Convolution in Frequency

Ideal multiplier mixer: y (t) = p (t) x (t)

p(t) Y (f ) = X (f ) ∗ P (f )
∞
y(t) P (f ) =
X
cn δ (f − nfLO )
x(t) −∞

Z∞ X
∞
Y (f ) = cn δ (σ − nfLO )X (f − σ) dσ
−∞ −∞

Z∞
 
∞
X
= cn  δ (σ − nfLO ) X (f − σ) dσ 
−∞ −∞

∞
X
= cn X (f − nfLO )
−∞

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm

Up-Conversion: n > 0
X(f )

f
−fLO fLO

Y (f )

n = −1 n=1
n = −2 n=2
n=3

f
−2fLO −fLO fLO 2fLO 3fLO

Input spectrum is translated into multiple points at the output

at multiples of the LO frequency.
Filtering is required to reject the undesired harmonics.

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm

Down-Conversion: n < 0
X(f )

f
−fLO fLO

Y (f )
n=3 n = −3
n=2 n = −2
n=1 n = −1

f
−2fLO −fLO fLO 2fLO 3fLO

Output spectrum is translated from multiple sidebands (both

sides – image issue) into the same output.
This is the origin of the lack of image and harmonic rejection
in a basic mixer. We have already seen image reject
architectures. Later we’ll study harmonic rejection mixers.
Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm
Balanced Mixer Topologies

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm

Balanced Mixer
An unbalanced mixer has a transfer function:

0 LO < 0
y (t) = x(t) × s(t) = (1 + A(t) cos(ωRF t)) ×
1 LO > 0

which contains both RF, LO, and IF

For a single balanced mixer, the LO signal is “balanced”
(bipolar) so we have

−1 LO < 0
y (t) = x(t) × s(t) = (1 + A(t) cos(ωRF t)) ×
+1 LO > 0

As a result, the output contains the LO but no RF component

For a double balanced mixer, the LO and RF are balanced so
there is no LO or RF leakage

−1 LO < 0
y (t) = x(t) × s(t) = A(t) cos(ωRF t) ×
+1 LO > 0
Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm
Current Commutating Mixers
Io1 = I1 − I2 = F (VLO (t) , IB + is )

I1 I2
Assume is is small relative to IB and perform
M1 M2
Taylor series expansion.
LO

RF M3 I B + is
∂F
Io1 ≈ F (VLO (t) , IB ) + (VLO (t) , IB ) · is + ...
∂IB

Io1 = Po (t) + P1 (t) · is

vx
VLO (t )
-vx
+1

P1 (t )

All current M2 Both on

through M1

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm

Current Commutating

M1 M2
1 1
i1 gm2 i2 gm1
= =
i1 i2 is 1
+ 1 is 1
+ 1
gm1 gm2 gm1 gm2
is

gm1 (t) − gm2 (t) i1 − i2

 
p1 (t) = =
gm1 (t) + gm2 (t) is
To


Note that with good device matching: p1 (t) = −p1 t + 2
Expand p1 (t) into a Fourier series:
TLO
Z TZ
LO /2 TLO
Z
1 −j2π2kt/TLO
p1,2k = p1 (t) e dt = + =0
TLO
0 0 TLO /2

Only odd coefficients of p1,n non-zero

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm
Single Balanced Mixer

+ IF −

+LO −LO Switching

Pair
RF Current

+RF Transconductance
stage (gain)

Assume LO signal strong so that current (RF) is alternatively

sent to either M2 or M3. This is equivalent to multiplying iRF
by ±1.
vIF ≈ sign (VLO ) gm RL vRF = g (t) gm RL vRF

g (t) periodic waveform with period = TLO

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm
Current Commutating Mixer (2)

4
g (t) = square wave = (cos ωLO t − cos 3ωLO t + ...)
π

Let vRF = A cos ωRF t

Gain:
ṽIF 14 2
Av = = gm RL = gm RL
A 2π π
LO-RF isolation good, but LO signal appears in output (just a
diff pair amp).
Strong LO might desensitize (limit) IF stage (even after
filtering).

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm

Double Balanced Mixer

+LO Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 +LO

−LO

+RF Q5 Q6 −RF
RE RE Transconductance

IEE

LO signal is rejected up to matching constraints

Differential output removes even order non-linearities
Linearity is improved: Half of signal is processed by each side
Noise higher than single balanced mixer since no cancellation
occurs
Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm
Mixer Design Examples

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm

Improved Linearity

IF+ IF-

LO+ LO-

RF

Bias

Role of input stage is to provide V -to-I conversion.

Degeneration helps to improve linearity. Inductive
degeneration is preferred as there is no loss in headroom and
it provides input matching.
An LO trap also minimizes swing of LO at output which may
cause premature compression.
Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm
Common Gate Input Stage

Iout
Vbias

Vin

Iout Iout Iout Iout

Vbias Vbias Vbias Vbias

Vin Vin Vin Vin

Vmirr

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm

Gilbert Micromixer
IF LOAD

LO
DRIVER

RF INPUT

The LNA output is often single-ended. A good balanced RF

signal is required to minimize the feedthrough to the output.
LC bridge circuits can be used, but the bandwidth is limited.
A transformer is a good choice for this, but bulky and
bandwidth is still limited.
A broadband single-ended to differential conversion stage can
be used to generate highly balanced signals over very wide
bandwidths. Gm stage is Class AB.
Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm
Gilbert Micromixer Gm Stage
I1 I3
IZ

Q1

IRF QZ1
Q3
+
VRF Q2 QZ2
−

Set IZ to bias for match: RIN = 2Vt /IZ .

Using “trans-linear concept” to derive currents by defining
λ = IRF /2IZ
IZ2 = I1 I2 = I1 (I1 + IRF )
p 
I1,2 = IZ λ2 + 1 ∓ λ
I1 − I3 = 2λIZ = IRF
Vt 1
RIN (λ) = √
2IZ λ2 + 1
Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm
Active and Passive Balun
Io (+) Io (−)
IF

Vbias

Vin

Vbias

Vout (+) LO
RF
C L Z2 /2

Vin

L C Z2 /2 Bias

Vout (−)
Z1

For broadband applications, an active balun is a good solution

but impacts linearity. A fully passive balun cap be designed
with good bandwidth and balance, resulting in very good
overall linearity. Watch out for common mode coupling in
balun.
Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm
Bleeding the Switching Core

IF+ IF-

LO+ LO-

RF

Bias

Large currents are good for the gm stage (noise, conversion

gain), but require large devices in the switching core ⇒ hard
to switch due to capacitance and also requires a large LO
(large Vgs − Vt)
A current source can be used to feed the Gm stage with extra
current.
Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm
Current Re-Use Gm Stage
Vbias,p

VLO (+) Note that the

PMOS currents
are out of phase
Io1 Io2
VRF with the NMOS,
and hence the
inverted polarity
VLO (−)
for the LO is used
to compensate.
Io = Io1 − Io2

Vbias,n
CMOS technology has fast PMOS devices which can be used
to increase the effective Gm of the transconductance stage
without increasing the current by stacking.
Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm
Single, Dual, and Back Gate
Io Io

VRF
VRF
VLO
VLO
Vbias
Io

VLO

VRF VLO

VRF
Io
Vbias

Note that for weak signals, the second-order non-linearity will

mix the LO and RF signals.
We prefer to apply a strong LO to periodically modulate the
transconductance Gm (t) of the transistor.
Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm
Ring or Gilbert Quad?
+LO
+IF

−
LO
LO
M1

+
M2

M
M
+RF

3
+IF +RF −RF
−LO
−IF

4
M

M
−RF

2
M3

LO
−
LO

+
M4
−IF

+LO

Unfold the quad, we get a ring. They are the same!

Notice that a mixer is just a circuit that flips the sign of the
transfer function from ± every cycle of the LO. We can either
steer currents or voltages.
The switches can be actively biased and switched with an LO
of approximately a few Vgs − VT (or several times kT /q for
BJT), or they can be biased passively and fully switched on
and off.
Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm
Passive Mixers (V )
Devices act as switches and
LO
just rewire the circuit so
that the plus/minus voltage
+RF
IF is connected to the output
−RF RIF with ±1 polarity.
Very linear but requires a
LO
high LO swing and larger
LO power.
L1
+RF
Rs /2 LO LO

C3 L3 IF

Rs /2 LO LO
− RF
L2
Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm
Passive Mixers (I )
+LO

+IF
−LO
−IF
+RF −RF

+LO

Commutate currents using passive switches. Very linear

(assuming current does not have distortion) but requires
higher LO drive.
Good practice to DC bias switches at desired operating point
and AC coupling the Gm stage.
Since we’re processing a current, we use a TIA to present a
low impedance and convert I -to-V

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm

Sub-Sampling Mixers
ΦRF Note that sampling is
VIF
equivalent to multiplication
by an impulse train (spacing
VRF
of TLO ), which in the
frequency domain is the
X(f ) convolution of another
impulse train (spacing of
1/TLO ).
f
This means that we can
fRF
sample or even sub-sample
X(f )
the signal. The problem is
that noise from all
harmonics of the LO folds to
f common IF. Always true,
fIF
but especially problematic
for sub-sampling.
Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm
Rudell CMOS Mixer

VLO (+)
VCM,out

VLO (−)

Vbias Vbias
M16

Vin (+) Vin (−)

Igain ICM

Gain programmed using current through M16 (set by

resistance of triode region devices)
Common mode feedback to set output point
Cascode improves isolation (LO to RF)
Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm
Power Spectral Density

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm

Review of Linear Systems and PSD
Average response of LTI system:
Z∞
y1 (t) = H1 [x (t)] = h1 (t) x (t − τ ) dτ
−∞

ZT
1
y1 (t) = lim y1 (t) dt
T →∞ 2T
−T

ZT Z∞
 
1
= lim  h1 (τ ) x (t − τ ) dτ  dt
T →∞ 2T
−T −∞

Z∞ ZT
 

= limT →∞ 1 x (t − τ ) dt h1 (τ ) dt
2T
−∞ −T
| {z }
x(t)
Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm
Average Value Property

Z∞
y1 (t) = x (t) h1 (t) dt
−∞

Z∞
H1 (jω) = h1 (t) e −jωt dt
−∞

y1 (t) = x (t)H1 (0)

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm

Output RMS Statistics

ZT Z∞ Z∞
  
2
1
y1 (t) = lim  h1 (τ1 ) x (t − τ1 ) dτ1   h1 (τ2 ) x (t − τ2 ) dτ2 dt
T →∞ 2T
−T −∞ −∞

 
Z∞ Z∞ ZT
1
= h1 (τ1 ) h1 (τ2 ) limT →∞ x (t − τ1 ) x (t − τ2 ) dt  dτ1 dτ2
 
2π
−∞ −∞ −T

Recall the definition for the autocorrelation function

ϕxx (t) = x (t) x (t + τ )

ZT
1
= lim x (t) x (t + τ ) dt
T →∞ 2T
−T

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm

Autocorrelation Function

Z∞ Z∞
y1 2 (t) = h1 (τ1 ) h2 (τ2 )ϕxx (τ1 − τ2 ) dτ1 dτ2
−∞ −∞

Z∞
ϕxx (jω) = ϕxx (τ ) e −jωτ dτ
−∞

Z∞
1
ϕxx (τ ) = ϕxx (jω) e jωτ dω
2π
−∞

ϕxx (jω) is a real and even function of ω since ϕxx (t) is a real
and even function of t
Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm
Autocorrelation Function (2)

Z∞ Z∞ Z∞
1
y1 2 (t) = h1 (τ1 ) h1 (τ2 ) ϕxx (jω) e jω(τ1 −τ2 ) dωdτ1 dτ2
2π
−∞ −∞ −∞

Z∞ Z∞ Z∞
1
= ϕxx (jω) h1 (τ1 ) h1 (τ2 ) e jω(τ1 −τ2 ) dτ1 dτ2
2π
−∞ −∞ −∞

Z∞ Z∞ Z∞
  
1
= ϕxx (jω)  h1 (τ1 ) e +jωτ1 dτ1   h1 (τ2 ) e −jωτ2 dτ2  dω
2π
−∞ −∞ −∞

Z∞
1
y1 2 (t) = ϕxx (jω) H1 (jω) H1 ∗ (jω) dω
2π
−∞

Z∞
1
= ϕxx (jω) |H1 (jω)|2 dω
2π
−∞

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm

Average Power in X(t)

Consider x(t) as a voltage waveform with total average power

x 2 (t). Lets measure the power in x(t) in the band 0 < f < f1
Ideal LPF
+ +
x(t ) 1 y (t )
1
- -

The average power in the frequency range 0 < f < f1 is now

Z∞
1
y1 2 (t) = ϕxx (jω)|H1 (jω)|2 dω
2π
−∞

Zω1 Zf1
1
= ϕxx (jω) dω = ϕxx (j2πf ) df
2π
−ω1 −f1

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm

Average Power in X(t) (2)

Zf1
=2 ϕxx (j2πf ) df
0

Generalize: To measure the power in any frequency range,

apply an ideal bandpass filter with passband f1 < f < f2
Zf2
y1 2 (t) = 2 ϕxx (j2πf ) df
f1

The interpretation of ϕxx as the the power spectral density

(PSD) is clear.

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm

Spectrum Analyzer

A spectrum analyzer measures the PSD of a signal

“Poor Man’s” spectrum analyzer:
Wide
dynamic
Sharp filter
range mixer

vertical

Sweep
VCO CRT
generation horiz. f1 f2
Linear wide
tuning range

Niknejad Advanced IC’s for Comm