Power Plant Engneering Part 1

Power Plant Eng. Fuel and Energy Deprt.
4th year Inst. Akeel M. A. Morad
Aim
The aim is to define and understand the main principles of power plant engineering which will be
useful for understanding the operation and working of power plants. Students will learn basics of steam
and gas properties along with its processes. Students will understand the operation of boilers and their
types besides fuel and combustion. Also students will understand the operation of turbines and pumps
that is very useful in thermal mechanics engineering.
Theoretical
Week Subject
1 Steam power station :
Combined cycle-dual cycle (steam-mercury)
2 Steam boilers-types and their operation principle
- Type of steam generators and their principle and comparison between fire and tube boiler
3 Accessories of steam boilers
- Economizer
- air pre heaters and super heater
4-5 Combustion calculations and boiler performance
- Fuels and combustion calculations and the performance of boilers
6 Heat balance
- Heat balance and define the losses in the Boilers
7 Stacks (chimneys)
- Driving pressure and the function of stack
8 Boiler feed water treatment
- Define impurities and their sources and explain methods of treatment
9-10 Steam nozzles:
-application of steam nozzles.
- Design and off design cond. for con. divergent nozzle
11-12 Steam nozzle calculation and its efficiency
- The basic equations for steam nozzle and determine critical pr. and eff.
-analysis of steam nozzles-steam expansion- maximum speed-critical pressure ratio-ratio
of area to mass flow rate-friction effect-supersaturated steam.
13-14 Steam turbines impulse &reaction
- Steam turbines and comparison between impulse and reaction
15-16 Simple – impulse turbine
- simple impulse turbine the disadvantages and their solution
17-18 Compounded impulse turbine
- Pressure compounded and velocity compounded / types
- Velocity compounded and pressure –velocity compounded / principle of operation
19-20 Blade & stage eff. And blade height
- Blade efficiency and stage efficiency calculation and the effect of blade speed ratio and
the blade height
21-22 Velocity diagram for reaction turbine
- Velocity diagram for reaction turbines and their axial and tangential forces
23-24 Blade and stage eff. And blade height
- The effect of blade speed ratio on blade eff. For reaction turbine
1
25-26 Economics of power plants

- Introduction and definition such as capacity fact, load factor
27-28 Gas turbine power plants:

-advantages and disadvantages.
-reheating cycles-regenerative cycle with heat exchanger- intercooling cycle.
-combined steam and gas power plant.
29-30 Pumps:
-types of pumps.
-System characteristics- pump characteristics.
-parallel and tandem pump compounding.
-centrifugal pump-velocity triangular.
-Guide vans- priming-pump blades- pump casing.
-characteristic of suction and delivery pipes.
-hydraulic efficiency.
-cavitations.
2
Below is a list of power stations in Iraq
Thermal
Name Location Capacity (MW)
Al-Mussaib Babil 1280
Doura Baghdad 640
Bayji Salahuddin 1320
South Baghdad Baghdad 355
Al-Shemal Mosul 2100
Al-Hartha Basra Governorate 400
An Nassiriyah Dhiqar 840
Renewable
Hydroelectric
Name Location Capacity (MW) Type
Adhaim Dam Saladin Province 27 Conventional
Darbandikhan Dam Sulaymaniyah Governorate 248 Conventional
Dukan Dam Sulaymaniyah Governorate 400 Conventional
3
Haditha Dam Al Anbar Governorate 660 Conventional
Hemrin Dam Diyala Governorate 50 Conventional
Samarra Barrage Salah ad Din Governorate 84 Conventional
Mosul Dam Ninawa Governorate 1052 Conventional
Mosul Dam Regulator Ninawa Governorate 62 Run-of-the-river
Natural Gas
Mulla Abdulla (New) Kirkuk Governorate 222 Open-cycle
Khor Al Zubayr Basra Governorate 252 Open-cycle
Al-Mansurya Diyala Governorate 728 Open-cycle
Al-Anbar Al-Anbar Governorate 1,642.6 Combined-cycle
Shatt Al-Basra Basra Governorate 1250 Open-cycle
Erbil Erbil Governorate 1500 Combined-cycle
South Baghdad 1 Baghdad Governorate 246 Open-cycle
South Baghdad 2 Baghdad Governorate 400 Open-cycle
4
Daura 1 Baghdad Governorate 146 Open-cycle
Daura 2 Baghdad Governorate 750 Open-cycle
Al-Rasheed 1 Baghdad Governorate 94 Open-cycle
Taji 1 Baghdad Governorate 156 Open-cycle
Taji 2 Baghdad Governorate 160 Open-cycle
Sadr Baghdad Governorate 160 Open-cycle
Al-Quds 1 Baghdad Governorate 450 Open-cycle
Al-Najybia Basra Governorate 500 Open-cycle
Sulaymaniyah Sulaymaniyah Governorate 1500 Combined-cycle
Duhok Duhok Governorate 500 Open-cycle
Rumaila Basra Governorate 1460 Open-cycle
Taza Kirkuk Governorate 292 Open-cycle
5
Hilla Babil Governorate 250 Open-cycle
Karbala Karbala Governorate 250 Open-cycle
Al-Najaf Najaf Governorate 250 Open-cycle
Yusufiyah Location: Salahuddin 8 X 210 MW construction halted?
6
Chapter One
CONCEPT OF POWER PLANT
A power plant is assembly of systems or subsystems to generate electricity, i.e., power
with economy and requirements. The power plant itself must be useful economically and
environmental friendly to the society. The present book is oriented to conventional as
well as non-conventional energy generation. While the stress is on energy efficient
system regards conventional power systems viz., to increase the system conversion
efficiency the supreme goal is to develop, design, and manufacturer the non-
conventional power generating systems in coming decades preferably after 2050 AD
which are conducive to society as well as having feasible energy conversion efficiency
and non-friendly to pollution, keeping in view the pollution act. The subject as a whole
can be also stated as modern power plants for power viz electricity generation in 21st
century. The word modern means pertaining to time.
CLASSIFICATION OF POWER PLANTS
A power plant may be defined as a machine or assembly of equipment that generates

and delivers a flow of mechanical or electrical energy. The main equipment for the
generation of electric power is generator. When coupling it to a prime mover runs the
7
generator, the electricity is generated. The type of prime move determines, the type of
power plants. The major power plants, which are discussed in this book, are
1. Steam power plant
2. Diesel power plant
3. Gas turbine power plant
4. Nuclear power plant
5. Hydro electric power plant
The Steam Power Plant, Diesel Power Plant, Gas Turbine Power Plant and Nuclear
Power Plants are called THERMAL POWER PLANT, because these convert heat into
electric energy.
CLASSIFICATION OF POWER PLANT CYCLE

Power plants cycle generally divided in to the following groups,
(1) Vapor Power Cycle
(Carnot cycle, Rankine cycle, Regenerative cycle, Reheat cycle, Binary vapor cycle)
(2) Gas Power Cycles
(Otto cycle, Diesel cycle, Dual combustion cycle, Gas turbine cycle.)
FACTS ABOUT ENERGY

These are the figures about energy of World Energy Production;
27% Coal
21% Natural Gas
39% Crude Oil
6% Nuclear
6% Hydro-electric Power
Fossil Fuels are 87% of the world’s energy production. Wind and Solar energy are less
than 1% of the world’s production
8
THE RANKINE CYCLE

Now consider the idealized four-steady-state-process cycle shown in Fig.2, in which
state 1 is saturated liquid and state 3 is either saturated vapor or superheated vapor. This
system is termed the Rankine cycle and is the model for the simple steam power plant. It
is convenient to show the states and processes on a T–s diagram, as given in Fig.3. The
four processes are:
FIG. 3 Simple steam power plant that operates on the Rankine cycle.
1–2: Reversible adiabatic pumping process in the pump

2–3: Constant-pressure transfer of heat in the boiler
3–4: Reversible adiabatic expansion in the turbine (or another prime mover such as a
steam engine)
4–1: Constant-pressure transfer of heat in the condenser
As mentioned earlier, the Rankine cycle also includes the possibility of superheating
the vapor, as cycle
For analyzing the Rankine cycle, it is helpful to think of efficiency as depending on the
average temperature at which heat is supplied and the average temperature at which heat
is rejected. Any changes that increase the average temperature at which heat is supplied
or decrease the average temperature at which heat is rejected will increase the Rankine-
cycle efficiency.
9
Each process can be analyzed using the steady flow energy equation, ΔKE and ΔPE
may be neglected.
10
Ex1:- Determine the efficiency of a Rankine cycle using steam as the working fluid in
which the condenser pressure is 10 kPa. The boiler pressure is 2 MPa. The steam leaves
the boiler as saturated vapor.
Ans.
11
How can we increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle

Steam power plants are used for the production of most of the electric power in
the world, therefore, as small increases in thermal efficiency can mean large savings
from the fuel requirement.
1- Lowering the condenser pressure:
The dashed area in this diagram represents the
increase in Wnet. The heat input also increases
(represented by the area under curve 4 - 4'),
but this increase is very small. Thus, the
overall effect of lowering the condenser
pressure is an increase in the thermal
efficiency of the cycle.
Disadvantages:
1- It creates the problem of air leakage into the condenser.
2- It increases the moisture content of the steam at the final-stages of the
turbine. The large quantities of moisture are highly undesirable because it erodes the
turbine blades.
2- Superheating the steam to high temperature:

Both the Wnet and heat input increase as a
result of superheating. The overall effect is
an increase in (ζR).
* Superheating decreasing the moisture
content of the steam at the turbine exit as
shown in T-S diagram (the quality (x) at
state 2' is higher than that at state 2).
** Presently the highest steam temperature allowed at the turbine inlet is about
620 cº. Any increase in this value depends on improving the present material of
the blades.
12
3- Increasing the boiler pressure:

It raises the average temp. at which heat is
added to the steam and thus, raises the (ζ). For
a fixed turbine inlet temp., the cycle shifts to
the left and the moisture content of the steam
at the turbine exit increases. This side effect
can be corrected by reheating the steam.
3- THE REHEAT CYCLE

The efficiency of the Rankine cycle could be increased by increasing the pressure
during the addition of heat. However, the increase in pressure also increases the
moisture content of the steam in the low-pressure end of the turbine. The reheat cycle
has been developed to take advantage of the increased efficiency with higher pressures
and yet avoid excessive moisture in the low-pressure stages of the turbine. This cycle is
shown schematically and on a T–s diagram in Fig. 1. The unique feature of this cycle is
that the steam is expanded to some intermediate pressure in the turbine and is then
reheated in the boiler, after which it expands in the turbine to the exhaust pressure. It is
evident from the T–s diagram that there is very little gain in efficiency from reheating
the steam, because the average temperature at which heat is supplied is not greatly
changed. The chief advantage is in decreasing to a safe value the moisture content in the
low-pressure stages of the turbine.
FIGURE 1
The ideal reheat
cycle
Ex1- Consider a reheat cycle utilizing steam. Steam leaves the boiler and enters the
turbine at 4 MPa, 400◦C. After expansion in the turbine to 400 kPa, the steam is reheated
to 400◦C and then expanded in the low-pressure turbine to 10 kPa. Determine the cycle
efficiency. For each control volume analyzed, the thermodynamic model is the steam
tables, the process is steady state, and changes in kinetic and potential energies are
negligible.
13
Ans.
14
4- THE REGENERATIVE CYCLE AND FEEDWATER HEATERS
Another important variation from the Rankine cycle is the regenerative cycle, which
uses feed water heaters. The basic concepts of this cycle can be demonstrated by
considering the Rankine cycle without superheat, as shown in Fig. 2. During the process
between states 2 and 2’ , the working fluid is heated while in the liquid phase, and the
average temperature of the working fluid is much lower than during the vaporization
process 2’–3. The process between states 2 and 2’ causes the average temperature at
which heat is supplied in the Rankine cycle to be lower than in the Carnot cycle
Consequently, the efficiency of the Rankine cycle is lower than that of the corresponding
Carnot cycle. In the regenerative cycle the working fluid enters the boiler at some state
15
between 2 and 2’; consequently, the average temperature at which heat is supplied is
higher.
FIGURE 2 T–s
diagram showing the
relationships between
Carnot-cycle efficiency
and Rankine-cycle
efficiency.
Consider first an idealized regenerative cycle, as shown in Fig. 3. The unique

feature of this cycle compared to the Rankine cycle is that after leaving the pump, the
liquid circulates around the turbine casing, counter flow to the direction of vapor flow in
the turbine. Thus, it is possible to transfer to the liquid flowing around the turbine the
heat from the vapor as it flows through the turbine. Let us assume for the moment that
this is a reversible heat transfer; that is, at each point the temperature of the vapor is only
infinitesimally higher than the temperature of the liquid. In this instance, line 4–5 on the
T–s diagram of Fig. 3,which represents the states of the vapor flowing through the
turbine, is exactly parallel to line 1–2–3, which represents the pumping process (1–2)
and the states of the liquid flowing around the turbine. Consequently, areas 2–3–b–a–2
and 5–4–d–c–5 are not only equal but congruous, and these areas, respectively, represent
the heat transferred to the liquid and from the vapor. Heat is also transferred to the
working fluid at constant temperature in process 3–4, and area 3–4–d–b–3 represents
this heat transfer. Heat is transferred from the working fluid in process 5–1, and area 1–
5–c–a–1 represents this heat transfer. This area is exactly equal to area
which is the heat rejected in the related Carnot cycle Thus, the efficiency
of this idealized regenerative cycle is exactly equal to the efficiency of the Carnot cycle
with the same heat supply and heat rejection temperatures.
FIGURE 3 The
ideal regenerative cycle.
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The practical regenerative cycle extracts some of the vapor after it has partially
expanded in the turbine and uses feedwater heaters (FWH), as shown in Fig. 4. Steam
enters the turbine at state 5. After expansion to state 6, some of the steam is extracted
and enters the FWH. The steam that is not extracted is expanded in the turbine to state 7
and is then condensed in the condenser. This condensate is pumped into the FWH,
where it mixes with the steam extracted from the turbine. The proportion of steam
extracted is just sufficient to cause the liquid leaving the FWH to be saturated at state 3.
Note that the liquid has not been pumped to the boiler pressure, but only to the
intermediate pressure corresponding to state 6. Another pump is required to pump the
liquid leaving the FWH boiler pressure. The significant point is that the average
temperature at which heat is supplied has been increased.
Consider a control volume around the open FWH in Fig. 4. The conservation of mass
requires
FIGURE 4
Regenerative cycle
with an open FWH
17
Ex2- Consider a regenerative cycle using steam as the working fluid. Steam leaves the boiler and enters
the turbine at 4 MPa, 400◦C. After expansion to 400 kPa, some of the steam is extracted from the
turbine to heat the feedwater in an open FWH. The pressure in the FWH is 400 kPa, and the water
leaving it is saturated liquid at 400 kPa. The steam not extracted expands to 10 kPa. Determine the
cycle efficiency.
Ans.
18
Another frequently used type of FWH, known as a closed feedwater heater, is one in which the steam
and feedwater do not mix. Rather, heat is transferred from the extracted steam as it condenses on the
outside of tubes while the feedwater flows through the tubes. In a closed heater, a schematic sketch of
which is shown in Fig. 5, the steam and feedwater may be at considerably different pressures. The
condensate may be pumped into the feedwater line, or it may be removed through a trap to a lower-
pressure heater or to the condenser. (A trap is a device that permits liquid but not vapor to flow to a
region of lower pressure.). Let us analyze the closed FWH in Fig.5, when a trap with a drain to the
condenser is used. Assume that can heat the feedwater up to the temperature of the condensing
extraction flow, that is, T3 = T4 = T6a, as there is no drip pump. Conservation of mass for the
feedwater heater is:-
Notice that the extraction flow is added to the condenser, so the flow rate at state 2 is the same as at
state 5. The energy equation is
19
FIGURE 5
Schematic arrangement
for a closed FWH
Open FWHs have the advantages of being less expensive and having better heat-transfer characteristics
than closed FWHs. They have the disadvantage of requiring a pump to handle the feedwater between
each heater.
A typical arrangement of the main components in an actual power plant is shown in Fig. 6. Note that
one open FWH is a deaerating FWH; this heater has the dual purpose of heating and removing the air
from the feedwater. Unless the air is removed, excessive corrosion occurs in the boiler. Note also that
the condensate from the high-pressure heater drains (through a trap) to the intermediate heater, and the
condensate from the intermediate heater drains to the deaerating FWH. The condensate from the low-
pressure heater drains to the condenser. Many actual power plants combine one reheat stage with a
number of extraction stages. The principles already considered are readily applied to such a cycle.
FIGURE 5, Arrangement of heaters in an actual power plant utilizing regenerative FWHs
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COMBINED GAS–VAPOR POWER CYCLES
The continued quest for higher thermal efficiencies has resulted in rather innovative modifications to
conventional power plants. The binary vapor cycle discussed later is one such modification. A more
popular modification involves a gas power cycle topping a vapor power cycle, which is called the
combined gas–vapor cycle, or just the combined cycle. The combined cycle of greatest interest is the
gas-turbine (Brayton) cycle topping a steam-turbine (Rankine) cycle, which has a higher thermal
efficiency than either of the cycles executed individually. Gas-turbine cycles typically operate at
considerably higher temperatures than steam cycles. The maximum fluid temperature at the turbine
inlet is about 620 C (1150 F) for modern steam power plants, but over 1425 C (2600 F) for gas-turbine
power plants. It is over 1500 C at the burner exit of turbojet engines. The use of higher temperatures in
gas turbines is made possible by developments in cooling the turbine blades and coating the blades with
high-temperature-resistant materials such as ceramics. It makes engineering sense to take advantage of
the very desirable characteristics of the gas-turbine cycle at high temperatures and to use the high-
temperature exhaust gases as the energy source for the bottoming cycle such as a steam power cycle.
The result is a combined gas–steam cycle, as shown in Fig. 1. In this cycle, energy is recovered from
the exhaust gases by transferring it to the steam in a heat exchanger that serves as the boiler. In
general, more than one gas turbine is needed to supply sufficient heat to the steam. Also, the steam
cycle may involve regeneration as well as reheating. Energy for the reheating process can be supplied
by burning some additional fuel in the oxygen-rich exhaust gases.
Fig. 1.
21
Ex.1 Consider the combined gas–steam power cycle shown in Fig. 1. The topping cycle
is a gas-turbine cycle that has a pressure ratio of 8. Air enters the compressor at 300 K
and the turbine at 1300 K. The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 80 percent, and
that of the gas turbine is 85 percent. The bottoming cycle is a simple ideal Rankine cycle
operating between the pressure limits of 7 MPa and 5 kPa. Steam is heated in a heat
exchanger by the exhaust gases to a temperature of 500 C. The exhaust gases leave the
heat exchanger at 450 K. Determine (a) the ratio of the mass flow rates of the steam and
the combustion gases and (b) the thermal efficiency of the combined cycle.
Answer
22
Chapter Two
Steam Generators ( Boilers)
The function of a steam generator or a boiler is to convert water into steam at

the desired temp. and pressure to suit the turbine which it serves.
The basic components of steam generator are furnace and fuel burning
equipment, water walls, boiler surface (drum and tubes), superheater surface, air
heater (pre-heater) surface, re-superheater surface, economizer surface (feed
water heating), and several accessories.
Boiler types:
1- Shell boiler. 2- Fire-tube boiler. 3- Water-tube boiler.
Shell boiler: in this type, the close tube or drum contents the water inside. The shell
is attached with source of heating (such as electrical heater). Its efficiency and
ability to generate the steam are low. It is usually used for simple applications as
lab. The electrical boiler is one of this type.
Fire tube boiler: in this type, the hot combustion gases are passed inside the tubes,
and the tubes are surrounded with water. The fire-tube boilers may be classified in
several ways:
1- Externally or internally fired.
2- Horizontal, vertical or
inclined.
3- Direct tube or return

In the externally fired boilers, the furnace is places away from the
boiler shell, while in the internally forced the furnace is built with the
shell.
23
The horizontal, vertical and inclined designs refer to the arrangement of the drum
and fire tubes in it.
In a direct through type of fire tube boiler, flue gases flow from the furnace
end to the chimney end without changing there direction, while in the
return tube type the gases first flow to the rear and then come to the front
through the fire tubes to a smoke box at the front.
The horizontal return tubular (HRT) boiler with external furnace is a common
design in fire tube boilers, and is shown in the following fig.
It consist of a horizontal drum through which fire tubes are stretched, the tube ends
being rolled into tube sheets at each end of the drum. The tubes are submerged in
the water contained in the drum. Fuel burns below the drum on the grate and the
combustion gases pass to the rear of the unit. From the rear ends gases pass
through the tubes and leave at the front end of the boiler through a chimney.
Disadvantages:
1- Since the water and steam are held in a drum, an increase of

working pressure need using of thicker plat sections for construction.
The max. pr. is limited to only about (10.23 bar).
2- Longer time is required for steam rising due to large quantity of
water in the drum.
Advantages:
Fire tube boilers are cheaper for smaller pressure and they are capable of
meeting large fluctuations in steam demands due to grater water storage in
the drum.
* Doors in the front and rear of the boiler drum provide access to the
tubes for cleaning. The usual boiler fittings are mounted on the drum.
24
Water tube boiler:
For central steam P.P. with large capacities, the water-tube boilers are
universally used (pressure is above 17 bar and steam generation is mor than
7000 kg/hr). In these boilers, water flows inside tubes and drums, and receives
heat by radiation and conduction from combustion gases flowing over the tube
surface. Water- tube boilers may be classified in several ways:
1- Straight or bent tube.
2- Longitudinal or
cross tube. 3-
Sectional or box
header.
4- One or more drums.
5- Cross or parallel buffles.
6- Horizontal, vertical and
inclined tubes. 7- Forced or
natural circulation.
Straight tube units: the following fig, shows a longitudinal drum boiler with a
stoker grate and superheater tubes. The straight inclined parallel tubes are rolled
into header at each end, and placed below the longitudinal drum. The drum may
be placed cross-wise with respect to the tubes. Incline tubes in parallel connect
the two headers (box header). The rear header is provided at the bottom, called the
mud drum, to collect solids in the boiler water.
Advantages:
* Lower manufacturing and erecting cost.

* Ease of inspection.
* Ease of cleaning.
25
** The capacity of longitudinal drum

boiler is in the range of only about 2500 - 40000 kg/hr, while cross drum boiler, in
which large number of tubes can be used, capacity is as high as 230000 kg/hr.
Bent tube units (header less):
The bent tube boiler is one of the most commonly used due to its simplicity. The
headers are eliminated there by reducing maintenance costs. The bent tubes inter
directly into the drum. They are arranged to give good circulation. The
arrangement of the drums is done by placing some drums, high and one or two
drums low. These low drums serve as mud drums. As shown in the following fig.
, three drums are used, each at a different levels. Water circulates from the
upper most drum to the lower most drum, then into intermediate drum, and
finally to the upper drum which contains the direct steam.
* Tubes are cleaned from inside the
drums, and only one or two
manholes need be removed to get
inside.
* This design is used for pressure of
32 bar and for capacities of about
18000 kg/hr.
* Water walls are used in these
boilers to increase combustion
rates and steaming capacity.
26
Water walls in modern boiler:
The use of water walls surrounding the furnace of the boiler permits higher
combustion rates in the furnace. A water tube wall is a row of small diameters
tubes through which water from the boiler is made to circulate constantly. Water
walls are used to avoid erosion of tile and insulation the furnace. The furnace
should be completely water-cooled on all four sides to full height.
Types of circulation in boiler:

A- Natural circulation:
Most of water-tube boilers depend upon the natural

circulation of water through the tubes. This type of
circulation depends upon the difference of density
between the water in down comer and mixture water
and steam in riser.
The circulation is continued due to apply heat to the
riser. The height of riser pipes and difference of
average density is the base at which this type
depends.
B- Forced circulation:
This type employing pumps to force the water in the
tubes. The advantages clamed for forced circulation
are:
1- It can be used of smaller bore diameter and thiner tubes for the
higher working pressure.
2- The tubes which constitute a bulk of heating surface can be
disposed in a manner so as to obtain max. heat transfer.
3- Due to less weight, cost of foundation is reduced.
27
4- Scale formation in tubes reduced due to high velocity of water circulation.

5- Because of rapid circulation of water, the boiler can be brought up
to full load in a short time.
Economizer:
It is consist of coil placed in the flue gas stream. It is used to utilize some of the
energy in the flue gas. The feed water enters at the top of the economizer coil, and
as it is it is heated. See the following fig.
Pre-heater (air heater):
It consist of a coil (i.e. heat exchanger) placed in the flue gases. It can be used to
pre-heat the air which is required for the combustion of the fuel. For a given
temp. of combustion gases, the higher the initial temp. of the air then the less will
be the energy input (i.e. less fuel will be used). Hence, higher plant efficiency
will be obtained. See the following fig.
This fig. shows diagrammatically a plant with economizer,

pre-heater, superheater, and reheater.
The advantage of using the economizer are:
28
1- Fuel economy: the economizer helps to save the energy which may be
lost in the flue gas. This results in saving in fuel and in increase of
overall efficiency of the boiler plant.
2- Increasing the steaming capacity: the economizer is in fact an
extension of the boiler heating surface. Hence, the evaporation
capacity of the boiler is increased.
3- Long life of the boiler: the range of temp. between the different parts
of the boiler will be reduced. This results in reduction of stresses.
Feed water treatment:
Solid and dissolved matter in water deposits out on a heat transfer surface in steam
generator. These materials save low conductivities and reduce heat transfer. In
high temp. surface of steam generator, this this reduction in heat flow raises the
temp. of the metal and may cause it to fail if the deposit is on the water side.
* The various impurities present in the raw water may be in the following
form: 1- Desolved salts: such as chloride of calcium, sodium and
magnesium,
sulphates, and carbonates.
2- Dissolve gases: such as CO 2 and O2.
3- Suspended matter: such as silica may be present as mud or slats. The
slats of calcium and magnesium are very harmful.
The impurities may cause the following troubles:
1- Scale formation: it is either a hard or a soft deposit on the internal
surface of a boiler. Scale is mainly due to salts of calcium and magnesium. The
heat transfer through the heating surface will be reduced. The heating surfaces
(tubes and drum) will get overheated. The scale formation in feed water pipes
chokes the flow, which requires higher pressure to maintain the water flow.
2- Corrosion: it takes place due to present of O2, CO2 and chlorides
dissolved in water. It produces pits, grooves, and cracks of material.
29
3- Foaming and priming: foaming prevent the free escape of steam

pebbles as they rise to the surface of water. Priming is the passing of small
water particles with steam as it leaves the boiler.
Methods of water treatment:

1- Mechanical:
a) Sedimentation. b) Coagulation. c) Filtration.

2- Chemical:

a) Lime soda treatment. b) Zeolite treatment. c) Deminarlizing.
3- Thermal treatment:
a) Evaporation: raw water is evaporated with the help of steam. Vapors are
collected and condensed and pure water can be obtained.
b) Deaerating heating (degasification): the dissolved gases in the water (i.e. air,
O 2, CO 2) and other gases can be removed deaerating heating. Both hotwell
condensate and the treated make-up water requiring deaeration prior to passage to
the boiler feed pumps. A tray type deaerating heater is shown in the fig.
30
Boiler calculation:
31
32
33
Heat balance of boiler:

The study of heat balance represent an important step in the design of a
steam generator. As a result of this study the optimum design conditions of
steam are obtained.
* Useful heat absorbed by steam:
1- In economizer coil.
2- In super heater coil.
3- Reheater coil.
* Some items of heat losses:
1- Heat losses due to dry exhaust gases.
2- Heat losses due to moisture content in the fuel.
3- Heat losses due to CO formation.
4- Heat losses due to unburned fuel.
5- Heat losses by radiation from setting.
6- Unaccounting from any think.
% heat losses = 100% - ζb
34
35
Boiler Materials
Introduction
A core boiler, excluding the firing equipment, is mainly built with several high-
temperature materials, namely steels and refractories, with structural steels used for
support and sheet materials for air and gas transport.
Refractories, heat-facing materials, are steadily being replaced by more steel for easier.
There is, however, a comeback of sorts for the refractory materials, with the rise of
circulating fluidize bed combustion (CFBC) boilers where they are required in large
quantities for furnace and cyclone lining.
1- Boiler Parts
A wide variety of both raw materials and components, besides auxiliary plant and
equipment, are required to construct a boiler plant. Materials employed in boiler making
can be broadly classified as shown in Table 1.
Depending on the type of boiler and its scope, each of the three items in Table 1
contributes to ∼30 to 40% of the cost of the boiler plant. In a typical industrial plant, the
common bought-outs (BOs) are often included in the scope of boilers, whereas in larger
boilers, item 3c is excluded
TABLE 1
2-Boiler Steels
Boiler steels are of high-quality characterized by low carbon and high weldability,
high consistency, definite high-temperature properties, and a long history of satisfactory
usage. They are manufactured and tested to the specified codes.
36
All the boiler steels should be procured only from code-approved manufacturers, and
code recognition comes only after stringent and periodic verification regarding
compliance to the set standards for manufacturing processes, stage inspections, and
documentation. The machines, the work procedures, the inspection stages, and even
workmen such as welders must be qualified individually. Thus, all the pressure part (PP)
materials in a boiler must come from fully recognized sources and meet minimum set
patterns conforming to a defined quality.
All boiler PP materials are invariably provided with material test certificates (TCs) in
which the material source and all appropriate tests at various manufacturing stages of
steel, as outlined in the code are detailed. Usually, the TCs, so prepared by the steel
maker, are further certified by an independent third-party agency to confirm the
reliability of the reports supplied by the manufacturer.
Various PP assemblies and the raw steels required are given in Table 2. Thus, the PP
material requirements are as follows:
1. Plates
2. Tubes
3. Pipes
4. Forgings
5. Castings (occasionally)
The mean metal temperature range of 450–480ºC is the rough dividing line for carbon
steels (CS) and alloy steels (AS).
TABLE 2
Boilers require a variety of steels, starting from low-strength low-carbon steels to high-
strength high-alloy steels and even stainless steel (ss) for various parts. However, with
the success of 9Cr–1Mo–V steels, the use of ss has considerably reduced. The limiting
temperature and the strength required are the main factors that decide the appropriate
metallurgy. The pattern of a steady progression from carbon to ss is as follows.
37
A- Boiler Quality (BQ) Plates

Boiler quality plates are required to withstand high pressure and temperature: high pres-
sure in drums, high temperature in RH outlet headers, and both high pressure and
temperature in superheater (SH) headers made from plates. The most important
requirements of BQ plates are as follows:
# Consistency and uniformity of properties across the length, width, and thickness
of the plate
# High purity of steel
# No inclusions or air pockets
These requirements make BQ plates not easy to roll by all mills, particularly in higher
thicknesses. Boiler quality plates are characterized by the following:
* Low carbon content for good weldability
* High tensile strength to limit drum thicknesses
* Fully killed (deoxidized)
* High thicknesses
There are three categories of plates available with progressively increasing tensile
strength:
1. Carbon steel (low, medium, and high carbon)
2. Low-alloy steel
3. High-alloy steel
* In the American boiler-making practice, CS is favored, even with increasing carbon
(∼0.35%), resulting in thicker drums, as opposed to the European practice of adopting
low-carbon low-alloy plates (∼0.25%) of higher strength, which yield thinner drums that
are more conducive to faster boiler dynamics.
* High-carbon steel plates of both SA 515 and SA 516 are extensively used in the
industry. For lower thicknesses up to 40 mm, coarse-grained steel of SA 515 of
suitable grade is used, whereas for thicknesses up to 100 mm, i ne-grained steel of
SA 516 is generally preferred.
* For even higher-pressure applications, SA 299 in CS and SA 302 in AS are popular
to contain the thickness.
Table 3 lists various American and European plate materials in common use.
38
TABLE 3
Notes: Brief details of popular drum plates to American standards are provided here and are compared
with the other popular equivalent British and German plates.
For accurate and current details, the readers must refer to the latest specifications.
Tensile strength reduces as the plate thickness increases. Tensility given here refers to higher
thicknesses. Tensile and yield strength values given are the minimum values. Figures in MPa are
rounded off.
The equivalent plate indicated is not an identical material. It is the closest by tensile strength but
differs in almost all other major parameters.
Plates of high-alloy steels are popular in Europe. The values given in the table against this item are not
for American plates but of Ducol and WB36, respectively.
NA, not available
B-Boiler Tubes
In case of drums, the diameter is large, but as the temperature is low, the higher stress
values of the plate manage to contain the thickness. For tubes, the case is reversed with
metals experiencing the highest temperatures in SH and RH and, consequently, having
the lowest stress values. The range of tube materials required in a boiler is therefore far
higher than the range for plate materials.
B.1- Tubes versus Pipes
Tubes and pipes are not identical. The most important difference is that pipes do not
transfer heat. Further differences are mentioned in Table 4. Tubes and pipes are
manufactured to different specifications and are not interchangeable even in the narrow
overlapping range up to 125 mm.
39
TABLE 4
B.2 Seamless and Electric Resistance–Welded (ERW) Tubes

Boiler tubes are manufactured by two processes, and are classified as follows:
1. Seamless tubes—produced by piercing a red-hot billet with a plunger
2. Electric resistance-welded tubes produced by folding and welding steel strip,
called skelp.
In terms of weldability, bending, and physical and chemical properties, the seamless and
the ERW tubes are nearly the same. In fact the ERW tubes are superior and preferred for
lower thicknesses, as they are made from plate materials, which render the
* Inside tube surface smooth resulting in lower inside-pressure drop
* Bore concentric to OD, unlike in seamless tubes, and thus better suited for tube
expansion
* Lower costs
B.3 Hot-Finished and Cold-Drawn Seamless Tubes (HFS and CDS)
As the tubes come out of the tube mill, they are hot finished and their tolerance levels
are high. For furnace, boiler bank (BB), and economizer (ECON) sections, the slightly
higher pressure drop in HFS tubes makes no significant difference. Even in SHs of
smaller boilers, the higher pressure drop is of no consequence. Cold-drawn seamless
tubes have closer tolerance, and for SH and RH duties in large boilers, tolerance makes
a large difference. CDS tubes are produced from HFS tubes by reheating them to the
appropriate temperature and re-rolling to a closer finish.
B. 4 Tubes and Comparison
Carbon, alloy, and occasionally ss tubes are employed in boiler making as shown in
Table 5. Tubes to American specifications are listed along with the BS and DIN
equivalents, which are the other popular globally accepted specifications.
Tubes are rolled in sizes from 12.7 to 127 mm (0.5–5 in.) OD, and almost all sizes from
31.8 mm OD onward are used in boilers. Tubes are always designated by their outside
diameters.
40
TABLE 5
Notes: Safe maximum outside tube wall metal temperatures given here are on the basis of oxidation
resistance. Design codes decide the permissible temperature limits.
For CS usage beyond 454ºC when permitted by the code, special inspection is required for 100% weld
efficiency.
In the column pertaining to use, 1 refers to furnace walls exposed to high heat, 2 refers to ECON and
other enclosures not exposed to high heat, and 3 refers to SH
and RH.
$ refers to DIN 17456, which is the specification for ss tubes. The equivalents are for basic steels
without suffix H. Steels with suffix H are modified to suit high-
temperature duties of SH and RH by increasing the carbon content by 0.02%.
Thickness as per SA standards is usually the minimum thickness with no negative tolerance, whereas
with BS and DIN, it is the nominal thickness with appropriate
negative tolerance.
B.5 Selection of Tube Materials
Temperature limits, based on accelerated oxidation, determine the basic applicability of

any material. Thereafter, the strength of the material at the operating temperature
governs the selection. As shown in Figure 1.7, the permissible stresses, particularly at
the low temperatures, do not vary much (<250° C approx.); but at the elevated
temperature, they deteriorate sharply beyond 450°C. Each incremental improvement in
metallurgy is costlier by 20–40%. A good boiler design has the following features:
1- Maximum use is made of low-carbon steels due to their ease of manufacture and
41
repair.
2- The thicknesses are kept to a minimum by using superior metals to lower the thermal
inertia.
3- The use of ss is minimized due to the expense, much higher elongation, susceptibility
to stress corrosion, and possible problems arising from welding dissimilar metals.
Table 6 lists various commonly used carbon, alloy, and ss tubes and pipes as per
different codes with their areas of application in different parts of the boiler.
FIGURE 1 Allowable high-temperature stresses for selective pressure part materials as per
ASME BPVC 2007
42
TABLE 6
Table 7 lists the commonly used tubes with their diameters and thicknesses and provides
the tube weight in kilograms per meter. Tube thickness is normally expressed in wire
gauge. There are two popular designations, namely, standard wire gauge (SWG) as per
British practice and Birmingham wire gauge (BWG) as per American practice. They are
similar as can be seen in the comparison in Table 8. Note that the thicknesses are in
steps of 10%.
43
TABLE 7
TABLE 8
44
C-Pipes
Pipes are designated by nominal bore (NB) for sizes up to 304.8 mm (12 in.) and by OD
beyond that size. In boilers, pipe materials are used in the following three areas:
1. Headers and downcomers placed inside or outside the gas stream
2. Integral piping, namely, drain, vent, blowdown, soot blower (SB), attemperator,
and interconnecting piping
3. Piping for feed water (FW), main steam, and reheated steam
Table 9 lists the popularly used BQ pipes to American specifications and their
equivalents in BS and DIN. Table10 lists the pipes by NB and thicknesses
(mm) and unit weights (kg/m) as per ANSI.
TABLE 9
45
46
47
D- Insulation
Some of the important aspects of the insulating materials are as follows:
Unlike the refractory materials, which are substantially mineral-based and therefore
capable of withstanding the highest temperatures and erosion, the insulation materials
are non-mineral (except for ceramic fibers), can stand up to temperature no higher than
∼1650ºC, and do not have any abrasion resistance.
1- The insulating materials possess much lower heat conductivity, several times lower
than those of the refractory materials.
2-The insulating materials are fluffy and hold lot of air, which contributes to the
reduced heat flow.
3-Thermal conductivity for insulating materials rises steeply with temperature.
Insulation materials in boiler practice are available in mainly four forms:
1. Reformed shapes and slabs
2. Mattresses
3. Plastic cement
4. Loose fill
The insulating materials used in boilers are as follows:
1. Calcium silicate in block forms
2. Mineral/slag wool
3. Ceramic fiber
4. High-temperature plastic
Table 11 lists the properties of various common insulating materials used in boilers.
TABLE 11
48

Power Plant Engneering Part 1

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Power Plant Eng. Fuel and Energy Deprt.

4th year Inst. Akeel M. A. Morad

25-26 Economics of power plants

27-28 Gas turbine power plants:

Below is a list of power stations in Iraq

Al-Mussaib Babil 1280

Doura Baghdad 640

Bayji Salahuddin 1320

South Baghdad Baghdad 355

Al-Shemal Mosul 2100

Al-Hartha Basra Governorate 400

An Nassiriyah Dhiqar 840

Adhaim Dam Saladin Province 27 Conventional

Darbandikhan Dam Sulaymaniyah Governorate 248 Conventional

Dukan Dam Sulaymaniyah Governorate 400 Conventional

Name Location Capacity (MW) Type

Haditha Dam Al Anbar Governorate 660 Conventional

Hemrin Dam Diyala Governorate 50 Conventional

Samarra Barrage Salah ad Din Governorate 84 Conventional

Mosul Dam Ninawa Governorate 1052 Conventional

Mosul Dam Regulator Ninawa Governorate 62 Run-of-the-river

Mulla Abdulla (New) Kirkuk Governorate 222 Open-cycle

Khor Al Zubayr Basra Governorate 252 Open-cycle

Al-Mansurya Diyala Governorate 728 Open-cycle

Al-Anbar Al-Anbar Governorate 1,642.6 Combined-cycle

Shatt Al-Basra Basra Governorate 1250 Open-cycle

Erbil Erbil Governorate 1500 Combined-cycle

South Baghdad 1 Baghdad Governorate 246 Open-cycle

South Baghdad 2 Baghdad Governorate 400 Open-cycle

Name Location Capacity (MW) Type

Daura 1 Baghdad Governorate 146 Open-cycle

Daura 2 Baghdad Governorate 750 Open-cycle

Al-Rasheed 1 Baghdad Governorate 94 Open-cycle

Taji 1 Baghdad Governorate 156 Open-cycle

Taji 2 Baghdad Governorate 160 Open-cycle

Sadr Baghdad Governorate 160 Open-cycle

Al-Quds 1 Baghdad Governorate 450 Open-cycle

Al-Quds 2 Baghdad Governorate 450 Open-cycle

Al-Quds 3 Baghdad Governorate 500 Open-cycle

Al-Najybia Basra Governorate 500 Open-cycle

Sulaymaniyah Sulaymaniyah Governorate 1500 Combined-cycle

Duhok Duhok Governorate 500 Open-cycle

Rumaila Basra Governorate 1460 Open-cycle

Taza Kirkuk Governorate 292 Open-cycle

Name Location Capacity (MW) Type

Hilla Babil Governorate 250 Open-cycle

Karbala Karbala Governorate 250 Open-cycle

Al-Najaf Najaf Governorate 250 Open-cycle

Yusufiyah Location: Salahuddin 8 X 210 MW construction halted?

CLASSIFICATION OF POWER PLANTS

A power plant may be defined as a machine or assembly of equipment that generates

CLASSIFICATION OF POWER PLANT CYCLE

FACTS ABOUT ENERGY

THE RANKINE CYCLE

1–2: Reversible adiabatic pumping process in the pump

How can we increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle

2- Superheating the steam to high temperature:

3- Increasing the boiler pressure:

3- THE REHEAT CYCLE

4- THE REGENERATIVE CYCLE AND FEEDWATER HEATERS

Consider first an idealized regenerative cycle, as shown in Fig. 3. The unique

FIGURE 5, Arrangement of heaters in an actual power plant utilizing regenerative FWHs

COMBINED GAS–VAPOR POWER CYCLES

The function of a steam generator or a boiler is to convert water into steam at