Energy and Buildings 32 Ž2000.

291–302
www.elsevier.comrlocaterenbuild

Solar energy in building renovation — results and experience of

international demonstration buildings
Karsten Voss )
Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems, Solar Building Design Group, 79100 Freiburg, Germany

Received 19 August 1999; accepted 22 March 2000

Abstract

If the use of solar energy is to mean that significantly less fossil fuel will be consumed, solar systems must be readily adaptable to
existing buildings as well as new buildings. Under the Solar Heating and Cooling Programme of the International Energy Agency ŽIEA.,
Task 20 ‘‘Solar Energy in Building Renovation’’, a number of the most promising solar concepts and systems for building renovation
were explored. The first activity was a performance analysis of existing solar renovation projects wJ.-O. Dalenback,¨ Solar Energy in
Building Renovation, Energy in Buildings, 24 Ž1996. 39–50.x. Drawing on the information gained from these case studies, promising
concepts with respect to energy savings and replication potential were identified and investigated by simulation studies wA. De Herde,
Improved Solar Concepts, Technical Report, 1997, Centre de Recherche en Architecture, Universite´ Catholique de Louvain, Belgian.x.
Strategies for incorporating these concepts into the renovation process were developed wO.B. Jørgensen, Solar Renovation Demonstration
Projects, Technical Report, 1998, Esbensen Consulting Engineers, Copenhagen, Denmark.x. Fourteen demonstration projects mostly
focusing on multifamily dwellings featuring solar concepts were initiated, implemented, and evaluated. This article summarises the
cross-analysis of the demonstration projects, evaluated between 1995 and 1998. The analysis covers technical, economic, and building
physic issues of solar collectors, glazed balconies, and solar walls.
The aim of a renovation design process is generally not to find the cheapest solution to maintain a proper building function.
Renovation deals with a balance of maintenance, improvement, and architectural topics within a given budget. The analysis of the
demonstration projects proves that solar technologies have their place — financially, technically and architecturally — as part of
integrated renovation concepts. Many of the demonstration projects evaluated tend to be ‘‘solar dominated’’ as the analysis of the
technology is a main topic. A wider market penetration of solar concepts needs compromises in the size of the solar systems with respect
to the investment. The first and primary requirement for future projects is improved cost competitiveness of solar concepts compared to
the regular renovation measures. q 2000 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Building renovation; Building integration; Solar energy; Solar collectors; Glazed balconies; Solar walls; Transparent insulation; Monitoring
results

1. Introduction buildings each year. Regardless of the reason, renovation

All buildings undergo renovation at some point after
construction. The motivation for renovation ranges from
repair to increased comfort and living space. High energy
consumption is only one aspect in this list of arguments.
On the other hand, energy use and energy-related emis-
sions from the existing building stock are dominant com-
pared with the effect of about 1–2% of new Žlow-energy.
)
Tel.:q49-761-45880; fax:q49-761-4588100.
E-mail address: karsten.voss@ise.fhg.de ŽK. Voss..
presents both special challenges and the opportunity to
apply solar technologies to buildings w1x.
The analysed demonstration projects in six countries
mostly focus on an integrated renovation approach instead
of just adding solar ŽTable 1.. A detailed description of
each of the demonstration projects is given in Ref. w8x. The
solar concepts in the 14 projects focused on ŽFig. 1. the
following.
Building-integrated solar collectors w2x. Solar collectors
are installed with the main purpose of preheating domestic
hot water ŽDHW. andror to cover a fraction of the space
heating ŽSH. demand. In the context of building renova-

0378-7788r00r$ - see front matter q 2000 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 7 8 - 7 7 8 8 Ž 0 0 . 0 0 0 5 2 - 9
292 K. Voss r Energy and Buildings 32 (2000) 291–302

Table 1
List of the demonstration projects
No. Location Country Type Age Size Standard renovation Solar renovation
Numberrfloorsr Improved Efficient Solar Glazed Solar Day- Photovoltaic
floor area Žm2 . insulation HVAC- collector balcony wall lighting
system
1 Niederurnen CH multifamily 1971 1r4r966 q y y y 84 m2 y 11 m2
2 Hedingen CH multifamily 1969 1r3r702 q q 43 m2 y 80 m2 y y
3 Erfurt DE school 1981 3r3–4r3980 q q y y y q y
4 Freiburg DE residentiala 1912 1r3r750 q q 7.5 m2 y 53 m2 y y
5 Oederan DE multifamily 1983 7r4r2170 q q 700 m2 y y y y
6 Salzgitter DE industry hall 1940 1r1r43,000 q y y y y 7500 m2 y
7 Wurzen DE school 1978 1r4r4100 q q y y 300 m2 y y
8 Aalborg DK multifamily 1900 1r4r544 q q 18 m2 q y y 25 m2
9 Den Haag NL multifamily 1961 1r4r504 q q 17 m2 q y y 5 m2
10 Zaandam NL multifamily 1968 1r14r30,720 q q 760 m2 q y y 90 m2
11 Stockholm SE multifamily 1961 6r8r40,000 y y 1200 m2 y y y y
12 Henan SE school 1965 2r1–2r10,000 y y 725 m2 y y y y
13 ¨
Orebro SE multifamily 1963 1r2r2500 y y 112 m2 y y y y
14 Golden US exhibition 1994 1r1r560 y q y y y q y
a
Actual office use.

tion, solar collectors may improve the building envelope,
e.g. when a flat roof is rebuilt to an inclined ‘‘solar roof’’
or new space is created by adding a ‘‘solar attic’’ onto a
flat-roofed building.
AdÕanced glazed balconies w3,4x. Glazing a balcony
means enclosing it with openable glass elements. The
motivation is dominated by the value of the added sun
space. In the context of renovation, problems with facade
degradation and thermal bridges are reduced. An advanced
approach integrates the balcony with a system for mechan-
ical or natural ventilation of the apartment.
Solar wall heating with transparent insulation (TI) w5x.
Today, the most prominent and energy-effective candidate
for passive solar wall heating is a design including TI. A

Fig. 1. Selected solar concepts suitable for building renovation. As the solar system is integral part of a ‘‘standard renovation’’ the space heating demand is
typically decreased 50% by improved insulation of the building envelope.
 K. Voss r Energy and Buildings 32 (2000) 291–302
transparently insulated wall overcomes transmission losses
with solar gains while at the same time passively providing
low temperature wall heating. In the renovation case, TI
can be applied to high density, uninsulated walls oriented
towards the sun.
The projects were designed by different national design
teams. System dimensioning was done with reference to
the goal of each project and the budget available. Energy
savings were predicted by simple tools or simulation calcu-
lations. The energy performance was monitored and results
were compiled to a common format and presented for the
buildings as a whole as well as for selected solar technolo-
gies.
Last but not the least, experience and results serve as
resources to identify recommended work for future activi-
ties in research as well as in building practice.
2. General results
2.1. InÕestment costs
Most projects included solar renovations as part of a
total building renovation. According to the renovation
needs and the goal of each project, a wide range of
investments occurred, not necessarily being costs related to
energy improvements. Total investments varied between
20 EUR — only a solar collector system added — to 700
EUR per m2 floor area for a comprehensive renovation.
The solar component represents between 10% and 100%
of the total project cost. The investments were financed by
the maintenance budget, increased rent, decreased operat-
ing costs Žbetween 3% and 70%., or external funding, such
as public subsidies. For most projects the investment was
within the usual range for renovation budgets ŽFig. 2..
Fig. 2. Investment costs for the renovation — basic renovation and solar
Part — in EUR per m2 heated floor area excluding VAT. ŽThe Aalborg
project with an investment of more than 2100 EUR per m2 includes
intensive demonstration of ‘‘future technologies’’ that are not yet cost-ef-
fective..
293
Fig. 3. Annual final energy use for space heating and DHW in kWhrm2
heated floor area before, planned and after the renovation.
2.2. Energy use
In addition to repair, increased comfort, and visual
renovation, all projects were designed to save energy
andror to meet a fraction of the remaining energy demand
by solar gains. The projects showed energy savings be-
tween 3% and 70% resulting from the renovation as a
whole ŽFig. 3.. Most of the buildings and solar systems
perform as predicted. Focusing on the solar systems ap-
plied, discrepancies between estimated numbers and real
performance data arose due to
Ø uncertain hot water demand for dimensioning the solar
collector system andror underestimation of storage
losses in solar DHW systems Že.g. project 5.,
Ø poor performance of heat exchangers Že.g. projects 12
and13.,
Ø uncertain wall material properties for the design of a
solar mass wall with TI Že.g. project 2.,
Ø unexpected user behaviour with respect to preferred
room temperatures and air change rates Že.g. projects
applying passive solar..
2.3. Economics
As with any measure for saving energy, solar measures
can be analysed according to savings gained by the invest-
ment made. Further to that, renovation measures such as
wall insulation represent a multifunctional approach for
solving degradation problems, improving comfort, and up-
grading the appearance of a building.
Information on the cost-effectiveness of solar systems
in building renovation are gained by calculating the so-
called ‘‘equivalent energy costs’’. That means that the
annual capital costs of the solar system are related to the
294 K. Voss r Energy and Buildings 32 (2000) 291–302
Fig. 4. Equivalent energy costs in EUR per kWh anlysed for those
demonstration projects applying solar thermal systems Žcalculation basis:
4% real interest rate, 1% maintenance costs, 25 years lifetime.. Equiva-
lent energy costs from the Dutch projects in Zaandam and Den Haag are
not presented as measured performance data were not available within the
timeframe.
annual energy savings, Eq. 1 ŽFig. 4.. Counted capital
costs exclude basic renovation costs such as painting,
concrete repair, etc., as these outlays do not contribute to
energy saving.
Ccap q Cmain EUR
Ceq s , Ž 1.
Q kWh
where Ceq s equivalent energy costs in EUR per kWh;
Ccap s annual capital costs resulting from the extra invest-
ment costs for the solar system in EUR Ž4% real interest
rate, 25 years life time, annuity factor 6.4%.; Cmain s
annual maintenance costs in EUR Ž1% of investment costs.;
Q s annual energy savings in kWh.
2.3.1. Solar collectors
Depending on the solar fraction and the national energy
tax strategy, large solar DHW collector systems Ž) 100
m2 . are becoming cost effective or are already cost effec-
tive with moderate subsidies, e.g. in Sweden Žprojects 11,
12 and 13..
2.3.2. Transparent insulation
TI is expensive compared to opaque insulation. As a
consequence, buildings with excellent preconditions should
be chosen to profit from high solar gains, moderate invest-
ment, and high added value. None of the investigated
projects fulfils excellent preconditions!
2.3.3. Glazed balconies
The primary benefits of glazed balconies are the added
space and reduced degradation. Reducing energy demand
is a secondary benefit. Therefore, equivalent energy costs
are not of central importance.
3. Results and experience from solar concepts
3.1. Solar collectors
Solar collectors were applied in renovation projects in
Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, and
Switzerland Žprojects 2, 4, 5, 8–13.. All collectors were
roof-mounted. All are central, water-based systems mostly
designed with pressurised collector loops. The Dutch sys-
tems in Zaandam and Den Haag are drain-back designs
Žprojects 9 and 10..
In the case of large-scale systems Ž) 100 m2 ., the
collector costs range from 200 and 300 EUR per m2 ŽFig.
5.. The added mirror optics in the Swedish Stockholm
project ŽFig. 6. increase costs and energy yields, resulting
in almost the same economy figure. Comparing large and
small collector systems mostly underlines the economy of
scale. Increased sizes of the modules may allow further
reduction of the collector cost and the installation time.
Today’s so-called roof module collectors or solar roofs
have dimensions of about 20 m2 and may include roof
beams and roof insulation on request. This development
may shift the focus for further system cost reductions to
the buffer storage and the hydraulic installation. Architec-
tural ‘‘extras’’ as included in the Swiss Hedingen project
Žtriangular collector segments in the rooftop, ‘‘blind mod-
ules’’ for homogeneous roof impression. and the Dutch
projects in Zaandam and Den Haag Žspecially designed
collector frames and mounting platforms, Fig. 7. led to
significant additional hardware and labour costs. The bene-
fit for the building impression may justify this investment
in special applications.
Fig. 5. Investment costs and cost structure for the solar collector systems
in EUR per m2 collector area excluding VAT.
 K. Voss r Energy and Buildings 32 (2000) 291–302
Fig. 6. A 200 m2 roof mounted solar flat plate collectors with 425 m2
¨
reflectors as the ‘‘Alta’’ building in Stockholm, Sweden Žproject 11.. The
connected solar storage contains 12 m3.
The solar systems show annual collector yields in the
range from 300 to 450 kWhrm2 , mainly depending on the
solar fraction and the average temperature in the collector
circuit ŽFig. 8.. Using the mirror optics in the Swedish
Stockholm project nearly doubles the yield.
Focusing on economy, systems dimensioned for annual
solar fractions of less than 40% are preferable, as
Ø the collector yield is utilized to nearly 100%,
Ø the average temperature level is low Žhigh yield.,
Ø storage volumes and heat losses are small,
Ø stagnation is avoided Žlower thermal stress..
The energy yield is mainly used to heat DHW with
annual solar fractions between 10% and 40%. In addition
to delivering hot water, energy from the collector counter-
balances thermal losses related to hot water storage and
circulation. Both loss factors can account for half or even
more of the total DHW heat demand associated with
Fig. 7. A 760 m2 roof mounted solar flat plate collectors at the
‘‘Brandaris’’ building in Zaandam, The Netherlands Žproject 10.. The
connected solar storage contains 40 m 3.
295
Fig. 8. Annual yield of the solar collector systems in kWh per m2 gross
collector area.
multifamily buildings. It must be an integral part of every
DHW system renovation that losses are reduced as far as
possible!
Appropriate solar system dimensioning requires knowl-
edge of the expected hot water demand early in the design
phase. Deviations may occur between guidelines for sizing
hot water systems and the real demand. A ‘‘typical’’ value
for apartment buildings seems to be about 30 l per person
and day at 608C Žs 1.7 kWhrpd., but project-specific
pre-renovation measurements are preferable w6x.
Low temperatures in the return flow of the collector
circuit are necessary for effective solar systems and are
often not achieved Žprojects 12 and 13.. Adequately, large
enough heat exchangers in the solar circuit together with a
stratified storage are the most important measures.
Integrating the volume of the solar buffer storage —
about 50 litre per m2 collector area or 5 m3 in the case of
100 m2 collector system — is not easy under the con-
straints of building renovation. In the absence of suitable
space in the basement, the buffer storage has to be inte-
grated under the roof Žproject 8. or divided into multiple
tanks of smaller volumes Žproject 5.. Divided tanks enlarge
the storage surface, thereby enlarging the storage thermal
losses. A compact storage tank should be favoured in
terms of costs and energy efficiency. Decreasing the whole
system size and thereby the solar fraction may be prefer-
able to a complex storage arrangement.
3.2. AdÕanced glazed balconies
A glazed balcony is more than a passive solar element
w3,4x. The seasonally enclosed space prevents degradation
of building materials due to exposure of the balcony area
to the weather and improves noise and wind protection. It
also extends the living area for multipurpose use, mainly in
spring and autumn. Energy savings are achieved by the
seasonally improved thermal insulation, including reduc-
296 K. Voss r Energy and Buildings 32 (2000) 291–302
tion of the thermal bridge effect of the balcony slab, as
well as by solar gain utilisation. Fig. 9 shows an example
with the Dutch project in Zaandam.
Most of today’s renovation concepts Že.g. new win-
dows. improve the air tightness of the building and reduce
the air infiltration rate. To secure good indoor air quality
and to avoid problems with moisture Že.g. mould. in the
case of insufficient manual window operation, additional
ventilation measures are required. Especially in large
apartment buildings and social housing, mechanical venti-
lation is the most appropriate solution to ensure an ade-
quate indoor air quality.
A novel concept is to combine glazing the balcony with
a mechanical ventilation system to improve the use of
solar gains and the effectiveness of the total renovation
ŽFig. 10.. This has been studied within projects in Den-
mark, Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. As the
associated renovations were not fully undertaken until late
1998, experience can be reported from the design phase
only.
It is possible to roughly double the energy saving effect
of a glazed balcony by solar preheating the supply air for
the apartment in the sun space. Favourable preconditions
are the following.
Ø The existing facade of the apartment toward the bal-
cony is still in acceptable condition so that it can be
kept in place with minor changes.
Ø Most of the balcony is an integral part of the floor plan,
so that the area to be glazed is minimized.
Ø The apartment has an active or passive Že.g. by stack
effect. ventilation system for interior bathrooms or the
kitchen.
Supply air inlets are needed in the balcony facade as
well as in the original facade between the balcony and the
apartment. To prevent cold draughts in the apartment,
these inlets should be manually adjustable by the tenants
and carefully positioned. Preferred places are the upper
part of the window above a radiator or behind a radiator. A
favourable design is to extract waste air from the bathroom
Fig. 9. Glazed Balconies in Zaandam, The Netherlands Žproject 10..
Fig. 10. Air flow in an apartment with advanced glazed balcony and
mechanical exhaust air system.
and the kitchen by central fans located on the building roof
to reduce noise from continuous fan operation. Interior air
flow from rooms with supply air Žliving rooms. to those
with exhaust air Žbath room, kitchen. is maintained by
simple door slashes. Central air extraction allows further
energy savings by heat recovery with an exhaust air heat
pump to Žpre-. heat DHW and to add to SH. The continuos
heat source of 18–208C temperature guarantees for a high
COP of the system.
For energy saving, the air flow rate of a ventilation
system should be kept low. On the other hand, good indoor
air quality must be guaranteed. A lower limit of ventilation
may be defined as 20–40 m3rh per person, but national
building codes have to be considered.
To ensure that the supply air infiltrates at the designed
locations Žwindow vents., the renovation must include
improving the air tightness of the building construction.
This avoids condensation within the construction. For in-
door air quality reasons, special attention must be given to
the apartment entrance door, as waste air from the stairwell
may otherwise infiltrate.
Extracting the apartment’s supply air from the balcony
decreases the winter air temperature in the balcony and
thereby the value of the sun space compared to the unven-
tilated design. The temperature decrease is typically in the
range of 1–38C, depending on the volume of the balcony
in relation to the volume of the apartment. The temperature
decreases with higher air flow rates. In many cases, not all
rooms needing supply air are attached to the balcony. Part
of the air infiltrates by, e.g. window, vents directly from
the outside. Half to two thirds of the supply air is typically
drawn via the balcony.
The choice of the glazing and frame system influences
cost, energy performance, daylighting, and usability of the
glazed balcony. The size of the glass elements should
always be chosen taking practical aspects like handling
and cleaning into account. Noise problems between apart-
ments should be considered as balconies that do not have a
noise protection layer on the floor or on walls between
balconies in a row. All design options should be carefully
analysed to ensure the one chosen meets the goal of the
 K. Voss r Energy and Buildings 32 (2000) 291–302 297

Fig. 11. Sketch of the TI compound system.

specific project w3,4x. Substantial energy savings are only
achievable with double, preferable low-e coated glazing.
Single glazed constructions and simple metal frames do
not prevent surface condensation resulting from exfiltra-
tion of apartment waste air through opened windows,
mainly kitchen and bathroom windows. Introducing con-
trolled airflow from the outside via the balcony to the
apartment reduces the risk of condensation. For air quality
reasons, a balcony as part of the ventilation system is
unsuitable as a smoking area or for storage of kitchen
waste.
3.3. Solar wall heating with TI
Four projects with solar mass walls using TI were
completed, two in Switzerland and two in Germany Žpro-
Fig. 13. Investment costs and cost structure for the TI systems in EUR
per m2 gross TI facade area excluding VAT.
jects 1, 2, 4 and 7.. The one in Freiburg, Germany applies
the TI compound system with a transparent plaster made
of small glass spheres set in a polymer matrix, Figs. 11
and 12. All others are glass facade constructions including
external shading devices. All systems are based on the
same insulation material, a plastic capillary structure of
about 10 cm thickness w7x.
The simple design of the compound system combined
with the absence of a shading device results in investment
costs being two to three times lower than glazed TI
facades ŽFig. 13.. Solar shading makes up about 20–30%
of the glazed facade costs and proves to be necessary in all
cases to guarantee summer comfort. The summer solar

Fig. 12. Compound transparent insulation system at the ‘‘Villa Tannheim’’ in Freiburg, Germany Žproject 4., 53 m2 of the old brick wall was painted black
and covered with 10 cm thick transparent insulation material. The solar system is fully integrated in the conventional facade insulation system.
298 K. Voss r Energy and Buildings 32 (2000) 291–302
gain in the case of the compound system proves not to
decrease summer comfort in the given example, but com-
fort must be carefully addressed in each application.
The thermal insulation property of TI materials results
in one part of the energy savings which is independent
from solar gains. The savings increase as the insulation
compared to the existing wall is improved. The additional
solar energy yield varies mainly with the wall orientation
and the wall material ŽFig. 14.. The TI walls oriented
towards the south achieved solar yields between 50 and
150 kWhrm2 gross facade area and heating season. The
difference between the projects is mainly due to the differ-
ent thermal resistance of the solid wall behind the TI: the
smaller the resistance, the higher the solar yield. The brick
wall in the Swiss Hedingen project was less suitable for TI
than expected. The relative low energy yield in the Ger-
man Freiburg project Žproject 4. reflects the wall orienta-
tion towards the west and the lower transmittance of the
glass plaster compared to a glass pane.
The ratio of the solar energy yield to the solar radiation
incident on the facade defines the solar–thermal system
efficiency. Efficiencies between 15% and 28% were ob-
served. Wall materials with higher density and a further
optimised system design allow efficiencies of 40% and
more, as proven in new buildings. Renovation projects
tend to need compromises with regards to all influencing
factors, resulting in lower energy performance. A careful
check of wall material, orientation, and shading during the
early design phase has a great effect on the performance.
Primarily determined by the type of existing wall mate-
rials, the maximum temperatures occurring at the outside
wall surface Žabsorber. were measured between 628C Žpro-
ject 4. and 1108C Žproject 2.. Temperatures above 80–
1008C cause degradation of today’s TI plastic materials
Fig. 14. Energy savings due to insulation and solar energy yield — losses
covered plus gains delivered to the room — in kWh per m2 gross TI
facade area Ž100% utilization.. The Niederumen project gives no savings
by additional insulation as the original insulation was removed and
substituted by TI. Wall materials and wall orientation: Niederumen —
bricksrsouth, Hedingen — light bricksrsouth, Wurzen — light con-
cretersouth, Freiburg — bricksrwest.
Fig. 15. Glass facade as transcom-mullion construction with transparent
insulation in Niederumen, Switzerland Žproject 1.. The glass facade is
equipped with external venetian blinds for efficient solar gain control. As
a second solar measure, the roof contains 11 m2 PV system made of PV
roof tiles.
Žproject 2.. Careful check in the early design phase should
prevent this damage.
Low temperature wall heating with TI in all of the
projects proved to be very positive in increasing thermal
comfort for the occupants. Comfort deficits compared to
today’s new buildings are a main problem to be tackled by
a renovation. Therefore, improved thermal comfort is the
main reason to apply TI in addition to energy saving.
Controlling solar gains by blinds can be simplified to
seasonal operation. This proves to be suitable in all pro-
jects summarised in this documentation and allows a sim-
ple and easily handled control.
Comparably moderate systems costs were achieved in
the German Wurzen project by combining the shading
system of windows and the TI wall into one unit. This
compromise lead to about 20% decreased solar energy
yield by unfavourable shading in conflict situations be-
tween daylight use and passive solar thermal gains by TI.
The architectural impression of buildings with TI pro-
vokes contradictory statements. The reader is encouraged
to form her or his personal opinion by viewing the pictures
in this article ŽFigs. 12 and 15. or visiting the described
demonstration projects. Addresses are listed in Ref. w8x.
3.4. Further solar concepts
Apart from the three main solar concepts investigated,
some of the demonstration buildings use modified ap-
proaches or other solar technologies.
3.4.1. Daylighting
TI materials guide and diffuse the incident light beams.
The German demonstration project in Salzgitter Žproject 6.
makes use of this property by applying the TI material
sandwiched between 7500 m2 U-shaped cast-glass ele-
ments forming a self-supporting daylight wall ŽFig. 16..
 K. Voss r Energy and Buildings 32 (2000) 291–302
Fig. 16. Daylight wall with transparent insulation in the Germany,
Salzgitter Žproject 6., 7500 m2 U-shaped cast-glass elements were in-
stalled in an industrial production hall improving thermal and visual
comfort while at the same time reducing the energy demand.
This allows for excellent daylighting conditions as well as
for improved thermal insulation.
The observed advantages are
Ø 24% reduced SH demand,
Ø raised daylighting level compared to the former dirty
single glazed panes,
Ø improved thermal and visual comfort,
Ø attractive appearance from inside and outside.
Designed to be a passive solar building, the Visitor
Center at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in
Fig. 17. PV facade with at the Aalborg Building in Denmark Žproject 8.. A total 25 m2 of glass modules were installed as part of the parapet of the
balcony. Additional modules are mounted inclined at the wooden facade cladding net to the balcony.
299
Golden, CO, USA was not originally equipped with effi-
cient lighting and mechanical systems Žproject 14.. A
retrofit so that the building’s lighting and mechanical
control systems complement the solar design of the build-
ing was completed in 1996. This retrofit reduced building
lighting consumption by 80%, thereby underlining the
enormous importance of automatic lighting controls in
daylight buildings. A study was later completed to analyse
installing skylights in one area of the building for supple-
mentary daylighting. The results of this study show that
the overall lighting savings are expected to increase to
86% and the overall energy savings for all retrofits Žinclud-
ing new skylights. may be 41%.
3.4.2. PhotoÕoltaics
For existing buildings, applying photovoltaics ŽPV. can
be part of a roof or facade renovation or part of a building
extension.
The examples from the demonstration projects are
Ø integration of 11 m2 PV tiles in a roof with fibre
cement tiles Žproject 1.,
Ø facade integration of 25 m2 PV glass modules Žproject
8.,
Ø 30 m2 PV as glazing of a pavilion on top of the
building Žproject 10.,
Ø 5 m2 PV coupled to the collector pump Žproject 9..
Nine hundred kWh annual system yield per installed
kW peak system power ŽkWp . of PV tiles underline the
300 K. Voss r Energy and Buildings 32 (2000) 291–302

good design and performance of the system in the Swiss
Niederurnen house Žproject 1, Fig. 15.. On the other hand,
system costs are higher than cost of a system design with
standard glass modules mounted on the roof. One of the
reasons is the still low market penetration of PV tiles.
The PV application in the Danish ‘‘Yellow House’’ in
Aalborg Žproject 8. demonstrates a fully integrated ap-
proach: the PV glass modules serve as front cover of the
parapet of glazed balconies. Supply air to the apartments is
solar preheated by passing the modules backside. The
annual electricity yield of 620 kWhrkWp reflects the
operation conditions in a facade: the annual sum of irradia-
tion is about 25% less compared to a sloped roof and the
high incident angles of the direct beam radiation cause
increased losses by reflection. PV in facade renovation
changes the building appearance from ‘‘old fashioned’’ to
‘‘high-tech’’. The Aalborg example shows how architec-
ture may profit from such change ŽFig. 17..
4. Discussion
Renovation is one of the main tasks in the building
sector and will have a major impact for global sustainabil-
ity. Because renovation conserves the building status for
the following decades, energy saving measures should be
an inherent part of it. The combination of renovation and
improvement of energy efficiency is technologically and
economically significantly more attractive than separate
measures.
Solar concepts are, up to now, rarely discussed in
renovation projects and even more rarely applied. One
reason is the lack of examples and documented experi-
ences. The demonstration projects reported are a step to
bridge this gap. The evaluation of the projects proved that
the concepts applied fulfil the renovation needs. Further
progress in cost effectiveness and energy savings can be
assumed if the lessons learned are carefully addressed in
future projects.
More than in the case of the individual decision of the
owner of a single family house, a solar renovation strategy
for multifamily houses or large buildings in the non-
domestic sector must clearly afford a balance between
investment and benefit. The benefit can range from energy
saving and increased comfort to added value. Visually
prominent solar systems highlight that environmental con-
cerns were addressed in the renovation. In many cases,
they mark a break in the appearance of the building from
‘‘old fashioned’’ to ‘‘solar’’ or ‘‘high-tech’’. This can be a
valuable contribution to the appearance of the single build-
ing as well as the architectural diversity in large urban
renovation quarters.
4.1. Recommendations
The first and primary requirement for future projects is
improved cost competitiveness of solar concepts compared
to the regular renovation measures. Considering the lessons
learned form the projects combined with common sense
from building practice, the general recommendations for
future projects are the following.
Ø Large systems or multiple use of similar units are
preferred due to better economy.
Ø A low solar fraction avoids under utilised solar gains
thereby improving the cost-effectiveness.
Ø Improved integration of the solar system in the cladding
of a building avoids high extra costs.
Ø Applying standardised components is often economi-
cally in favour to a project specific system design.
Ø Better adaptation of solar systems to the requirements
of renovation reduces planning and implementation
costs.
The following list of recommendations summarises the
relevant aspects for the three main solar concepts ad-
dressed in the demonstration projects.
4.1.1. Solar collectors
Ø Adequate system sizing is the precondition of economic
applications. Analysing the DHW demand of the exist-
ing building is preferable.
Ø Large prefabricated collector modules help decrease
system costs. The application of solar collectors signifi-
cantly profits from the economy of scale.
Ø A low temperature in the collector circuit is a main
parameter to achieving high solar gains. This must be
addressed in the design of heat exchangers and heating
system renovation.
Ø Storage should be kept compact and well designed to
avoid high thermal losses.
4.1.2. AdÕanced glazed balconies
Ø Combining balcony glazing with controlled ventilation
of the apartment profits in function and investment
costs from early co-operation of architects, engineers,
and manufacturers during the concept phase.
Ø System manufactures should address energy and air
quality issues in their product catalogues to open a
wider market. Selling system solutions should be pre-
ferred over selling glass elements.
Ø For air quality reasons, a glazed balcony for preheating
ventilation air is unsuitable as smoking area or storage
for kitchen waste.
Ø A ‘‘manual’’ should be provided to the occupants to
explain on how to gain the full advantage of a glazed
balcony.
 K. Voss r Energy and Buildings 32 (2000) 291–302
4.1.3. Solar wall heating with TI
Ø The suitability of TI for a building renovation should be
carefully analysed early in the design phase. The criti-
cal parameters are wall orientation Žsouth. and wall
material Žhigh density.. Suitable wall properties are
important for system performance and reliable opera-
tion.
Ø Systems fully integrating the solar and non-solar parts
in a facade design are preferable in terms of costs for
planning and installation. The TI compound system is a
good example ŽFigs. 11 and 12..
Ø As thermal comfort was identified as a major benefit of
TI, projects should be selected where the lack of com-
fort is a main topic to be tackled by the renovation.
Ø Seasonal shading is sufficient in most applications to
control summer solar gains.
4.2. Research and deÕelopment
In addition to evaluating demonstration projects, a sec-
ond focus was to evaluate and discuss possible improve-
ments to the investigated solar concepts w9x. The following
summary highlights some selected aspects.
4.2.1. Solar collectors
Today, glazed solar collectors are standard products
with many design variations and manufacturers. Besides
the approaches for cost reduction, of industrial mass pro-
duction, larger system units, and integrated roof collectors
Žroof module collectors, solar roofs., further work should
focus on improved suitability for building renovation. Fur-
ther increased performance is achievable with better selec-
tive coatings and antireflective cover glass for higher solar
transmittance.
Investigations to develop unglazed collectors are contin-
uing. Avoiding the glass allows significant cost reductions
and new design options. Metal absorber roofs or a collec-
tor integrated into the external finish of a plastered build-
ing wall may serve as initial examples. The transpired air
collector is another known example of this type w10x.
Of course, the thermal losses from the absorber to the
surroundings increase dramatically, specially in cold cli-
mates. This can be partly counterbalanced by selective
absorbers but wind will still significantly affect the collec-
tor performance. Selective absorbers must be stable to
aging when exposed to ambient conditions. The develop-
ment of this technology is in an early phase with initial
products.
4.2.2. AdÕanced glazed balconies
The performance of glazed balconies, as an integrated
component of a building ventilation system, was not evalu-
ated in practice within the time frame of the work pre-
301
sented. The initiated demonstration projects were finished
too late to be included with monitored results. Therefore,
conclusions made are based on simulations and design
studies only. Future work should compare the results to the
estimates and calculations from the design phase with
actual system performance.
Applying advanced glazed balconies increases the plan-
ning complexity. Products for apartment ventilation and
glazing a balcony were developed independently in the
past. Cooperation is needed to improve and simplify the
application as well as to gain the full possible advantages.
Systems to solar preheat the air entering the balcony —
e.g. an air collector in the parapet — may be investigated
with the focus on solutions to minimise marginal costs.
4.2.3. Solar wall heating with TI
High investment costs are the main drawback of many
TI constructions. An investigated approach to reduce sys-
tem costs is to apply transparent multi-layer, structured
plastic sheets instead of glazed TI elements. Their light-
weight design allows simplified frame constructions. Both
allow the system cost to be halved compared to today’s TI
glass facade costs. On the other hand, solar gains are
reduced due to the lower solar transmittance compared to
the well-known honeycomb or capillary structures.
A further step to reduce costs is simplifying, or avoid-
ing, a mechanical system for solar gain control. A proto-
type was developed and tested, where an air gap with
adjustable openings is introduced between the wall and the
TI cover to allow passive ventilation of the excess heat
from the absorber. Initial results show that the solar gain
control is effective but that it is hard to meet cost and
performance targets combined. New developments like
thermotropic materials incorporated in the front glazing or
the transparent plaster of a TI system may allow for easy
solar gain control in the future w11x.
Overhangs were studied to understand their seasonal
shading performance for TI walls. The application is lim-
ited to walls orientated toward the south and always result
in reduced solar gains in winter.
As part of a renovation project, a new TI application
was studied. TI may be applied locally to cover the typical
structural thermal bridges at positions where the concrete
floor is supported by the external wall. Such an application
does not require a shading device, as the solar input is
local and connected to high thermal mass elements.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to the team of IEA SHCP Task 20 for intensive
cooperating in setting up this summary, namely C. Boon-
¨ ŽS., A. Elmroth ŽS., A. Haller
stra ŽNL., J.-O. Dalenback
ŽCH., S. Hayter ŽUSA., O.B. Jørgensen ŽDK., Chr. Russ
ŽD..
302 K. Voss r Energy and Buildings 32 (2000) 291–302

Many thanks refer to those colleagues responsible for
managing the research on each of the various demonstra-
tion projects reported. We express our sincere appreciation
to the investorsrowners and the design teams of each of
the demonstration projects for their initiative and active
participation in the evaluated, innovative building projects.
The support of the German Ministry of Education,
Science, Research and Technology ŽBMBF. is gratefully
acknowledged. The Ministry funded the contribution of the
Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems in Task 20,
specifically the leadership of the subtask dealing with the
evaluation of the demonstration projects. Acknowledge-
ments are due to the national ministries of each country for
funding the experts’ participation in this IEA activity.
w10x Kutscher, Christensen, Barker, Unglazed transpired solar collectors:
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