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The Lime Industry’s Problem of Airborne Dust

a b
C. J. Lewis & B. B. Crocker
a
Colorado School of Mines Research Foundation, Inc.
b
Monsanto Co.
Published online: 16 Mar 2012.

To cite this article: C. J. Lewis & B. B. Crocker (1969) The Lime Industry’s Problem of Airborne Dust, Journal of the Air
Pollution Control Association, 19:1, 31-39, DOI: 10.1080/00022470.1969.10466454

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 TI-2 Chemical Committee
Informative Report No. 10
C. J. Lewis
Colorado School of Mines
Research Foundation, Inc.
and B. B. Crocker
Monsanto Co.
Informative Report No. 10 dealing with the lime industry's problem of airborne dust is one of a series of
survey reports prepared by APCA's TI-2 Chemical Committee on air pollution problems and control
measures encountered in the chemical industry today.
The usual products of the lime industry
are limestone, quicklime, and hydrated
lime. Limestone is rock composed of
at least 50% calcium carbonate and
Downloaded by [Fordham University] at 23:56 06 September 2014
various impurities. A common im-
purity is magnesium carbonate; when
present in less than 5%, the limestone
is referred to as high-calcium. A lime-
stone containing 30-45% magnesium
carbonate is classified as dolomitic stone.
Table I gives composition of typical
limestones of both types.
Quicklime (CaO or mixtures of CaO
and MgO) is produced by heating sized
limestone to decompose the carbonate
releasing CO2 and leaving the oxide be-
Table I. Typical analyses of high calcium
and dolomitic commercial limestones.
_
Calcium Dolomitic
Calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) 97.40 52.34
Magnesium carbonate
(MgCO3) 1.25 47.04
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.11 0.04
Aluminum oxide
(AI2O3) 0.35 0.20
Silica (SiO2) plus acid
insolubles 0.95 0.26
Loss on ignition (CO2) 43.40 47.67
Informative Report No. 10 of the TI-2
Chemical Committee was first submit-
ted to APCA's Steering Committee and
Technical Council on September 18,
1967. It was processed in accordance
with the 14 step procedure outlined in
the March 1963 Journal and was finally
approved by APCA's Board of Direc-
tors on December \r 1968. In ac-
cordance with the objectives of the
Association as they appear in Article
XV, Section 4 of the By-Laws, each
technical coordinating committee has
the task of reviewing and amending its
studies as often as necessary in the light
of technological changes.
In accordance with procedures
adopted by the APCA Technical Coun-
cil and the Board of Directors, it is now
published as representing "the best
thinking of the Association."
January 1969 Volume 19, No. 1
The Lime Industry's Problem
Of Airborne Dust
hind. Hydrated lime is produced by posits exist in every state in the U. S.
reacting the oxide with water to produce but only a small portion is of sufficient
the corresponding hydroxide. Table purity for industrial use. The lower
II gives the equations for the major grades are generally suitable for ag-
chemical reactions involved in the lime ricultural purposes. Better than 90%
process. of the limestone quarried is from open-
During the calcination of limestone, pit operations with the remainder from
moisture, and volatile organic matter underground mines.
are first driven off. At higher tem- Lime manufacturing plants vary in:
peratures, the partial pressure of CO2 (1) the relative emphasis given to po-
increases and decomposition of the car- tential products (Limestone, lime, and
bonate begins. Decomposition does hydrated lime); (2) whether the product
not progress at a rapid rate, however, is for commercial sale or for captive use
until a temperature range of 700 - (i.e., an integral operation of sugar man-
800° C is reached for dolomite and 830 - ufacture, steel production, soda ash
930° C for high-calcium stone.1 The manufacture, pulp and paper manu-
loss of carbon dioxide during calcination facture, etc.); and (3) type of kiln used
leaves the residue in a porous, highly re- (vertical, rotary, other). Figure 1
active state. It is usually the desire of shows the distribution of commercial
the manufacturer to remove the lime lime plants in the contiguous U. S.
oxides from the kiln as close to the upper The split in production between lime-
limit of the decomposition temperature stone, lime, and hydrate will vary con-
as possible. Subsequently heating re- siderably from plant to plant. How-
sults in shrinkage and loss of chemical ever, the distribution between all plants
reactivity. Sufficiently high heating in the year 1964 was:
results in a material of low reactivity re-
ferred to as "dead burned" lime. Limestone 510,025,000 tonsa
Lime 11,400,000 tons
Occurrence, Location, and Uses Refractory Lime
Limestone is the usual raw material (dead-burned) 2,150,000 tons
for manufacture of lime products al- Hydrated Lime 2,600,000 tons
though a small percentage is manufac-
tured from oyster shells, particularly "Includes limestone further processed to
along the Gulf Coast. Limestone de- lime products.
Table II. Theoretical equations illustrating reactions in lime
manufacturing.
1. High calcium
(a) CaCO3 + heat CaO + CO2 '
(limestone) (lime) (carbon dioxide)
(b) 2CaO + 2H2O -» 2Ca(OH)2
(lime) (water) (hydrated lime)
2. Dolomitic
(c) CaCO3-MgCO3 heat • CaO-MgO + 2CO2 t
(limestone) (dolomitic lime) (carbon dioxide)
(d) CaO • MgO + H2O -> Ca(OH)2-MgO
(dolomitic lime) (water) (dolomitic hydrate,
partially hydrated)
(e) CaO-MgO + 2H2O -4- Ca(OH)2-Mg(OH)2
(dolomitic lime) (water) (dolomitic hydrate,
completely hydratad)
31
 Table III. Uses of quicklime and hydrate
in 1964.
Tons Percent
Agriculture 200,000 1
Building 908,000 6
Metallurgy 3,303,000 21
Alkali 3,382,000 21
Carbide 959,000 6
Sugar 852,000 5
Water purification 910,000 6
Pulp and paper 843,000 5
Glass 302,000 2
Sewage treatment 201,000 1
Soil stabilization 450.000 3
Miscellaneous chem-
ical uses 1,675,000 10
Refractory Lime 2,168,000 13
Total 16,150,000 100
Figure 1. Distribution of commercial lime plants.

Only about \% of the limestone is
sold in the form of dimension stone,
the rest being sold crushed or broken.
Over 60% of the crushed stone is used
in construction for concrete aggregate,
road and railroad ballast, and riprap.
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is as objectionable as the dust. For-
tunately, most quarries are in rural or
somewhat isolated areas.
The loading and unloading of the
blasted stone can also release dust into
of course, is a desirable alternative.
Underground mining of rock releases
less dust to the atmosphere because most
operations are confined. However, it
is more expensive and wasteful of high
grade rock because pillars must be left.

the atmosphere. While many plants

Around 8% is used in chemical and
metallurgical industries as a flux in the
manufacture of iron and steel, acid
neutralization, alkali production, sugar
manufacture, calcium carbide produc-
tion, pulp and paper manufacture, and
as a product filler. Eighteen per cent
is used in cement manufacture, 5% in
calcined lime products, and the re-
mainder is used in agriculture for reduc-
ing soil acidity and providing neutrients
and in animal feeds.
Quicklime and hydrate are used inter-
changeably to some extent. Taken to-
gether their distribution by use in 1964
is shown in Table III. The agricultural
use is primarily for soil liming. Build-
ing use is split roughly evenly between
plaster and mortars. Refractory lime,
which is all dead-burned dolomite, is
used in manufacture of dolomite brick
and in open hearth steel furnace bottom
lining.
Manufacturing Operations:
Mining
currently make no effort to contain this
dust, wetting of the broken stone with
hoses or sprays can effectively decrease
it. While it has not been investigated,
the addition of wetting agents to the
water should improve the penetration of
water into the broken rock. Too much
wetting of the rock may be objectionable
in that it can interfere with subsequent
grinding and sizing operations. How-
ever, wetting of the surface of the load
in the truck or car will greatly reduce
windage loss during transport.
If transport of the stone is by truck,
attention should be given to the creation
of airborne dust from unimproved mine
roads. This can be greatly minimized
by frequent wetting of the roads during
dry weather. The need for constant
sprinkling of the roads can be greatly
decreased if oiling or wetting with cal-
cium chloride solution is used. Paving,
[FINES]
Less than 8% of the limestone produced
is mined underground.
Stone Preparation
The extent of preparation given to
stone received from the quarrjr depends
on the end use. For riprap, no prepara-
tion at all is required, but most applica-
tions require reducing the limestone to
rigid size specifications. Concrete and
road aggregates must be crushed,
cleaned, and graded to size. Pulverized
limestone must frequently be ground to
a fineness of 65-100% passing 200
mesh. Lime manufacture requires
stone of definite size ranges depending
on the type of kiln used.
Preparation of crushed stone requires
a series of crushing, screening, and clas-
sification operations. Primary crushers
will normally be of the jaw or gyratory
type, although roll crushers and hammer
^PULVERIZING COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS

Figure 2 presents a generalized flow-

sheet for a typical lime manufacturing LIMESTONE MINE
CRUSHING
AND STOCKPILES COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS
operation. A variety of mining and OR QUARRY
SCREENING
quarrying methods are used with var-
ious types of equipment. In obtaining COMMERCIAL
LIME KILN FEED
broken stone, the usual operations in- PRODUCTS
volved are: (1) drilling holes for explo-
sives; (2) blasting the limestone loose;

£
GRINDING AND
(3) loading it into trucks or cars; and PULVERIZING
(4) conveying it to the crusher. Di-
mension stone is quarried by sawing
LIME MANUFACTURING LIME CRUSHING LIME STORAGE COMMERCIAL
and cutting, and is not used for lime KILN AND SCREENING BINS PRODUCTS
manufacture. Open pit quarrying of
limestone produces dust which is re-
leased into the atmosphere during blast- -HUMEHYDRATOR FEED
ing. Quantities of such dust, which is
released intermittently, have not been f
reported. There is little that can be GRINDING AND/OR
HYDRATE COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS
done to confine this dust as long as LIME HYDRATOR — * > AIR CLASSIFICATION »• STORAGE BULK LOADING AND/OR
BINS BAG LOADING
blasting is the means of shattering the
rock loose. Often the noise produced Figure 2. Flow sheet of a typical lime manufacturing operation.

32 Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association

 PEHEATING ZONE
EXHAUST•

CALCINING ZONE

FINISHING ZONE
BURNERS- DQOOQD
mills may be used if the stone is soft
and friable. Frequently, the primary COOLING ZONE
crusher will be located at the quarry or
mine with a stockpile of crushed stone
being maintained nearby to cover peri- STORAGE ZONE
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ods when the quarry is not in operation.

Primary crushers will normally reduce
stone to 1 - 3 inches in size.
Secondary crushers are normally used
to reduce stone to sizes below one inch.
These are usually cone crushers or high-
speed, flat-angle gyratory machines.
Hammer mills may be used if the stone
is not abrasive. For pulverizing, a
hammer mill, rod, ball, or tube mill,
or an edge-running roller mill may be
used. For extreme fineness, closed
circuit grinding in air-swept mills with
air classification is required. Occasion-
ally, stone may be dried in a rotary
dryer to assure better grinding.
Vibrating screens are normally used
for classifying smaller sized stone ex-
ceeding 50 mesh. Where accurate
sizing of larger stone is not required,
bar grizzlies are normally employed.
Air classification is the normal means for
veryfineor pulverized sizes.
Stone is normally transported be-
tween operations on open-belt convey-
ors, although bucket elevators, drags,
screws, and pneumatic conveyors may
be used occasionally.
All of these operations give rise to
production of limestone dust. Many
plants in isolated areas carry out these
operations without pollution control
equipment and many more have only
the crudest kind of collection system for
the coarser size operations. The best
control would dictate corrugated covers
over the belt conveyors to reduce wind-
age losses, careful hooding at transfer
points connected to air exhausters, and
hooding or evacuating of crushing ma-
chinery to eliminate dusting. Many
plants currently collect the dust from
exhaust systems with simple cyclones,
or water spray chambers. With tighter
control regulations, it is likely that many
of these must be improved, making use
of bag filters and more efficient wet
scrubbers.
El
Figure 3. Vertical lime kiln.
Data on losses per ton of material
handled has generally not been de-
termined or reported. However, par-
ticulate losses from control equipment
currently in use at a number of plants
is shown below in terms of dust concen-
trations leaving control equipment:
Type of Particulate
Control Loss (grains
Operation Equipment per cu. ft.)
Pulverized lime- Cyclone 2.0
stone dryer
Primary crushing Water Spray 0.016
Screening
Collector
None 0.165
Stockpile Water 0.002
Sprinkling
Secondary Cyclone and 0.054
crushing Bag Filter
Lime Production
A number of types of kilns are avail-
able for carrying out the calcination
reactions. They differ in their con-
figuration, fuel economy, size stone re-
quired, inherent capacity, and efficient
use of manpower. Slightly more than
50% of lime production is in rotary kilns
and the trend is in this direction.
Verticle Kilns. This is the oldest and
most numerous type of continuous kiln
in use and one of the most efficient in
fuel utilization. The major drawback
is that it is inherently restricted to low
capacity per unit. For this reason there
have been few recent installations. Al-
most all modern installations have uti-
lized rotary kilns or one of the newer
design calciners.
A cut of a typical vertical or shaft
kiln is shown in Figure 3. These kilns
usually have a steel-encased refractory
shell 10-24 ft in diameter and 35-75 ft
in height. An inclined skip-hoist is
frequently used to convey the stone to
the top of the kiln where it is charged
in batches. The kiln is usually fired
with burners in the side, utilizing gas or
oil. Some older kilns contain a firebox
on the side where coal is used. These
kilns utilize heat very efficiently because
the cold stone at the top cools the flue
gases while the hot stone at the bottom
is cooled by air used for combustion.
The calcined lime is withdrawn at the
bottom either in batches or continuously
with suitable feeders or gates while the
flue gas exhausts at the top.
In some plants where coal is used as
fuel, it is mixed with the limestone or
charged in layers and burns within the
kilns. This technique is used mainly in
captive plants such as in the alkali and
sugar industries where lime purity is un-
important and the CO2 produced is one
of the desired products.
Most vertical kilns require limestone
in sizes of 6 - 8 inches to minimize pres-
sure drop. Because of the large stone
size, low capacity, and low gas velocity
through the kiln, many of the older
kilns were open on top with no provision
to collect the gases and control atmo-
spheric emissions. Captive kilns, where
the CO2 produced is needed for process-
ing operations in the alkali and sugar
industry, are closed on top with a double-
bell seal much like the charging mecha-
nism of a blast furnace. Except for
occasional leakage through the charging
seal, these kilns emit no gases or dust to
the atmosphere. They are conducted
to processes not involving lime manu-
facture. Particulates in these gases
enter the other process equipment.

January 1969 Volume 19, No. 1 33

 There is no reason other than cost
why non-captive vertical kilns cannot be
sealed in similar fashion with the ex-
haust gases conducted to suitable dust
control equipment before release to the
atmosphere.
Many older vertical kilns have capac-
ities of 7-15 tons per day of lime pro-
duced. However, the trend has been to
larger capacity gas-fired kilns producing
75-80 tons per day and many of the
older kilns have been converted to kilns
of this type.
Rotary Kilns. This is the same type
of kiln as is used in the production of
Portland cement. Its general advan-
tage is that it has the highest capacity
of any type kiln available. Some ro-
tary kilns have achieved production
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rates in excess of 500 tons of quicklime
per day. This greatly reduces the
manpower required per ton of product.
Disadvantages are that capital invest-
ment is much greater for rotary kilns
and fuel economy is poorer than for
vertical kilns. Typical rotary lime
kilns vary in size from 6 to 11^2 ft m
diameter and from 60 to 400 ft in length,
though 150 ft is a common length.
Rotary kilns are most commonly fired
with gas, oil, or pulverized coal. Mod-
ern kilns are generally highly instru-
mented for efficient control of tempera-
tures and combustion conditions. The
flow of stone and combustion products
is countercurrent through the kiln.
While the feed end of the kiln may cool
the hot gases by preheating the stone,
the kiln usually discharges the quick-
lime quite hot. For this reason, prod-
uct coolers are usually provided to
preheat the combustion air. Heat ef-
ficiency may also be improved some-
times through the use of chain sections
and preheating tubes at the feed end.
These devices will also tend to reduce
the loss of particulates which would
otherwise be carried out in the exhaust
gases.
Rotary kilns require a more carefully
classified and smaller size limestone
than vertical kilns. The feed gener-
ally ranges in size from M to J^ inches.
In plants with more than one rotary
kiln, frequently one kiln will operate
on }i inch stone with the others on 1 to
2y2 inch size. This leads to greater
uniformity in the product.
New Type Kilns. Since World War
II, several new types of kilns have been
introduced. The Dorrco Fluosolisd
kiln2-6'7 calcines fine particle size lime-
stone in afluidizedbed. Limestone par-
ticle size must be 6 mesh or less. It has
high capacity, excellent temperature
control, and good fuel economy.
The Ellerbeck kiln3 is a modified
34
rectangular shaft kiln which claims low
capital investment in low-capacity sizes
of 6 to 15 tons of lime per day. It pro-
duces a 3- 1J^" size pebble lime.
Roberts4 reports a modified captive
shaft kiln with internal combustion
chambers having a capacity of 600 tons
per day.
Lime kilns recently installed using a
combination of traveling grates and
rotary kilns have been discussed by
Kohanowski.8
The Calcimatic9-10 kiln is a new de-
velopment in which after preheating of
the charge in a vertical feed hopper with
the exhaust gases, the stone is deposited
in a thin layer on a traveling circular
refractory hearth. The stationary
stone on the revolving hearth travels
under a series of combustion chambers
and is finally scraped off to a product
cooler just before the hearth returns to
the charging point. Because the stone
is stationary during calcining, there is
little attrition and dust generation.
The kiln can handle stone in sizes from
}4 inch to 4 inches, can use either gaseous,
liquid, or solid fuels, and is available in
capacities from 100 to 500 tons of lime
per day.
Product Handling. After cooling, the
quicklime from vertical kilns is usually
inspected to remove "cores" and un-
burned stone. This is a hand operation
performed by workmen as the quicklime
passes by on a conveyor belt. Much of
the quicklime is then sold and shipped
in bulk hopper cars in this form. How-
ever, it may also be subjected to screen-
ing and milling operations to produce a
sized pebble or ground quicklime. Air-
swept hammer mills are usually used for
grinding. The comments under Stone
Preparation concerning dust control also
apply to these operations.
Hydrated Lime
Hydrated lime is produced by adding
water to crushed or ground quicklime
while mixing in order to produce in-
timate contact. An excess of water is
added because much water is lost as
steam in carrying off the heat of hydra-
tion. The dry hydrated lime produced
is usually milled in an air-swept hammer
or ring-roll mill. Uncalcined stone
called "core" and silica are usually
removed in the air separator of this mill.
Standard hydrated lime usually has a
fineness of 95% passing 200 mesh.
Some production, designated superfine,
is pulverized and/or air classified to
993^% through 325 mesh. A major por-
tion of hydrated lime is packed in paper
bags, but some is shipped in bulk. The
literature5 describes one hydrate plant
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association
in which a modified rod mill called a
plasticitor does the final milling.
Hydration of lime is also carried out
in agitated equipment using great ex-
cesses of water so that a slurry or "milk
of lime" solution is produced rather than
a dry powder. This operation is usu-
ally referred to as slaking rather than
hydrating. Slaking equipment will usu-
ally be located at the plant of the lime
user but will seldom be found at the
installation of the lime producer unless
he has a captive use. In terms of air
pollution, the slaker has a considerable
advantage over the hydrator. Due to
the large excess of water used, no steam
is given off and no gases are discharged
which can carry out entrained lime dust.
The Air Pollution Problem
The major air contaminant from lime
operations is dust; limestone dust from
mining, handling, crushing, and screen-
ing operations; quicklime dust from
kiln discharge, handling, shipping, and
milling operations; hydrate lime dust
from hydrator operations, milling, and
packing. These dusts are generally
looked upon by the community as a
nuisance rather than endangering
health. Pulverized limestone is applied
in copious quantities in many coal mines
as an inert material to minimize coal
dust explosions. Farm workers are
often exposed to hydrated lime dust
during soil application. The building
trades are frequently exposed to both
dust and wetted lime products without
detrimental effect. Silicosis and re-
spiratory ailments are not a problem
among lime plant workers. On the
other hand, lime (both quick and hy-
drate) are alkaline substances and, as
such, can be irritating to eyes, respira-
tory membranes, and moist skin. For
these reasons as well as the nuisance
value, emission of these materials is ob-
jectionable even though they cannot be
placed in a hazardous class.
Most lime manufacturing plants
started operations in a location well
removed from residential areas and
their property lines extended hundreds,
even thousands of feet beyond the manu-
facturing plant to encompass lime-
stone ore reserves. Farms in the vi-
cinity welcomed, as many still do, the
fall-out of "lime" dust as a soil sweetener
or soil conditioner. However, the in-
creasing perimeter of urban areas, the
advent of new highways through or
adjacent to lime manufacturing prop-
erties, air observation of effluent
plumes and the increasing sensitivity
of society to air pollution have com-
bined to focus attention on lime plant
 dust emission. Accumulation of lime
dust around the plant results in an un-
sightly operation; it settles on foliage,
home roofs and walks, clothes on the
line, window sills and lawn furniture,
to cause local indignations; and when it
settles on polished cars or enters the air
intakes of other manufacturing con-
cerns, it may cause financial loss.
These factors are requiring lime op-
erators to pay more attention to their
particulate losses.
Like all other fuel users the lime man-
ufacturer must also give consideration
to control of contaminants which are
common to all combustion operations.
Specifically, he must be prepared to
reduce pollution from SO2 and SO3
(either by changing fuels or recovery
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equipment) if he is using a sulfur-con-
taining fuel such as coal or fuel oil.
The time may come when he will have
to consider the generation of oxides of
nitrogen, and, of course, if burning coal,
he must worry about fly ash collection
and incomplete combustion resulting in
soot and tars.
Pollution Control Objectivies
Location of units of the lime man-
ufacturing industry range from areas
which may be designated as: (a) iso-
lated; (b) undeveloped; (c) partially
developed; (d) mixed industrial -
residential; (e) mixed heavy industrial
^residential; to (f) built-up residen-
tial. Air pollution control measures
taken by the industry range from no
control whatsoever to the most modern
of dust collecting and dust disposal
systems. Over the years, the industry
has had no reliable barometer, other
than local opinion, for assessing the
societal aspects of its dust emissions.
For the most part, the industry has
followed the "good neighbor" policy
with reference to dust control proce-
dures. These have laboriously evolved
rather than erupted and there is no fixed
pattern.
This situation is changing, however,
as federal and state involvement in
pollution grows. An examination of
current and proposed air pollution legis-
lation suggests that lime plant effluent
will probably have to comply with reg-
ulations on Particulate Emission, Visi-
bility, Fuel Limitations (if a sulfur con-
taining fuel is burned), and possibly
Settleable Alkalies.
Particulate Emission
Many codes have a general limitation
of 0.3-0.4 grain of dust per standard
cubic foot of exhaust gas. In addition,
many codes have a further limitation
January 1969 Volume 19, No. 1
applying to combustion operations
which is primarily directed to control of
coal fired boilers. Initially, most of
these were based on the ASME (1949)
recommendation of solids emission not
exceeding 0.85 lb of solids per 1000 lb
of stack gas. Most of these codes are
now being changed to a sliding scale
which starts at 0.60 lb of solids per 1000
lb of stack gas for small boilers and
decreases gradually with heat input to a
lower level of 0.20 lb of solids per 1000
lb of stack gas for large utility boilers.
Under some codes, it is not clear as to
whether a requirement on combustion
operations (and intended primarily for
boilers) would also apply to a lime kiln
operation where the combustion is in-
cidental as a means of supplying heat for
the process.
Some of these ordinances require
adjustment of the effluent quantity to
50% excess air or to 12% CO2 by volume
in the effluent. Such an approach can
also lead to difficulties in a lime kiln
operation where the chemical reactions
release CO2 into the flue gas. For
instance, a 200 TPD lime kiln will also
produce about 152 TPD of CO2 from
the limestone calcined. For a pulver-
ized coal fired kiln using a 1/4.0 fuel-
lime ratio, the CO2 released from the
limestone amounts to 22% of the total
flue gases. It would appear that in
adjusting the flue gas to some standard
CO2 quantity that this should be done
on a basis which adjusts the combustion
products separately from the reaction
products. However, not all legislation
permits this.
There is an increasing tendency in
particulate emission legislation to relate
quantities of dust emitted to process
weight on a sliding scale basis which
requires more rigorous control from
large operations than from small ones.
Process weight is usually defined as the
hourly input weight of all raw materials
including solid fuels, but excluding liq-
uid and gaseous fuels and combustion
air. A typical process weight table
will permit release of 2.58 lb per hour of
dust for a 1000 lb per hour process
weight tapering off to 69.0 lb per hour
for a one million pound per hour process
weight. Under such a regulation, a 200
TPD lime kiln fired with bituminous
coal having a 1/4.0 fuel-lime ratio would
have a total process weight of 36,375 lb
per hour (29,100 lb per hour of limestone
and 7275 lb per hour of coal) and would
be allowed to discharge 28.6 lb per hour
of particulates. Such a process weight
requirement would require the dust con-
trol equipment to have an overall
efficiency of about 98.1%.
Visibility
Many codes impose an opacity re-
quirement on the effluent plumes from
operations which emit a non-black
smoke. The majority of present codes
permit a plume to be up to 40% opaque
(equivalent to a Ringelman No. 2 for
black smoke). However, there is a
current tendency to tighten these re-
quirements in proposed legislation to
20% opacity (equivalent to a Ringelman
No. 1 for black smoke). Whether the
visibility requirement is more restric-
tive than a process weight requirement is
dependent on many things such as size
of dust particles, total rate of emission of
effluent, and stack diameter since opac-
ity is a function of the distance one is
trying to see through a plume. Present
codes do not allow for differences in
stack diameters.
Another troublesome area under vis-
ibility requirements is the emission of
high dewpoint gases containing dust
such as the effluent from the lime hy-
drating operation. Steam evolved dur-
ing the chemical reaction usually con-
denses in the atmosphere and makes the
plume essentially 100% opaque. Some
codes exempt an operation from the
visibility requirement when the only
reason for the operations failure to com-
ply is due to the opacity produced by the
condensing water vapor. Other juris-
dictions prefer to observe the remainder
of the plume in the atmosphere beyond
the point at which all water vapor has
dispersed. Even this presents difficul-
ties of interpretation in that the water
vapor tends to condense on the dust
particles causing them to grow in size
and be visible for longer distances.
In any event, codes need to be carefully
worded in regard to high dewpoint
plumes to make their legal application
clear in such cases.
In the event the combination of con-
densing water vapor and lime dust is
considered objectionable, two possible
solutions exist. One is to lower the
dewpoint of the effluent by dilution with
atmospheric air. This is often pre-
vented by the "Circumvention" clause
of many codes. The other is to provide
superheat in the effluent such that at-
mospheric diffusion occurs before con-
densation can occur. This will greatly
improve the plume appearance without
in the least reducing the contaminants
released to the atmosphere. This is
perhaps unfortunate as it wastes fuel
and natural resources and adds to
thermal and CO2 pollution of the atmo-
sphere with only a compensating psycho-
logical benefit.
35
 Sulfur Compounds
The lime manufacturer will be con-
cerned with these regulations only if he
is using a sulfur-containing fuel such as
coal or oil. Many new codes are pres-
ently placing limitations on the sulfur
content of the fuel which can be burned
or the ground level concentration of
sulfur oxides.
Settleable Alkalies
A new unpublished and untried test
which has been suggested in at least one
legislative proposal would test quantity
of dust fall on an indicator material that
would be affected by the pH of the dust.
The test would normally be applied
upwind and downwind of the plant
premises. A certain greater number of
indicator spots would be allowed in the
downstream sample. Very little ex-
perience has been obtained with such a
test, but it might pose rigorous require-
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ments on a lime plant should such test
methods become more widespread.
Control of Specific Contaminants
Dust from Limestone Processing
Dust, produced from quarrying,
transportation, crushing and classifica-
tion systems, is a heavy dust released at
near ambient temperature. It has the
same chemical analysis as the limestone
being processed. The dust usually
contains some moisture and the majority
is of fairly coarse particle size which will
generally settle within a thousand foot
radius. Control measures consist of
wetting and sprinkling to minimize
dusting and proper hooding and evacua-
tion to collect dust from crushing and
screening equipment and transfer points.
Cyclones or water spray chambers are
the present chief means of collection of
this dust. The majority of the dust
which is larger than 20 microns is
efficiently collected, but the finer parti-
cles released can travel several miles.
For their control, it will be necessary to
use bag filters or high efficiency water
scrubbers. Control equipment is dis-
cussed under Rotary Kilns.
Dust from Lime Burning
Vertical Kilns. Many vertical kilns
are of ancient vintage and were origi-
nally built without control equipment.
They do not produce as much dust with-
out control equipment as does a rotary
kiln because of the larger size of the
limestone charged, the "lazy" gas
velocities, and the smaller amount of
attrition which occurs as the charge
passes through. Nevertheless shaft
kilns are apt to be considered dusty by
modern air pollution standards. Typi-
cal dust loading of untreated exhaust gas
is in the range of 0.3 -1.0 grains per cu ft.
For example, a 25 ton per day vertical
natural gas fired kiln having a fuel
economy of 6 million Btu ton of quick-
36
Table IV. Various fuel-line ratios from a pulverized bituminous coal-fired rotary kiln.
Total Pounds of
Gases Per Ton
Fuel-Lime Ratio of Lime (by wt.)
1/1.4 17,095
1/2.0 12,390
1/3.0 8,744
1/4.0 6,920
1/5.0 5,826
1/6.0 5,096
lime produced and an exhaust dust load-
ing of 0.6 grain per cubic foot would
release 7.7 lb per hour of dust to the
atmosphere if using 10% excess air.
Coal-fired vertical kilns have also been
characterized by their emission of black
smoke which may travel a mile or two.
Captive vertical kilns used by the
alkali and sugar industries are sealed
because of the need for CO2 from the flue
gas in other operations and hence emit
no pollution as long as the seals are in
good working condition. It would be
possible to so equip commercial vertical
kilns and use the control devices on the
effluent gas which are used on rotary
kilns. However, most of the vertical
kilns are of small capacity and are be-
coming obsolete. The addition of con-
trol equipment in many cases could not
be economically justified. Pressure to
reduce their particulate discharge will in
most cases hasten the day of their com-
plete replacement with larger, more
efficient kilns designed with adequate
control equipment.
Rotary Kilns. These kilns, when not
properly equipped, constitute the largest
single source of airborne particulate
matter in the lime industry. Abrasion
of rolling limestone charge in the kiln
produces dust. The stone becomes
more friable as it approaches the decom-
position temperature and dusting in-
creases. Finally, the resulting lime in
the "hot zone" tends to be chalky and
much less hard than the stone from
which it is produced. Simultaneous
with dusting from attrition, the high
velocity gases from direct fire fuel com-
bustion blow the dust from the kiln.
This is a vexing dust to control and
collect. It is hot, dry, difficult to wet,
and prone to be electrostatically
charged. It is of mixed composition
varying all the way from raw limestone
tofinalcompletely calcined product. It
will also be mixed with fly ash, tars, and
unburned carbon if pulverized coal is
used as the fuel. The dust blown from
a rotary kiln will range from 5 to 15%
of the weight of the lime produced.
Temperature of the exhaust gases leav-
ing the kiln will range from 600 - 1800°F.
Typical exhaust temperatures for a 6 ft
dia. kiln are 1350°F "80" ft of
length. This temperature will drop to
600 °F if the kiln length is increased to
300 ft.
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association
Total Gas Volume
%co2 in Gases (cuft@60°F, 1 atm.
(by vol.) per Ton of Lime)
33.0 23.9 203,500
35.3 25.8 146,200
38.9 28.9 101,500
42.2 31.8 79,200
45.1 34.3 66,100
47.7 36.8 57,000
Gibbs11 indicates the following pounds
of gases per ton of lime at various fuel-
lime ratios from a pulverized bituminous
coal-fired rotary kiln (Table IV).
Data is based on a coal with a heat-
ing value of 13,500 BTU per lb.
A typical 8 ft diameter by 220 ft long
coal fired rotary kiln producing 200 tons
per day of lime with a 1/4.0 fuel-lime
ratio would exhaust about 1,384,000 lb
per day of gases at 910°F. Assuming a
dust loss of 5% of the weight of the lime-
stone charged (9% of the lime pro-
duced), a total dust quantity blown out
is 36,000 lb per day without allowance
for fly ash from the coal. This corre-
sponds to a dust loading of about 0.026
lb of dust per lb of exhaust gas or
about 15.9 grains per cu ft at 60°F.
Dust blown from a kiln also varies
greatly with gas velocity. The litera-
ture16 reports doubling of the dust blown
out when a kiln production rate was
increased from 100 to 135% of design
capacity while dropping production rate
to 75% of capacity only dropped dust
loading by 8%.
The gases leaving the kiln are usually
first passed through a dust settling
chamber to break the gas velocity and
settle out the coarse particles. On
occasion, dry cyclones may also be used
for this primary collection. From 65 to
85% of the particulate matter may be
collected here. The primary dust is
taken to a waste dump, used as land fill
or for agricultural land treatment.
Wetting before handling is advisable to
reduce losses in dumping. An alterna-
tive is mixing with water and pumping
as a slurry to a waste dump.
Handling of the hot dust can create
mechanical problems for discharge gates
and conveyors. Bauer19 and Wolfe20
discuss design requirements for dust
handling equipment.
The major dust control problem is the
dust passing the primary collector which
is still hot (700-900°F). A number of
older plants in sparsely populated areas
discharge the dust to the atmosphere
through a stack where the 10-20 mesh
particles fall to the ground in the im-
mediate vicinity of the operation and
smaller micron size particles are airborne
for many miles. Obviously, such an
operation can no longer be permitted in
most locations and secondary control
 equipment is mandatory. Table V
gives the chemical and screen analysis
of stack dust from a typical plant with-
out secondary collection. If pulverized
coal is used as a fuel, these dusts would
also contain varying amounts of fly ash.
A typical chemical analysis of fly ash
products is shown in Table VI.
Over the years, the lime industry has
installed and studied almost every con-
ceivable type of secondary collector.
Table V. Stack dust from two rotary natural
gas fired lime kilns with only primary
collection.
Chemical Analysis
High
Calcium Dolomitic
Component Operation Operation
Acid insoluble 0.66% 0.• 4 5 %
Heavy metal oxides
(R2O3) 0.97 0..35
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Many plants in areas with some local
control of air pollution have installed
high efficiency cyclonic secondary col-
lectors. However, to meet modern
requirements, plants are increasingly
turning to wet scrubbers and glass bag
collectors. Electrostatic precipitators
have also been investigated and found
satisfactory. However, economics in
the lime industry are such that costly
precipitators are apt to be avoided as
long as scrubbers and bag collectors will
give acceptable performance. Table
VII lists data on a number of installa-
tions with secondary collectors.
1. Cyclone Collectors. High effici-
ency cyclones are more suitable as
primary collectors and precleaners
for removal of the plus 10 micron
size dust. One installation reports
handling 80,000 actual cfm of kiln
gas at 450-500°F and 30-35%
moisture content in 72 nine-inch
be handled directly by the bags, it
is usual practice to cool the gases by
water spray, air dilution, or a com-
bination. Insulation of the bag
house is not usually required unless
the moisture content of the gases is
quite high, as might be the case
with wet feed. Collection effi-
ciency is almost 100% between bag
cleanings as a thin layer of dust on
the bag forms additional filtering
media. Particles 5 microns and
less in size are apt to be lost
through the bag immediately after
cleaning. Capital cost is reported
to be $1.80 per cfm handled with
operating and maintenance costs
running $0.20 per cfm annually.
Bag life up to two years is re-
ported.16 General experience dic-
tates that when bags start to fail,
it is best to replace all bags in
the unit. Otherwise, one will en-
counter a period where bags are

CaCO3 23.06 64,.30 failing weekly with resultant pollu-

size cast iron cyclones with a pres-
CaO 66.32 7..23
sure drop of 2H inches of water tion and loss of production due to
MgO 1.40 28,.20
CaSO4 1.22 0 .27 and 70% collection efficiency as a frequent shutdown for mainte-
Ca(OH) 2 6.37 primary collector. Collins15 also nance.
reports 70-80% collection effi-
Screen Analysis 3. Electrostatic Precipitators.
ciency with small tube cyclones.
Tyler Mesh Size l/Vt. % While the use of electrostatic pre-
+ 65 0 .5 2. Bag Filters. A number of installa- cipitators tends toward the costly
- 6 5 +100 1,.5 tions are reported making use of side for the lime industry, one in-
—100 + 1 5 0 3 .6 glass fiber bag collectors handling stallation has been reported using
—150 + 200 10,.0 gas flows as high as 150,000 actual a single stage precipitator as a sec-
—200 + 270 9 .7 cfm at temperatures in the range of ondary collector at a capital cost of
—270 + 325 8 .4 350 - 550°F, with average particle $1.25 per cfm. It handles 160,000
- 3 2 5 + 400 7 .5
sizes of 25 microns after preclean- cfm at 450- 500°F inlet conditions
— 400a 58,.8
a
ing with dust settlers. For the in which 90 - 95% of the inlet dust
Average particle diameter for the -400 mesh larger gas volumes, the bag house is
fraction is 5 -6 microns determined by Fisher is minus 10 microns. It is designed
Sub-Sizer. compartmented so that only one with a gas velocity of 3.3 ft per
section at a time is cleaned. A second and a residence time of 5.2
twelve compartment bag house for sec and has an on-stream efficiency
a 500 TPD kiln is reported.11 The of 95%.
Table V I . Typical limits of ash analysis of cleaning cycle (shaking is not em-
U.S. bituminous coals. ployed with glass bags) depends on 4. Water Scrubbers. Many types of
Component Wt. % dust loading but is usually a 10-15 water scrubbers are in use. Two
min cycle. Design air to cloth installations have been reported17
SiO 2 20-60
AI2O3 10-35 ratio with one compartment out for in satisfactory operation utilizing a
Fe2O3 5-35 cleaning is in the range of 1.95:1 cyclonic multi-vane dynamic scrub-
CaO 1-20 to 2.2:1. (Air to cloth ratio is ber in which the gases are passed
MgO 0.3-4 defined as cubic feet of air per min- through a wet agglomerating fan
TiO 2 0.5-2.5 ute per square foot of filter cloth between stages after initial removal
Alkalies Na2O & K2O 0.1-4 surface.) Since kiln gases are fre- of the coarser particles. One of
SO., 1-12 quently discharged hotter than can the advantages of a wet scrubber is

Table VII. Secondary collection of rotary kiln lime dust.

Installation No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Primary collection Dust chambers Dust chambers Dust chambers 9 in. Tube cyclonesa Dust chambers Dust chambers
Type of secondary Glass bag collec- 4-stage cyclonic- 4-stage cyclonic- Single stage elec- Venturi scrubber Spray and
collector tors dynamic scrubber dynamic scrubber trostatic precipi- and cyclonic impingement
tator scrubber plate scrubber
Inlet loading
gr/scfm 10.0 2.8-2.9 9.5 4.3 4-7 16
Outlet loading
gr/scfm 0.001 0.071-0.080 0.02 0.22 0.12 0.3-0.4
Collection efficiency 99.99% 97.5% 99.7% 95% 97-96.3% 97.5%
Pressure drop in
secondary collec-
tor—inches of
water 4-5 8 8 1-2 15 5-6
» Primary collector consists of 9 in. tube cyclones. Inlet loading to cyclones, 14.5 gr./cf; outlet loading, 4.3 gr./cf; efficiency, 70%.

January 1969 Volume 19, No. 1 37

 that it can include a pre-humidifi-
cation section and eliminate the
need for pre-cooling the gases. A
typical installation for a 180-200
TPD kiln with 40-50,000 actual cfm
@900° - 1400°F and a 5-10 grain
per cf dust loading, would require a
9 - 10 ft diameter scrubber 32 ft tall.
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Scrubbing water requirement is 4
gallons per 1000 cf of gas processed.
Pressure drop is 8 inches of water
which would be supplied by the
integral wet fan. Since the fan
also serves as kiln exhaust fan, ex-
cess power is required. For the
200 TPD kiln installation, fan bhp
would be 150. Collection effi-
ciency is stated to be 99.7%.
Scrubber cost is reported to be
$0.50 per cfm of cooled saturated
exhaust gas for 304 stainless steel
construction and $0.25 per cfm for
carbon steel.
Stuart and Bailey12 report 96-97%
efficiency on dust removal from a 335
TPD kiln using a combination Venturi
scrubber and cyclonic separator. A
pressure drop of 7-11 inches of water
was used. Inlet gas volume was 60-
62,000 cfm at 350°F. Water supplied
to the Venturi throat was 1500 gpm at
50 psig pressure. Cleaned exhaust
gases were discharged at 160-165°F
nearly saturated with water vapor.
Similar results are reported by Walker
and Hall21 using flooded disc scrubbers.
Gas volumes per installation have varied
from 40,000 acfm at 400°F to 100,000
acfm at 600°F.
Mockridge13 reports 97% efficiency
on lime kiln dust contained in 26,000
standard cfm with 43^-53^ inches of
water pressure drop using a combination
spray and impingement plate scrubber.
Such a scrubber handling gas from a 250
TPD kiln was 10 feet in diameter by 22
feet tall. The cleaned gases were dis-
charged at 15O.°F essentially saturated
with water vapor. Porter18 reports
96-99% collection with a scrubber in
which the gases are impacted against a
water surface.
While wet scrubbing of the gas may
frequently be cheaper, problems can be
associated with wet scrubbing which are
38
not present with dry collection. Among
them are discharge of a hot, humid gas
stream, plugging at dry-wetted inter-
faces, scale buildup, and corrosion prob-
lems which may not exist in the absence
of water. The hot, humid effluent will
condense in the atmosphere producing
an opaque plume which may give the
misleading impression that the opera-
tion is still a heavy dust emitter.
Methods14 for preventing atmospheric
condensation are available but costly.
Care must be taken in the method of
introduction of the hot dusty gases into
the scrubber so as to assure quick wet-
ting and quenching without entrain-
ment of liquid into the inlet. Areas
which may be alternately wet and dry
will accumulate dust with resultant
caking and buildup, which may ruin
efficiency or completely seal off gas flow.
Instances17 are known where lime kilns
had to be shut down every 5 days to
clean out cakes and obstructions in
home-made wet scrubbers. The pres-
ence of sulfur in the fuel or sulfates in
the stone can result in sulfur oxides in
the kiln exhaust. These can react with
lime dust to produce slightly soluble
calcium sulfate. Since calcium sulfate
has an inverse solubility at higher tem-
peratures, too little make up scrubber
water or too high a water temperature
can result in plating out scale deposits
on metal parts of the scrubber. The
presence of the sulfur oxides may also
dictate the use of corrosion-resisting
alloys for wetted parts. Since placing
the kiln exhaust fan before the scrubber
will subject it to the hot abrasive kiln
gases, it is normally desirable to locate
it after the dust collector. In the case
of a wet scrubber, it may be necessary to
make the exhaust fan of alloy construc-
tion as well. Some producers16 report
operating costs for a wet scrubber three
times as great as for a bag filter even
though initial cost is considerably less.
It should also be considered that slurry
discharged from wet scrubbers is a
potential water pollutant if not properly
confined or consumed.
Other Kilns. Data on dust emission
from new kiln processes is largely lack-
ing. Grate type kilns are stated to
produce less dust than rotary kilns.
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association
Fluosolid kilns emit copious quantities
of dust in the exhaust gases and require
very efficient dust control equipment.
Plants using the Calcimatic Process
appear to be remarkably free of dust
since the stone is stationary during
calcination on a revolving hearth. The
major sources of dust are the exhaust
from the stone preheater, the lime cooler,
and the discharge lime conveyor. Bag
filters have been found to be most
practical for dust collection at the latter
two sources. High efficiency cyclones
have been used on the preheater ex-
haust, but glass bag filters would be the
desirable collector for high collection
efficiency.
Data on a typical installation using a
glass-filter bag house is:
Exhaust gases, actual volume and
temperature 20,000 cfm @600°F
Dust loading, 2.5 grains per cu ft
Dust screen size
0-2.5 microns, 1.2%
2.5-5 microns, 2.1
5-10 microns, 3.4
10-20 micrens, 5.6
20 - 44 microns, 5.1
+44 microns, 82.6
Design gas to cloth ratio, 2.50:1
Typical bag life, 6 months
Collector installed, cost, $3.60 per
actual cfm
Collection efficiency, 99.2%
Dust from Lime Hydrating
Lime and water react exothermally,
often violently, in the hydrator to pro-
duce a crude semi-dry finely divided
hydrated lime powder. Steam and
moisture laden air sweep fine dust from
the hydrating operation into the ex-
haust stack. High calcium hydrators
operate at ambient pressure with "lazy"
exhaust gas velocity. Pressure dolo-
mitic hydrators discharge steam, air,
and product through small orifices to
maintain the pressure created by the
reaction, and thus impart a high veloc-
ity to the exit gases. The dust from the
operation will have the same analysis as
the hydrate being produced. If not
collected, it will carry a mile or two when
airborne. On settling, it will slowly
react with the carbon dioxide of the air
to revert to calcium and magnesium
 Summary
Table VIII summarizes the dust loading in various effluents from lime plants re-
sulting from an industry survey.

carbonates. Because of the large Table VIII. Reported dust emission values from lime plant operations.
amount of steam generated during the Particulate
reaction, the discharge from a hydrator Emission Grains Collection
will be opaque. This makes it difficult, Operation Per Cu. Ft. Efficiency Control Method
visually, to determine the amount of Limestone primary crushing 0.016 Poor Water sprays
solids entrained in the steam. Limestone secondary crushing 0.054 Good Cyclone and bag filters
Crushed stone stockpile 0.002 Water sprays
The loss of hydrated lime dust repre- Pulverized limestone dryer 2.04 60 - 70% Cyclone collector
sents the loss of valuable product since Limestone screening 0.165 None
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Bulk loading 0.009 None

this dust is of high purity. It is easily Stone unloading Water sprays
wetted and can be scrubbed from the Vertical lime kiln 0.3-1.0 None
Rotary kiln 0.001 99.99 Glass bag filter
stack gases with a water scrubber. The Rotary kiln 0.07-0.08 97.5 4 Stage cyclonic scrubber
recovered water slurry can be fed back Rotary kiln 0.02 99.7 4 Stage cyclonic scrubber
to the hydrator as make-up water so that Rotary kiln 4.3 70.0 High efficiency cyclones
Rotary kiln 0.22 95.0 Single stage precipitator
handling of the recovered product does Rotary kiln 0.12-0.25 96-97 Venturi scrubber
not represent a problem. Practically Rotary kiln 0.3-0.4 97.5 Impingement scrubber
Calcimatic kiln 0.02 99.2 Glass bag filter
all lime hydrating plants are equipped Lime conveying—transfer points 0.2-0.8 Cyclone collector
with recovery equipment of one type or Lime distribution system—airveyor 0.01 99+ Cloth bag filter
Hydrating 0.01-0.94 Water sprays in stack
another. A common method is to in- Hydrating 0.072 Wet scrubber
stall water spray nozzles in the exhaust Hydrating 0.01 Wet scrubber
Hydrating 0.02 Wet scrubber
stack and to add all or a part of the Hydrating 0.036 Wet scrubber
water to the hydrator in this manner. Hydrate milling No visible dust 99+ Bag filter
The scrubbing effect of the sprays plus Hydrate loader and packer 0.01 99+ Bag filter
steam condensation on the dust par-
ticles induced by the cold spray water,
causes the particles to grow in size, be Bibliography scrubber installation," Tappi 48,
impacted by the spray, and settle back 1. Murray, J. A., Fischer, H. C , and 104A-108A (May 1965).
into the hydrator. Tests on plants Shade, 11. W., "Thermal analysis of 13. Mockridge, P. C., "The use of Pea-
limestone," paper presented to the body scrubbers on lime kiln stack
utilizing such simple control procedures Nat'l Lime Assoc, Washington, D. C. gases," Tappi, 255-256 (Apr. 1955).
give dust loadings in the effluent in the (Spring 1950). 14. Crocker, B. B., "Water vapor in efflu-
range of 0.01 to 0.94 grains per cu ft. 2. White, F. S., U. S. Pat. 2,465,410 ent gases: What to do about opacity
(Mar. 29, 1949) (to Dorr Co.). problems," Chem. Eng., 75, 109-116
The large variation is probably due to (July 15, 1968).
differences in spray pressure, stack 3. Ellerbeck, T. 11., U. S. Pat. 2,451,024
(Oct. 12, 1948). 15. Collins, T. T., Jr., "Pilot plant study
velocity, liquid to gas rate, and number 4. Roberts, J. E., "Lime kiln design 1— of a multiclone unit operating on stack
of spray stages. Other plants have used UCM's vertical lime kiln," Chem. Eng. gases from a lime kiln," Paper Trade
Prog., 59, 88-91 (Oct. 1963). J., 126, 63-4 (Mar. 18, 1948).
recirculating Venturi-ejector scrubbers 16. Wheeler, D. IL, Carlisle, J. L.,
or other commercial wet scrubbers. 5. Anon., "Rockwell lime company oper-
ating non-pressure hydrator," Pit and Brousseau, G., Lacy, G. R., and Bergs-
Tests on commercial wet scrubber in- Quarry (May 1956). trom, J., "Panel probes dust collection
stallations (not designated by type) 6. Havighorst, C. R., "Improved fluid problems," Rock Products, 76-80 (Jan.
bed calcination hikes lime produc- 1965).
have given effluent loadings of 0.01 - 0.03 17. Carlisle, J. C , "Texas lime tackles
tion," Chem. Eng. 71, 104-6 (Oct. 26.
grains per cu ft. Unfortunately, the 1964). dust," Chem. Processing, 27, 46-47
discharge from efficient wet scrubbers 7. Shafer, M., and Brandt, M. W., "Lime (Sept., 1964).
will usually still be opaque with condens- kiln design 2—hot cyclone develop- 18. Porter, C. C., et al, "Elimination of
ment improves lime yield," Chem. Eng. lime stack losses with the type N roto-
ing water vapor. Prog., 59, 95-99 (Dec. 1963). clone," Paper Trade J., 124*, 33-6 (Feb.
The treatment of hydrate following 8. Kohanowski, F. I., "Lime kiln de- 6, 1947).
hydration is usually milling and air sign 3—the grate kiln system," Chem. 19. Bauer, W. G., "Factors of dust sup-
classification. Conventional air-swept Eng. Prog., 60, 80-84 (Jan. 1964). pression in small to medium size ro-
9. Law, C. and Hauser, P., "Lime in- tary kiln systems," Pit and Quarry,
equipment is used for this purpose and if dustry gets boost from new kiln de- 134-139 (May 1958).
kept under the proper suction with a sign," Chem. Eng., 71, 88-9 (June 8, 20. Wolfe, J. M., "Kiln dust—properties
bag filter and exhaust fan, will give no 1964). and handling," Pit and Quarry, 136-
problem. Conventional bag filters with 10. Anon., "Automatic kiln features mov- 145 (Mar. 1964).
ing hearth; Calcimatic," Can. Chem. 21. Walker, A. B., and Hall, R. M.,
cotton bags will give 99+% recovery. Process, 49, 46 (Feb. 1965). "Operating experience with a flooded
Since the majority of these would be 11. Anon., "River Rouge plant supplies disc scrubber—a new variable throat
shaken only every few hours, the bleed Detroit steelmakers," Rock Products orifice contactor," APCA Paper No.
through immediately following shaking (July 1966). 67-147, presented at the APCA 60th
12. Stuart, H. H., and Bailey, R. E., Annual Mtg, Cleveland, Ohio, June
is not serious. "Performance study of a lime kiln and 11-16, 1967.

January 1969 Volume 19, No. 1 39