Blackwell Publishing Ltd.Oxford, UK and Malden, USAIJTDInternational Journal of Training and Development1360-3736Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

2005March 2005914761ArticlesOrganizational Interventions

International Journal of Training and Development 9:1

ISSN 1360-3736

Organizational interventions
influencing employee career
development preferred by
different career success
orientations
Namhee Kim

This study explores what Korean employees prefer as organi-

zational interventions that influence their career development,
according to their personal interpretation of career success. A
quantitative sample survey was designed from a Korean wire-
less communications company using a survey instrument. The
findings of this study contributed to the validation of theoret-
ical discussions on the association of individuals and organi-
zational career development interventions, implying that
organizations need to design their career mobility systems or
performance incentive systems in accordance with employees’
career orientations.

Introduction
Market changes often necessitate substantial transformation in organizations via reor-
ganizing, restructuring or downsizing (Gutteridge et al., 1993). The characteristics of
employees have changed as well. One of the biggest issues facing organizations
is the increasing diversity of the modern workforce. Determining how to manage and
develop today’s workforce effectively from the perspective of career development has
become a critical issue at the organizational level.
Companies must find ways to match organizational goals and needs with those of
individuals, but employees’ internal orientations are often left largely uninvestigated

r Research Fellow, Korean Women’s Development Institute, 1-363 Bulkwang-dong, Eunpyong-gu,

Seoul 122-707, Korea. Email: knh@kwdi.re.kr

© Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main St., Malden, MA 02148,
USA.

Organizational Interventions 47
in the design and implementation of organizational interventions. This study explores
Korean employees’ perspectives on organizational interventions that influence their
career development, according to personal definitions of career success. Answers to
this research question will help organizations design and implement more effective
employee career development policies and activities.

Theories of career orientation

Traditional career theories defined success in terms of extrinsic or objective factors
with visible metrics, such as salary, promotions or status (e.g. Gattiker & Larwood,
1989; Jaskolka et al., 1985). Therefore, hierarchical advancement, larger income and
increasing recognition and respect from others typically indicated success at work. On
the other hand, some researchers have investigated careers from an internal, subjective
perspective. Schein examined individuals’ subjective ideas about work life and their
roles within it (van Maanen & Schein, 1977). He identified the concept of a ‘career
anchor’, which is an occupational self-concept or self-knowledge that ‘serves to guide,
constrain, stabilize and integrate the person’s career’ (Schein, 1978: 127). Schein (1978)
identified five types of career anchors: managerial competence, autonomy, security,
technical/functional competence, and entrepreneurial creativity. Later, three more
types were added: service/dedication to a cause, pure challenge, and life style. Delong
(1982) proposed replacing the term ‘career anchor’ with ‘career orientation’, meaning
the capacity to select certain features of an occupation for investment according to
one’s motives, interests and competencies. He identified three new types of career
orientation (identity, service, and variety), in addition to Schein’s (1978) five original
career anchors.
Driver (1979, 1980, 1982) studied business executives and staff specialists in a variety
of companies, identifying four ‘career concepts’ (transitory, steady-state, linear, and
spiral) from self-perceptions based on habits of thought, motives and decision-making
styles. These career concepts become the guiding foundation for a person’s long-term
career choices (Driver, 1980). Derr (1986) used the term ‘career success orientation’ to
refer to how people define their success at work, and argued that an individual’s
meaning of career success reflects their personal values, attitudes and motivation with
regard to work and life. Career success orientation can vary considerably given the
diversity of the modern workforce and its work values. To describe patterns of career
success orientation, Derr (1986) developed a minimum set of useful dimensions based
on his research with the US Navy, MBA students and multinational executives. Derr’s
five dimensions of career success orientations are:
1. Getting ahead: Traditionally, this type was assumed to be typical career orientation
for most people who want to succeed in their career. Individuals who exhibit these
characteristics pursue upward mobility in organizations. Advancement in status
and increased responsibility, authority and opportunities are also attractive to this
type. People in this type enjoy wealth and prestige.
2. Getting free: Individuals in this type avoid any restrictions and pursue personal
freedom at work. They often like to create their own service or product, enjoying
a variety of different experiences. The desire to maintain autonomy at work is
the strongest work value. Independence and being free from external interruption
make the ideal work situation.
3. Getting secure: Individuals in this type value stability, predictability or security at
work. Guaranteed long-term job security is desirable. They are loyal to their
organizations and commit themselves seriously to the company. Gaining secure
jobs and feeling recognized by their organizations are closely related to their
personal meaning of career success. To this type of people, stability is more
important than getting ahead.
4. Getting high: Individuals with these characteristics pursue technical or functional
expertise in one area and want to test their talents and skills. Excitement is very
important to them. They long for continued growth and dedicate themselves to

48 International Journal of Training and Development © Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005.

 self-renewing experiences, and consider success as doing what they like. Being an
expert in their interest areas is an uppermost goal of their career.
5. Getting balanced: Individuals who exhibit these characteristics pursue a balanced
professional and personal life. They enjoy working in an environment that
respects personal and family life. People view their career success in relation to
other aspects of life, including family and personal development. To them, the
meaning of career success cannot be separated from the value of family and
personal relationships. The emergence of this career type reflects the diversity of
the workforce and work values in recent decades (Derr, 1986).
Hall (1976) introduced the concept of the ‘protean career’, characterized by individ-
uals taking the lead in career management, driven by the change of personal rather
than organizational needs. He even argued that the ‘career’ no longer exists within
organizations (1996). Similarly, Arthur and Rousseau (1996) described modern careers
as ‘boundaryless’, defying traditional assumptions about organizational careers.
Recent literature, including Hall’s work in 2002, indicates the importance of the
individual career, particularly its internal aspects. Baruch (2004) summarized current
measures of individual career success as ‘a multi-level set of self-development targets;
gaining employability; making lateral transitions for enrichment . . . ; undertaking self-
management and entrepreneurship . . . ; and achieving a better and richer quality
of life’ (2004: 76).
A comparison of the concepts of career anchor, career orientation, career concept,
and career success orientation (as well as other recent trends) allows five types of
commonly identified career orientation to be determined, as presented in Table 1. This
table shows that although scholars researched career orientations at different times
and used different criteria and terms, the common categories of career orientation can
be identified. The categories of personal definition of career success also tend to follow
a similar framework.
Since career orientation is likely to determine (or at least influence) an individual’s
occupational decisions, it has been hypothesized that this orientation can influence
their willingness to participate in specific career development activities (Watts, 1989).
However, little literature has empirically explored the relationship between career
success orientation and career development intervention. In this study, the career
orientations of Korean employees are first explored in terms of Derr’s (1986) frame-
work of career success orientation.

Organizational interventions influencing employee career

development (ECD)
The term ‘organizational interventions influencing ECD’ is defined as organization-
initiated policies or activities that could affect ECD, directly or indirectly. According
to Wils et al. (1993), there are three types of career development activities currently
conducted in organizations. Specifically, 14 activities are identified with three different
foci:
1. Impersonal career, focusing on three internal staffing activities: job posting,
promotion-from-within and lateral mobility.
2. Organizational career, consisting of five organization-oriented activities: succession
planning, high potential management, data collection on employees, job matching
and data collection on future jobs.
3. Individual career, subsuming two individual-oriented activities: career planning
and career counselling.
In addition to these direct interventions, some organizational policies or activities
may influence ECD indirectly (Watts, 1989). For instance, employee compensation and
benefits can enhance or impede ECD, affecting critical career decisions. Employee
assessment is often understood as a management function, but it can and should be
approached from a career development perspective as well (Baruch, 2004; Iles, 1999).

© Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005. Organizational Interventions 49

50 International Journal of Training and Development Table 1: Comparison of theories of career orientation

Types Description of Schein’s (1978) Delong’s (1982) Driver’s (1980) Derr’s (1986) Baruch’s (2004)
common characteristics career anchor career orientation career concept career success measures of
orientation career success

Type 1 • Advancing up the General Managerial Linear Getting Self-development

organizational hierarchy management competence/ ahead competencies
• Increased responsibility, competence identity
authority
• High status, prestige, income
Type 2 • Recognized expertise in Technical/ Technical/ Spiral Getting high Lateral
one area functional functional transitions; spiral
• Excitement to test one’s competence or competence movements
talents and skills pure challenge
• Continued growth and
experience
Type 3 • Stability, predictability, security Security/ Security Steady-state Getting Employability
• Long-term commitment, loyalty stability secure
Type 4 • Maintenance of freedom, Autonomy/ Autonomy, Transitory Getting free Self-management;
avoidance of restrictions independence creativity, or entrepreneurship
• Creation of own service or variety
or product entrepreneurial
• A variety of different experiences creativity
Type 5 • A balanced life Life style Getting Quality of life;
© Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005.

• Respect for personal and family balanced work-family

life balance
• Flexible time and job sharing
Other • Dedication to a cause, making a Service/ Service
types contribution to improve the dedication to a
world cause
Criteria Self-perceived Self-perceived Frequency, time, Subjective
of talents, values attitudes, values direction of career definition of
typology and motives and needs change success

Source: N. Kim (2004). Career success orientation of Korean women bank employees, Career Development International, 9(6), p. 598.
Many organizations do not consider such activities a part of ECD (Watts, 1989). In this
regard, career systems in organizations are closely linked to human resource manage-
ment systems, or employee relations, and are integrated into those systems (Gutteridge
et al., 1993; Wils et al., 1993).
Recently, Baruch (2004) elaborated his six-dimension model of organizational career
systems, which includes involvement, sophistication & complexity, strategic orienta-
tion, developmental focus, organizational decision-making focus, and innovation.
Among these, involvement, strategic orientation, developmental focus and organiza-
tional decision-making focus relate to the idea of organizational versus individual-
focused dimensions (as found in Wils et al., 1993), as well as the direct versus indirect
intervention dimensions addressed by Watts (1989). Innovation and sophistication &
complexity seem to be more methodological concerns; this is understandable since
the model was designed to facilitate guidelines for evaluating organizational career
systems.
Given the definition and scope of organizational interventions influencing ECD,
broad types of organization-initiated policies or activities can be categorized (Figure 1).
Individual-focused activities partially or entirely allow individuals to make decisions
about their participation. Accordingly, participants can take primary advantage of the
resulting benefits. Organizational-focused activities are operated primarily for organi-
zational purposes, rather than individual benefit. Further, indirect interventions can
influence ECD, although they may not appear to be a part of ECD.
This two-dimensional taxonomy of organizational interventions influencing ECD
in Figure 1 provides a useful framework for understanding the various kinds of
organizational interventions influencing ECD that have been identified from the career
literature, including personnel allocation systems, employee appraisal systems, train-
ing/development systems, career development (CD) support systems, and compen-
sation/benefits systems (Baruch, 2004; Derr, 1986; Noe et al., 1996; Watts, 1989; Wils
et al., 1993).
Under this taxonomy, 13 types of interventions can be summarized, as presented in
Table 2. According to Table 2, succession planning, career paths, job posting/job
matching, promotion/upward mobility, downward mobility, and job rotation/lateral

Direct ECD interventions

Training/development systems

Personnel allocation systems

CD support systems

Individual- Organization
focused focused

Compensation/benefits systems Employee appraisal systems

Indirect interventions influencing ECD

Figure 1: Two-dimensional taxonomy of organizational interventions influencing ECD.

© Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005. Organizational Interventions 51

 Table 2: Organizational interventions influencing ECD

Types of interventions Description

Personnel allocation systems

Succession planning Identifying and systematically developing high potential
employees for certain key positions
Career paths Structuring sequences of jobs or positions related to specific
career goals, such as managerial or technical career tracks
Job posting/job Internal announcing of vacant job positions and matching
matching internal individuals’ preferences with the job prior to
external recruiting
Promotion/upward Advancement in position with greater pay, challenges,
mobility responsibility, and authority
Downward mobility Moving to positions with a reduced level of responsibility
and authority with an opportunity to develop skills and
meet personal needs or interests
Job rotation/lateral Systematically transferring employees laterally to another
movement function or area over the course of time, not necessarily
involving increased responsibilities or compensation
Employee appraisal systems
Assessment system Evaluating and collecting data on employees to discover
their performance and potential, feedback can be given to
employees
Training/development systems
Mentoring/coaching Assigning mentors or coaches (often supervisors or
superiors) to employees to help them develop their
careers
Training/development Providing opportunities for career information workshops
opportunities or training events that deal with career planning or
transitions, self-assessment, or other career issues, or
supporting individual efforts to learn and develop
Career development support systems
Career counselling/ Providing counselling services and guides by professionals
discussions (external or internal agency) or supervisors/managers to
meet individual needs in employees’ careers
Career information Building a system for sharing information about career
system opportunities, such as various career paths or job
vacancies, programmes and benefits offered through a
variety of media
Employee compensation/benefits systems
Individual Adopting recognition systems for individual contributions
compensation system to the organization (e.g., merit pay, individual incentives,
stock options)
Flexible benefit plans Allowing diverse, flexible options of benefits/rewards plans
(e.g., insurance or pension provisions, retirement plans,
flexible work schedule, part-time employment, child-care
benefits, maternity and paternity leave)

Note: Summarized from the literature (Baruch, 2004; Derr, 1986; Noe et al., 1996; Watts, 1989;
Wils et al., 1993).

52 International Journal of Training and Development © Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005.

movement fall into personnel allocation systems. Assessment systems belong to
employee appraisal systems. Mentoring/coaching and training/development
opportunities are examples of broad training/development systems. Counselling/
discussions and career information systems are included in career development
support systems. Individual compensation systems and flexible benefit plans can be
categorized under employee compensation/benefit systems.
It is important to note that not all organizational career-related activities have the
same appeal or provide the same benefits to all employees (Derr, 1986; Schein, 1978).
Additionally, variation must be expected in terms of employees’ acceptance of
their employers’ involvement in their career development (Portwood & Granrose,
1986; Rhebergen & Wognum, 1997). Only a few studies have examined what types of
interventions are most appropriate for specific types of employees. Derr (1986) exam-
ined contemporary CD programmes, matching each programme with certain types
of career success orientations, as presented in Table 3. This table shows that there
are different types of career development programmes appropriate for specific career
success orientations. For example, some programmes are appropriate only for Getting
ahead people.
However, empirical support for this matching was not provided. Building on this
work, Watts (1989) conducted empirical research to see if non-managerial female
workers preferred different organizational CD activities according to their types of
career success orientation; no significant differences were reported. Solid empirical

Table 3: Career development programmes and appropriate career types

CD Programme Orientation

Getting Getting Getting Getting Getting

free balanced high ahead secure

Assessment centres O
Career counselling and coaching O O
by managers
Career counselling by others O O O
Career information centres O O O O O
Career information systems O O O
Career pathing O O
Computer-aided instruction and O O
information systems
Educational and professional O O O
development benefits
Fallback-position transfers O
Flexible scheduling and benefits O O
Family-related benefits O
High-potential identification O O
programmes
Individual development plans O O O
Integrated career planning O O
Job matching O O O O O
Job posting O O O O O
Lifelong employment O
Mentor programmes O O
Succession planning O
Workshops and training events O O O

Note: Adapted from Derr’s career development programmes (1986: 255–258).

© Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005. Organizational Interventions 53

knowledge is not yet available for matching individual preferences with organiza-
tional interventions; further investigation is warranted.
Nevertheless, different observations in relevant studies imply the following
hypotheses:
H1: People who have different career success orientations will show different preferences for career develop-
ment interventions.
H2: People who have the same career success orientation will show different preferences for career development
interventions.

Career development in Korean organizations

Shifts in organizational behaviours are not culturally neutral. Although career dynam-
ics are known to reflect particular aspects of a culture (Derr & Laurent, 1989; Green-
haus et al., 2000), career literature has failed to account for career dynamics in diverse
cultures. Very few studies have explored what the term ‘career’ means in an interna-
tional context (e.g. Derr & Laurent, 1989; Hofstede, 1980; Triandis, 1989), and career-
related perceptions and strategies have almost never been researched in third world
countries (Counsell & Popova, 2000).
In terms of ECD, most Korean organizations are at a very early stage (H. Kim, 2000).
Employers have not yet felt the necessity to adopt ECD systems, and employees are
not familiar with the meaning or implications of CD. Only a very few large corpora-
tions have begun to introduce relevant interventions into their practice (H. Kim, 2000).
Consequently, examples of ECD in Korean organizations are limited (e.g. Choi, 1994;
Jung, 1991; J. S. M. Kim, 1992; K. H. Lee, 1996). Comprehensive information regarding
the status of Korean organizational career development is not yet available. Korean
literature based on several case studies (Choi, 1994; D. K. Lee, 1993; K. H. Lee, 1996)
shows that a wide range of activities, such as promotion and advancement, job rotation
and transfer, and job evaluation and performance appraisal, has been addressed. The
literature reviewed indicates that organizational ECD is still viewed as a part of the
human resource management function in Korea (H. Kim, 2000). Therefore, it is impor-
tant that this study covers the full range of interventions, from direct ECD activities
to indirect organizational interventions.

Methodology
A quantitative sample survey was designed to test research hypotheses on career
success orientations. Data were collected from a sample of 1000 employees in a Korean
wireless communications company. The sample was randomly selected from the com-
pany directory of 3003 employees, and the survey instrument was distributed and
collected through the company’s intranet system. A 33.7% response rate resulted, with
337 useable surveys returned. Table 4 shows the sample composition by demographic
characteristics.
The respondents’ ages were categorized into three groups: 20–29, 30–39, and 40 and
above. The average age was just over 33. The range was between 22 and 56. Most
respondents’ ages were between 30 and 39 (69.4%). The respondents’ average years of
work experience was 5.42, ranging between less than 1 and 13. The largest respondent
group was those who have worked for 4–6.99 years (49%). Almost half of the respon-
dents (48.1%) were assistant managers, while 22.8% were managers, 21.7% were
employees, and 7.4% were senior managers. Respondents were predominantly male
(89.6%), and 78% of the respondents were married. The two major types of job were
29.1% in marketing and 38.6% in engineering. A majority of the respondents (63.8%)
had completed 4-year college courses, and 19.3% had completed graduate school.
The instrument consisted of two parts. The first part identified individuals’ career
success orientations. A modified Derr’s (1986) ‘Career success map questionnaire’
(CSMQ) was used, since this instrument was originally developed to identify five
types of career success orientation. The questionnaire was changed from a forced-

54 International Journal of Training and Development © Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005.

 Table 4: Sample composition by demographic characteristics (n = 337)

Demographic Category Frequency %

Age (M = 33.29, sd = 5.09) 20–29 years old 60 17.8

30–39 years old 234 69.4
40 years old and above 43 12.8
Years of work experience Less than 4 years 76 22.6
(M = 5.42, sd = 2.77) 4–6.99 years* 165 49.0
7–9.99 years* 63 18.7
10 years or more 33 9.8
Employment level Employee 73 21.7
Assistant manager 162 48.1
Manager 77 22.8
Senior manager 25 7.4
Gender Male 302 89.6
Female 35 10.4
Marital status Married 263 78.0
Unmarried 74 22.0
Type of job Marketing 98 29.1
R&D 34 10.1
IT 14 4.2
Engineering 130 38.6
Ad/Mgmt 47 13.9
Internal ventures 14 4.2
Education level High school 25 7.4
2-year college 32 9.5
4-year college 215 63.8
Graduate school 65 19.3

* Months were converted to fractions of a year.

choice instrument of thirty paired statements to a Likert-type instrument, in order

to make it statistically possible to test its factor structures and reliability (given the
lack of empirical information with regard to this instrument). The second part was
developed to explore respondents’ preferred organizational interventions influencing
employee career development. Thirteen types of organizational interventions (as sum-
marized in Table 2) were used for this purpose.
The instrument was translated into Korean, and a three-round cross-translation
performed. The face validity and construct validity of the instrument were examined
in a series of three-round pilot tests and instrument revisions. Through factor analysis,
with the elimination of some items, the five dimensions originally included emerged.
Reliability, measured by Cronbach’s coefficient alpha, was between 0.56 and 0.79:
Getting high (0.78), Getting secure (0.72), Getting balanced (0.79), Getting ahead (0.59),
and Getting free (0.56). These results indicate some limitations in interpreting the data
for Getting ahead and Getting free. To analyse collected data, descriptive statistics as
well as inferential statistics, such as ANOVA or repeated measures analysis, were
conducted.

Results
Two approaches were used to test the research hypotheses. First, differences in pref-
erences between groups were examined. Second, differences in preferences within

© Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005. Organizational Interventions 55

each group were explored. The highest mean score among the five types was deemed
the dominant orientation for each individual. According to descriptive information
regarding dominant career success orientations, each individual’s career success
orientation was identified. The sample consisted of 40% Getting free, 38% Getting
balanced, 17% Getting high, 3% Getting ahead, and 2% Getting secure. Since Getting
ahead and Getting secure obtained very small percentages, those two types were
excluded from the analysis.

Hypothesis 1: Differences in preferences between groups

The Levene test of homogeneity of variances showed that several items, including
succession planning, job posting/job matching, promotion and compensation systems,
violated the assumption to conduct the ANOVAs. Those items were excluded from
further analysis. As a result, the ANOVAs were conducted with the remaining nine
items. The ANOVAs showed that the preferences for six organizational interventions
differed significantly according to respondents’ dominant career success orientation
types, as presented in Table 5.
According to post hoc comparisons using the Tukey test, most interventions were
preferred more by Getting free than Getting balanced or Getting high. There were no
significant differences in downward mobility, assessment system, or career informa-
tion system. Hypothesis 1 was partly supported.

Hypothesis 2: Differences in preferences within groups

Repeated measures analysis showed statistically significant differences in Getting free
preferences (Wilks’ Lambda = 0.396, F = 13.86) at the 0.001 level across the 13 organi-
zational interventions. According to post hoc pairwise comparisons using the Bonfer-
roni test, succession planning, career paths, job posting/job matching, promotion,
and training/development opportunities were significantly more preferred than other
interventions, while downward mobility and career information system were signifi-
cantly less preferred.
Repeated measures analysis showed statistically significant differences in Getting
balanced preferences (Wilks’ Lambda = 0.471, F = 9.63) at the 0.001 level across the 13
organizational interventions. According to post hoc pairwise comparisons using the
Bonferroni test, job posting/job matching and training/development opportunities
were significantly more preferred than other interventions, while downward mobility
and career information system were significantly less preferred.
Repeated measures analysis showed statistically significant differences in Getting
high preferences (Wilks’ Lambda = 0.423, F = 4.42) at the 0.001 level across the 13
organizational interventions. According to post hoc pairwise comparisons using the
Bonferroni test, succession planning, career paths, and promotion were significantly
more preferred than other interventions, while downward mobility was significantly
less preferred. Overall, hypothesis 2 was supported.

Discussion of findings
Different types of work, pay/benefits, promotion systems, and types of recognition
motivate individuals who have different needs (Derr, 1986; Schein, 1990). The findings
of this study mostly support this assertion. That is, Korean employees’ career success
orientations seem to impact their preferences for organizational interventions influ-
encing employee career development. Even within each specific career orientation
group, some interventions were preferred over others. The findings regarding prefer-
ences for the 13 organizational interventions influencing employee career develop-
ment are discussed in detail below.
Though the differences in preferences for succession planning among three groups
(Getting free, Getting balanced, and Getting high) could not be compared due to
violations of homogeneity of variance assumptions for ANOVA, within-group

56 International Journal of Training and Development © Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005.

 © Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005.

Table 5: Preferences for organizational interventions influencing ECD by career success orientation

Organizational interventions Getting free Getting balanced Getting high Between

influencing ECD (n = 121) (n = 115) (n = 51) group
comparison
Mean sd Mean sd Mean sd

1. Succession planning 5.65 1.06 5.21 1.07 5.24 0.79 –

2. Career paths 5.58 0.96 5.25 1.02 5.29 0.81 F = 3.76*
3. Job posting/job matching 5.43 1.03 5.31 0.93 5.10 0.83 –
4. Promotion 5.62 0.90 5.29 1.01 5.22 0.73 –
5. Downward mobility 3.98 1.49 4.24 1.35 4.04 1.30 F = 1.07
6. Job rotation 5.07 1.09 4.93 1.18 4.43 1.17 F = 5.66**
7. Assessment system 5.25 0.97 4.98 0.95 4.90 0.90 F = 3.38*
8. Mentoring/coaching 5.27 1.03 4.95 1.06 4.73 1.02 F = 5.80**
9. Training/development 5.55 0.95 5.31 1.05 5.06 0.90 F = 4.84**
Organizational Interventions 57

10. Career counselling 5.38 0.96 5.00 1.07 4.76 0.89 F = 8.27**
11. Career information system 5.05 1.06 4.89 1.08 4.73 0.85 F = 1.89
12. Compensation system 5.40 1.05 5.09 1.05 5.00 0.75 –
13. Flexible benefit plans 5.50 1.04 5.31 1.05 5.06 0.93 F = 3.51*
Within group comparison Wilk’s Wilk’s Wilk’s *p < 0.05
Lambda = 0.396 Lambda = 0.471 Lambda = 0.423 **p < 0.01
F = 13.86*** F = 9.63*** F = 4.42*** ***p < 0.001
comparison indicated that both Getting free and Getting high groups significantly
preferred this intervention over other options, such as job rotation, assessment system,
mentoring/coaching or career information system. Derr’s (1986) assertion that succes-
sion planning would be appropriate only for the Getting ahead orientation was not
confirmed; this intervention seems to be favourably accepted by both Getting free and
Getting high orientations. It was ranked first by Getting free, and second by Getting
high in rank orders.
Career paths were preferred significantly more by the Getting free than the Getting
balanced group. Since career paths provide individuals with the opportunity to follow
their own career goals, it is understandable that people who want freedom would be
in favour of this intervention, while the Getting balanced orientation maintains a
need for flexibility (Derr, 1986; Schein, 1978). Interestingly, there was no significant
difference in preferences for career paths between Getting high and Getting balanced.
However, Getting high preferred career paths over the other intervention options. Derr
(1986) suggested that career paths would be appropriate for Getting free and Getting
high; this was partially confirmed by the study.
Group differences in job posting/job matching and promotions could not be
explored due to violations of the assumptions for ANOVA. However, Getting free
and Getting balanced, respectively, significantly preferred job posting/job matching
over job rotation. It is assumed that the Getting free orientation seeks a position
with more autonomy, while Getting balanced seeks a position that accommodates
personal values in family and relationships through announced open job opportuni-
ties (Derr, 1986). Getting free and Getting high significantly preferred promotion
over job rotation, assessment system, mentoring/coaching, career counselling, and
career information system. It seems that the Getting free and Getting high orienta-
tions desire some level of status that allows them to make decisions based on per-
sonal interests.
There was no significant difference in preferences for downward mobility, assess-
ment system, and career information system among the groups. However, downward
mobility was consistently the least preferred intervention among the 13 options.
Although people tend to pursue what they want, they naturally do not want to give
up their current levels of income and responsibility. Derr (1986) claimed that career
information system may be appropriate for Getting free and Getting high, but no
difference was found between the groups studied. Moreover, this intervention was not
particularly preferred within any of the groups. Getting free ranked it 12th, Getting
balanced ranked it 10th, and Getting free ranked it 9th in rank order. Considering that
the concept and necessity of career development are still relatively new in Korea (H.
Kim, 2000), respondents may not be familiar with such ideas or aware of some systems’
potential benefits for individual career goals, which may be manifested in low prefer-
ence results.
Job rotation was significantly less preferred by the Getting high orientation than by
Getting free or Getting balanced. Since it is very important for Getting high individuals
to keep jobs which they can truly enjoy (Derr, 1986), these people are likely to be
reluctant to move to a new function or area.
Mentoring/coaching and career counselling were preferred significantly more by
Getting free than by Getting high or Getting balanced. Although Derr (1986) assumed
that career counselling and mentoring programmes would be appropriate for Getting
balanced, this was not confirmed in this study. These interventions did not seem to be
attractive to the Getting balanced group; they are in the middle rank. It seems that
Getting free individuals may maintain positive attitudes toward sharing career issues,
and want to be guided by someone who can help them. Getting balanced individuals
may not have specific career aspirations that can be shared with others at work, since
they view careers in relation to other dimensions of their lives.
Training/development opportunities and flexible benefit plans were preferred sig-
nificantly more by Getting free than by Getting high. Although Derr (1986) and Watts
(1989) viewed training/development as appropriate for all three (Getting free, Getting
high, and Getting balanced) groups, our study showed that Getting free particularly

58 International Journal of Training and Development © Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005.

preferred this intervention. Getting balanced, as a group, preferred training/
development opportunities over assessment system, mentoring/coaching, and career
counselling. This result supports the characteristics of the Getting balanced orienta-
tion, which pursues self-development in order to remain competent at work (Derr,
1986). According to descriptive statistics, flexible benefit plans were also one of the
most preferred interventions by Getting balanced, consistent with the arguments
of S. Y. Kim (1995), Igbaria et al. (1991), and McGovern & Hart (1992).
Individual compensation system could not be compared between the groups. A
comparison of preferences for this option within groups showed that respondents
significantly preferred compensation system only over downward mobility and career
information system. The lower popularity of this option in all groups may be due to
characteristics of Korean society and organizations (Bae & Chung, 1997). Although
Korean society has been changing, teamwork and family spirit are still deeply rooted
in its culture (Koch et al., 1995), which may have led respondents to be reluctant to
place value on this option.

Limitations of the study

This study was limited to one large Korean company; it may be difficult to general-
ize the findings of this study to other organizations in different cultures. Second,
there may be limitations to the instrument, since it was originally developed in the
context of western cultures. The instrument may contain culturally sensitive items
that were not detected in the researcher’s efforts to validate the instrument, conduct
pilot tests, and obtain feedback. Finally, at least two of the scales had lower-than-
desired reliability.

Implications of the study

There were some theoretical efforts to link individual career orientations with prefer-
ences for career development interventions, though empirical evidence is lacking. The
findings of this study can contribute to the validation of theoretical discussions on the
association of individuals and organizational career development interventions. From
a practical perspective, at the organizational level, the findings of this study imply that
organizations may want to design their career mobility systems or performance incen-
tive systems in accordance with employees’ career orientations. At the individual level,
the study points out workers’ responsibility to know their personal needs, biases and
motives. Knowledge of one’s own values and beliefs can serve as a basis for future
career decisions, and for the development of appropriate career strategies (Aryee et al.,
1994).

Recommendations for further research

Organizational perspectives on the career orientations of employees deserve examina-
tion. Determining which types of career orientation are preferred by organizations
may lead to a new research question. This would necessitate the expansion of the data
source to a broad set of organizations with different social backgrounds. Patterns of
orientation in relation to preferred career development interventions may also be
affected by organizational characteristics and cultures.

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