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CHAPTER 14
TOWING

14.1 INTRODUCTION 2
General Overview 2
References 2
14.2 DATA ENTRY 3
Saving and Retrieving Data Files 3
General Information 3
Towing Data Entry 3
Towed Vessel Type, Wind & Sea State Conditions, Towing Speeds 4
Self-Propelled Commercial Ships 5
Barges 7
Towing Vessel (Tug) Data 8
Towline Data 9
Voyage Data 10
Station Keeping Data for Large Tankers 10
14.3 TOW SPEED, TOW RESISTANCE, AND MEAN HAUSER TENSION 12
Purpose of the Calculations 12
Displaying Towing Resistances 13
Self-Propelled Commercial Ships 13
Barges 14
Towline Resistance 14
Mean Hawser Tension 15
Plotting Tug Pull and Towing Resistance Versus Speed 15
Display Voyage Summary 16
Station Keeping Calculations for Large Tankers 16
Wind Model Tests 17
Current Model Tests 18

page 14-1
Chapter 14 Towing

14.1 INTRODUCTION
General Overview
The TOWING program is a computerized system for planning and evaluating different towing
scenarios. It permits the user to estimate the towing resistance for specified weather and seastate
conditions and a range of speeds. Available tug pull, as a function of speed, is estimated from
some basic tug parameters. The actual towing speed and tow resistance is then determined from
the intersection of the two curves. The resulting towing resistance is used to calculate a mean
hawser tension which may be compared with the permissible wire hawser tension or chain bridle
tension.

The extreme hawser tension may also be estimated for Navy tugs for which detailed motions
analyses have been made for three widely ranging tows. The results of the motion analyses of the
tug, towline, and towed vessel have been reduced to a series of curves which are a function of the
mean tension, the tug and tow characteristics, speed and hawser length.

Wind and current forces on large stationary tankers may be calculated for different velocities and
directions. The required tug BHP is also estimated.

The tug, towline and vessel data may be saved to a disk for future analyses and reevaluations.

References
Many of the assumptions and calculation procedures and much of the data utilized in developing
the TOWING program are derived from the references noted below. Throughout this manual, the
user will be directed to these publications for a more in depth discussion of the details.

1. SL740-AA-MAN-010, "U.S. Navy Towing Manual", Rev. 1, September 1988:

Chapter 6 - Towing System Design
Appendix G - Calculation Procedure for Tow Resistance Determination
Appendix M - Tug Capabilities
Appendix O - Estimation of Dynamic Towline Tensions.
2. U.S. Navy Salvage Engineer's Handbook, Volume 1, Salvage Engineering. Bartholomew,
Marsh & Hooper
3. "A Statistical Power Prediction Method" by J. Holtrop and G.G.J. Mennen, International
Shipbuilding Progress, Vol. 25, October 1978.
4. "Computer-Aided Decision Making for Ocean Towing", Todd J. Peltzer, MIT M.S. Thesis,
June 1989.
5. "Principles of Naval Architecture", Published by the Society of Naval Architects and
Marine Engineers.
6. "Prediction of Wind and Current Loads on VLCC's ", Published by the Oil Companies
International Forum, 1977.
14.2 DATA ENTRY
Saving and Retrieving Data Files
After analyzing a towing scenario, you may save the data which has been entered so that it can be
modified or reviewed at some later date with minimal time and effort. Selections for saving and
retrieving files are accessed under

in the TOWING program main menu.

Data files include general information, wind and weather conditions, towing speeds, towed vessel
characteristics, and towing vessel data. Each file name is automatically given the extension
.TOW.

General Information
General information for a .TOW file may be entered under the main menu item,

. Two
submenu options are available:


 
 
- Descriptive information can be entered here to identify the .TOW file. The
information also appears on the page headings of printed reports. Entered By, Date, and Revision
No. are useful for keeping track of multiple data files and revisions. Note that the date can be
automatically updated.

   
- Refer to Chapter 2 for information on what may be entered on this screen.

Towing Data Entry

The options under



allow you to enter information regarding the conditions of the
tow, the towed vessel, the tug, the towline, the voyage, and /or any station keeping data pertinent
to the calculation of wind and current forces on large tankers in sheltered or navigable waterways.
The



submenu is shown in Figure 14-1.

Figure 14-1

page 14-3
Chapter 14 Towing

The



menu items are described in the paragraphs to follow.

Towed Vessel Type, Wind & Sea State Conditions, Towing Speeds
Selecting




  
 

   
brings up the entry
screen shown in Figure 14-2.

Figure 14-2

Type of Vessel to Be Towed. Enter a number (1 through 4) to identify the type of vessel to be
towed, i.e. tanker, general cargo, container ship, or barge.

Note: Changing the vessel type affects which menu options are available for entering towed vessel
data.

The next six data entry fields describe the wind and sea state conditions:

Beaufort Number. This is a number from 0 to 12 used by mariners to describe the condition of
the sea. 0 represents calm conditions; 12 represents hurricane conditions. Each Beaufort number
is associated with a range of wind speeds and wave heights assuming a fully arisen sea in the open
ocean, away from land. Fully arisen simply means that the wind has been blowing for sufficient
duration to permit the seas to develop. The higher the Beaufort number, the longer the required
duration. For example for Beaufort 6, the minmum duration is 12 to 17 hours and for Beaufort 8,
the minimum duration is 30 to 42 hours. The minimum duration for the entire Beaufort scale is
given in Table G-3 of Reference 1. A table of Beaufort numbers versus significant wave height,
average wave height, and wind speed is presented on the far right hand portion of the screen.
After a Beaufort number is selected, this table is automatically updated. Two values of Beaufort
number, above and below the selected value are given so that the user may see the difference
between values. By pressing the [F3] function key, values of typical wave height and wind speed
associated with the selected Beaufort number will automatically be entered into the appropriate
data fields.

Typical Wave Height. This wave height is used to estimate the added resistance associated with
seastate conditions. Default values for the typical wave height are estimated as follows:
 Beaufort Number Typical Wave Height
1-5 Significant wave height
6 (Sign. wave hgt + Avg. wave hgt) / 2
7 - 12 Average wave height

Significant Wave Height. This is the average wave height, peak to trough, of the one third
highest wave heights measured for steady wind and sea conditions.

Average Wave Height. This is the average wave height, peak to trough, of all the wave heights
measured for steady wind and sea conditions.

True Wind Speed. This is the absolute wind speed measured at a standard height of 10 meters
above the surface or ground.

Wave Direction off the Bow. Direction of the waves relative to the direction of the tow,
measured in degrees off the bow ( 0
= bow seas; 90
= beam seas; 180
= stern seas). For
severe sea conditions, the tug will typically head into the prevailing weather.

Wind Direction off the Bow. Direction of the wind relative to the direction of the tow, measured
in degrees off the bow.

Speed #1 thru Speed #5. The last five fields of the data entry screen are for entering the assumed
towing speeds (in knots) for which the resistance will be calculated. They should be entered in
ascending (increasing) order and should bracket the anticipated speed. If they are not entered in
ascending order when the user exits this screen, the program will issue a warning message and
will automatically re-order the speeds.

Self-Propelled Commercial Ships

Figure 14-3 shows the tow data entry screen for commercial ships. This screen is accessed by
selecting




    
 
.

Figure 14-3

page 14-5
Chapter 14 Towing

Default values for items on this screen can be calculated by pressing [F3], but only when the
initial value is zero and only when the required data items indicated with an asterisk have been
entered.

Many of the entry items on this screen are self-explanatory. Those items that warrant some
explanation or notes are listed below.

Length on Waterline. Default value = 1.02 x LBP

Trim Between Perpendiculars. Trim aft is positive; trim forward is negative.

Displacement. Displacement at the mean draft.

Block Coefficient. Block coefficient associated with the above displacement.

Midship Coefficient. Midship section area divided by the beam, molded and by the draft.

Waterplane Coefficient. Waterplane area divided by the LBP and by the beam.

Bare Hull Wetted Surface Area. The total hull surface area below the waterline. The default
value is calculated based on the formula provided in Reference 3.

Rudder, Wetted Surface Area. The default area = 0.05 * LBP * Draft.

LCB. Longitudinal Center of Buoyancy. Longitudinal distance from amidship to the center of
buoyancy. Positive values are forward of midship.

Bulb Section Area / Midship Section Area. This is the transverse section area of the bow bulb
at the forward perpendicular divided by the midship section area.

Height of Bow Bulb Area. The vertical distance from baseline to the center of the cross section
area of the bow bulb.

1/2 Bow Entrance Angle. One half of the angle formed by the bow shell in a horizontal plane, at
the specified mean draft.

Projected Area of One Propeller. The projected area of the propeller in the transverse plane.

Propeller Condition. Enter the number 1, 2, or 3: 1 = propeller removed; 2 = the propeller is

free to spin; 3 = the propeller is fixed.
Barges
The data input for barges is accessed by selecting






and is based on the
resistance calculation procedure given in Appendix G of Reference 1. The data required is listed
below with pertinent footnotes and comments.

Barge Name

Principal Dimensions:
Length (L), Beam (B), Draft (T), and Depth (D)

Displacement. Displacement at the above draft. If the length, beam and draft have been entered,
a new block coefficient will be calculated after entering a new displacement.

Deckhouse/Cargo Breadth, b. Average breadth of the deckhouse or deck cargo, used to calculate
the transverse windage area above the main deck.

Deckhouse/Cargo height, h. Average height of the deckhouse or deck cargo, used to calculate
the transverse windage area above the main deck.

Midship Section Coefficient, Cm. This coefficient is equal to the midship section area divided
by the beam and the draft. A default value of 0.95 is assumed.

Block Coefficient. Block coefficient associated with the above displacement and draft. If the
length, beam and draft have been entered, a new displacement will be calculated after entering a
block coefficient.

Bare Hull Wetted Surface Area. The total hull surface area below the waterline. The default
value is calculated from the formula: (B*L) + 2*T*(L + B).

Fouling Rating. Numerical evaluation of the hull fouling: 0 = clean hull; 100 = severe fouling.
The default value is 57.14 (equivalent to a friction coefficient, f1 = 0.65 -- Reference 1, App. G).

Maximum Transverse Section Area Below the Waterline. The default value is calculated from
the formula: [Cm*B*T]

Bow Shape. Number from 1 to 3 which is equated to a specific type of bow and therefore also to
a coefficient of wave-forming resistance.

1 = Blunt / square ended bow (f2 = 0.5)

2 = Rake ended bow (f2 = 0.2)
3 = Spoon or ship-like bow (f2 = 0.2)

Cross Section Area Above the Waterline. The default value is calculated from the formula:
[B*(D-T) + b*h].

Wind Resistance Coefficient, f3. Range is from 0.6 to 0.7. The default value is 0.6.

page 14-7
Chapter 14 Towing

Towing Vessel (Tug) Data

The towing vessel data may be entered by selecting




    


, which
brings up the screen shown in Figure 14-5.

Figure 14-5

Items can be entered manually, or, if the tug brake horsepower is entered, default values are
developed and displayed in a window in the upper right hand corner of the screen. The data may
be updated with these default values by pressing the [F10] key. The data fields are listed below
with pertinent comments or explanations.

Tug Class or Name

Brake Horsepower

Maximum Tug Pull. This is the maximum bollard pull.

Maximum Tug Speed

Tug Pull versus Speed Curve Coefficient, B. The curve approximates the relationship between
available tug pull and tug speed based on percentages of the maximum values:

% of Max Pull = 1 - (% of Max Speed) B.

The coefficient, B, determines the concavity of the curve. The lower the number, the flatter the
curve and conversely the higher the number the more concave the curve is. Values for B may
range from 1.4 to 1.9, but more typically between 1.45 and 1.6. The default value is 1.5. The
flatter the curve, the more conservative the estimate of actual towing speed.

Wire Hawser Diameter

Maximum Hawser Scope. This is the maximum length of the wire hawser.
Propeller. The type of propulsion system affects the default, estimated bollard pull, presented in
the box in the upper right hand portion of the screen. Enter a number from 1 to 4.

1 = fixed pitch propeller(s)

2 = controllable pitch propeller(s)
3 = shrouded fixed pitch propeller(s)
4 = shrouded controllable pitch propeller(s)

Tug Towing Method. The 'towing method' refers to the connection of the wire hawser at the tug.
Different connections or procedures warrant different factors of safety. The methods and default
factors of safety are derived from Chapter 6 of Reference 1 and are based upon good towing
practice.

Tug Towing Method: Wire SF Chain SF

1 = auto-tension 3.0 4.0
2 = on the brake 5.0 6.0
3 = on the pawl or hook 7.0 8.0
4 = on the hook with a chain pendant 4.0 6.0
5 = on the hook with a synthetic spring line 4.0 5.0
SF = Safety Factor

These default safety factors may be updated when entering the towing line data.

Towline Data
Selecting




   


enables the user to enter following information about
the towing wire hawser and the chain pendant:

Wire Scope. The length of the wire hawser which has been payed out. The minimum is 1000 feet
(304.8 m) due to the extreme tension calculation database; the maximum is the maximum hawser
scope entered with the tug data. The default value is 1200 feet (365.8 m).

Wire Diameter. The default value is the wire hawser diameter which was entered previously
with the towing vessel information. Minimum value is 0.75" (19mm); maximum permissible value
is the maximum wire hawser diameter or 4.0" (101.6mm), whichever is less.

Wire Minimum Breaking Strength. A default value is automatically calculated based on the
following approximate equation: MBS (pounds) = 8000 *
2 * (Diameter)2.

Wire Factor of Safety on MBS. The default factor of safety is determined from the tug towing
method, but may be modified here to suit the operators experience and conditions.

Wire Weight per Unit Length. A default value for the unit weight is automatically calculated
from Table 7.2 of Reference 2 based on IWRC (internal wire rope core) weights. The value can
be changed manually after entering the wire diameter.

page 14-9
Chapter 14 Towing

Length of Chain Pendant. The default length is 90 feet (27.43 M).

Chain Size / Diameter. The default value is a function of the tug BHP. Minimum value is 0.75"
(19mm); maximum permissible value is 4.0" (101.6mm).

Chain Minimum Breaking Strength. A default value is automatically calculated based on the
values from Table 7-14 for ABS Grade 3 commercial stud link chain (3/4" thru 1 7/8" dia.) and
from Table 7-15 for Navy Di-Lok chain (2" thru 4 3/4" dia) from Reference 2. The values in
these tables give the lowest MBS for that nominal chain size (when comparing Tables 7-13, Grade
3 of 7-14 , 7-15 and 7-16).

Chain Factor of Safety on MBS. The default factor of safety is determined from the tug towing
method, but may be modified here to suit the operators experience and conditions.

Chain Weight per Unit Length. A default value for the unit weight is automatically calculated
from values from Tables 7.14 and 7-15 of Reference 2. The value can be changed manually after
entering the chain size.

Voyage Data
Selecting the




 
 

 
    

option enables you to
enter information about the tow voyage: the departure port/location, the arrival port/destination,
the voyage distance, the departure date, and the departure time.

Station Keeping Data For Large Tankers

This data entry screen accessed when selecting





   

 

 

enables you to enter the information required for estimating wind and current

forces on a stationary tanker in protected waters. In order to access this screen, the vessel type
must be a tanker and a few basic hull parameters (LBP, beam and depth) must be entered first.

Vessel Mean Draft. The default value is the previously entered mean draft for estimating towing
resistances.

Vessel Transverse Section Area above WL. This is the transverse windage area above the mean
waterline.

Vessel Longitudinal Section Area above WL. This is the longitudinal windage area above the
mean waterline.

Operating Condition. The wind force coefficients were derived from model tests conducted at
ballast and full load draft operating conditions. For this study, full load was defined as a
condition for which the length overall to freeboard ratio was on the order of 50 to 60. A ballast
condition was defined by a ratio of the midships ballast freeboard to the full load freeboard of
roughly 3.1.

Tanker Bow Type. 1 = Conventional Vee type bow; 2 = Cylindrical type bow.

Approximate Water Depth to Draft Ratio. Select one of six alternative water depth to draft
ratios: 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 3.0, or 6.0.
Tug Propulsion System. 1 = FP (fixed pitch propeller); 2 = CP (controllable pitch propeller);
3 = Shrouded fixed pitch propeller; 4 = Shrouded controllable pitch propeller. The type of
propulsion system is used to estimate the required tug BNP from the resultant forces.

Beaufort Number. After selecting a Beaufort number, the associated wind speed is presented in
a table on the right hand side of the screen.

True Wind Speed. This is the absolute wind speed measured at a standard height of 10 meters
above the surface or ground. Pressing the F3 key will select the wind speed associated with the
specified beaufort number presented in the table on the right hand side of the screen.

Wind Direction off the Bow. Direction of the wind relative to the position of the tanker,
measured in degrees off the bow.

Current Speed. This is the current speed in knots.

Current Direction. Direction of the current relative to the ship, measured in degrees off the bow.

page 14-11
Chapter 14 Towing

14.3 TOW SPEED, TOW RESISTANCE, AND MEAN

HAUSER TENSION
Purpose of the Calculations
Having entered data about the towed vessel, the tug, and the conditions of the tow, the goal of the
next part of the program is to calculate the mean or steady state towing condition. Specific
functions, in particular, are to

estimate the maximum available tow speed and corresponding horizontal towing
resistance,

estimate the mean hawser tension, and

compare the mean hawser tension with the minimum breaking strength (MBS) of the
wire hawser and the chain towing pendant and evaluate the resultant factors of safety.

The steps in the calculation procedure may be outlined as follows:

1. Calculate the horizontal towing resistances for the towed vessel at the selected speeds.

2 With the horizontal towing resistance and the towline data, estimate the towline resistance
and the required tug BHP for each of the selected tow speeds.

3. Determine the speed for which the horizontal towing resistance equals the available tug pull
(intersection of the two curves). This is the maximum available tow speed.

4. Estimate the vertical load (weight) on the wire towing hawser. Combine the vertical load
with the horizontal resistance and determine the mean hawser tension at the tug based on the
estimated geometry of the towline.

5. Compare the mean hawser tension with the permissible loads in the wire hawser and the
chain bridle based on the assumed factors of safety and minimum breaking strengths.

6. Estimate the transit time based on the estimated speed.

To begin the calculation process, select the main menu item


. Four submenu
options will be displayed. The second item,
       
  
,
will be displayed in red. This option may not be selected until the results of the first submenu
option,

   

, have been calculated. Similarly, the third menu item,


  
 

, will be displayed in red (unavailable for selection), until the

average voyage speed is determined in the second submenu option.

The fourth submenu option is an adjunct problem. It involves an estimate of the resultant wind
and current forces acting on the bow and stern of a large tanker in protected waters and an
estimate of the associated required tug BHP. The resistances are calculated from coefficients
derived from model test results presented Reference 6.
Displaying Towing Resistances
After selecting




   

, the program checks to see
that all of the required data has been entered. If not, an error message is displayed indicating that
there is insufficient data. Press the [Esc] key and return to the data entry screens to verify the
data entered previously and to check for completeness.

If all of the necessary data has been entered, the program automatically calculates the vessel
towing resistances, the horizontal towline resistance, the towline vertical load, and the mean
hawser tension for the five towing speeds which were entered previously. The results are
presented in a table for the user to review and to compare with the maximum tug pull and
maximum tug speed. Check to see that the values are close and that the resistance curve and
available tug pull curves should cross.

The resistance calculations are discussed briefly below for each of the vessel types. References
are cited for detailed discussion of the procedures and differences are noted where appropriate.

Self-Propelled Commercial Ships

The following horizontal towing resistances are calculated:

Calm Water Hull Resistance - This component of resistance includes the viscous
resistance (flat plate resistance, form resistance and viscous drag of appendages) as well as
the wave-making and wave-breaking resistances. At typical towing speeds the viscous
resistance component overshadows the wave making resistance. The calculations are
based upon the empirical formulae presented in Reference 3 which were developed from a
statistical analysis of model test and sea trial test results.

Wind Resistance - The 'ahead' wind resistance is estimated using the following formula :

Rwind = K cos  air AT (VR)2

K cos  = Wind resistance coefficient, based on model test results, as a

function of the relative wind direction off the bow, . Coefficient values vary with
ship type. The following average values were assumed:
•• K cos 
0
0.6
30
0.75
90
0.0
105
0.0
150
-0.7
180
-0.5
Values at other angles are determined by linear interpolation.
air•= Density of air (0.00238 lb sec 2 / ft 4)
AT = Transverse section area above the waterline (ft2)

page 14-13
Chapter 14 Towing

VR = Relative wind velocity (knots) - combined vector of the actual wind speed
and tow speed
A discussion of the background and model test results from which this formula was
derived may be found on pages 314 and 315 of Reference 5.

Propeller Resistance - The propeller resistance is estimated using the same calculation
procedure presented in Appendix G of Reference 1 for Naval ships.

Seastate Resistance - The added resistance due to waves is estimated in the same manner
as described in Appendix G of Reference 1. A generic curve, which is a function of the
vessel displacement, was developed from the three added resistance curves presented in
Figure G-2. Great liberty was taken in developing this curve, and as such, should be
considered as a very rough estimate. Typical (average) wave height is used per the
recommendation noted in Table G-3.

Barges
The calm water hull resistance, wind resistance, and seastate resistance for barges are calculated
in accordance with the procedure in Appendix G of Reference 1 (U.S. Navy Towing Manual).

The fouling condition is an index of the hull condition ranging from 0 to 100; 0 representing a
clean hull and a friction coefficient of 0.45 and 100 representing a severely fouled hull and a
friction coefficient of 0.8

Towline Resistance
After calculating the individual resistance components for the towed vessel and summing them to
get a total vessel horizontal resistance, this value is used to estimate the towing hawser resistance.
The towline resistance has been calculated in the same manner for all vessels - using the
procedure described in section 3.2 of Reference 4. This procedure assumes that the effects of
hawser drag on its geometry may be ignored for most open ocean towing since the depth or
catenary of the towing line is small in comparison to the total horizontal span.

The towline resistance is estimated using equation (3.2) from Reference 4:

(
RW = SW d V2 T 0 / P ){ CDN [(sin4  / cos  ) ]
+ cos  (sin2  + 2) - 2 +  CDT sin  }
SW = density of salt water
d = wire hawser diameter
V = tow speed
T0 = horizontal component of the cable tension
P = weight of the cable in sea water per unit length
s = one half of the total length (scope) of the hawser
 = tan-1 ( P s / T 0 )
CDN  1.4 (normal drag coefficient, assumed approximate value)
 CDT  0.015 (tangential drag coefficient, assumed approximate value)

As shown in the equation, the towline resistance is a function of the total horizontal tension and
the actual calculation process is an iterative one.

Mean Hawser Tension

Adding the towline resistance to the vessel resistance gives the total horizontal resistance. The
mean hawser tension at each of the selected towing speeds is simply the resultant load of the total
horizontal resistance and the vertical load which is assumed to be one half the weight of the
towing hawser.

Plotting Tug Pull and Towing Resistance Versus Speed

Select



       
  
to view a
display of the tug available pull and the estimated total horizontal resistance for each of the
selected speeds. A sample plot is shown in Figure 14-7.

Figure 14-7

The intersection of the two curves is calculated by the program. This point represents the
maximum available tow speed and the corresponding horizontal resistance. Values are displayed
on the screen to the left of the plot. The horizontal resistance is combined with the vertical
hawser load (half the weight of the towline) to give the mean hawser tension. The mean hawser
tension represents the estimated steady state hawser load without consideration for any of the
dynamic motions and effects of the tug, hawser, or towed vessel. In turn, the mean hawser tension
is compared with the permissible tension (minimum breaking strength times the assumed factor of
safety) for the wire hawser and the chain pendant. If either permissible load is exceeded, the
program prints a warning message at the bottom of the screen.

page 14-15
Chapter 14 Towing

If the tug available pull curve and the horizontal resistance curve do not intersect, the program
displays a warning message on the screen. After pressing the [Esc] key, the program plots the two
curves, however, zero values are given for the maximum available tow speed, the resistance and
the mean hawser tension. If this occurs, go back to the data entry submenu and either change the
selected speeds or select another tug class with different pulling capability.

Display Voyage Summary

Selecting




  
 

presents a summary of the voyage:
distance, estimated average speed, departure information, destination and estimated transit time.

Station Keeping Calculations for Large Tankers

The




   

    
 

option
enables the user to estimate wind and current forces acting on a large tank ship in protected waters
from any angle. The calculation procedure and force/moment coefficients are derived from
Reference 6. This document should be reviewed for a detailed description of the procedure and a
description of the model test results used to determine the coefficients. A brief discussion of the
model tests summarizing the key points is included here.

The wind forces are calculated from the following equations:

2
Longitudinal Wind Force Fxw = Cxw (w / 7600 ) Vw AT
2
Lateral Wind Force Fyw = Cyw (w / 7600 ) Vw AL
2
Wind Yaw Moment M xyw = Cxyw (w / 7600 ) Vw AL LBP

where:
2 4
w = the density of air in metric units ( 0.1248 Kg-sec / m )
Vw = the wind velocity in knots
2
AT = the total transverse projected windage area above the mean waterline ( m )
2
AL = the total longitudinal projected windage area above the mean waterline ( m )
LBP = the length between perpendiculars ( m )
Cxw , Cyw , Cxyw are the wind force and moment coefficients

The current forces are calculated using the following equations:

2
Longitudinal Current Force Fxc = Cxc (c / 7600 ) Vc T LBP
2
Lateral Current Force Fyc = Cyc (c / 7600 ) Vc T LBP
2 2
Current Yaw Moment Mxyc = Cxyc (c / 7600 ) Vc T LBP
where:
2 4
c = the density of sea water in metric units ( 104.6 Kg-sec / m )
Vc = the current velocity in knots
 T = the mean draft ( m )
Cxc , Cyc , Cxyc are the current force and moment coefficients

After calculating the wind and current forces and moments, the results are combined and
presented as the total longitudinal force, lateral force and yaw moment. In turn the total forces
and moments are combined to determine the resultant load vectors at the forward and aft
perpendiculars. All of the longitudinal load is assumed to be resisted at the FP. The resultant
loads are equated to tug BHP's based on the assumed type of tug propulsion system.

Wind Model Tests

Wind load tests were conducted on models of a 155, 280, 400 and 500 kDWT tanker in the wind
tunnel at the University of Michigan in 1975. Each model was constructed in two sections to
represent full load and ballast vessel conditions. Hull and superstructure configurations were
typical for VLCC's - all ships had aft houses.

Forces and momments were measured in the horizontal plane at 5 degree increments from 0
degrees, bow on, to 360 degrees. Since the models were symmetric about centerline, port and
starboard values were averaged.

Good aggreement of the wind tunnel test data was obtained for the four vessels modeled. The
total variation about the mean curves generated was within plus or minus 10% of the maximum
value for each of the force and moment coefficients.

The coefficients and procedures should be valid for estimating the wind forces and moments on
large tankers which are geometrically similar. Typical ranges for the significant geometric
relationships for the vessels studied in the model test program are
Ratio of LOA / B : 5 to 7
Ratio of AHL / AL : 0.760 to 0.854 (full load )
0.890 to 0.935 (ballast )
2
Ratio of 2 AL / LOA : 0.050 to 0.065 (full load )
0.120 to 0.140 (ballast )
Ratio of AHT / AT : 0.365 to 0.440 (full load )
0.470 to 0.520 (full load - vessels with a forecastle deck)
0.630 to 0.680 (ballast )
0.670 to 0.710 (ballast - vessels with a forecastle deck)

where:
AHL = the longitudinal projected hull area
AHT = the transverse projected hull area
The full load condition for these tests is represented by a ratio of vessel length overall to
freeboard of roughly 50 to 60. The ballast condition is defined by a ratio of the ballast freeboard
at midhips to full load freeboard of 3.1.

page 14-17
Chapter 14 Towing

Differences in the shape of the bow of the tanker will alter the flow field in the region of the bow
and can produce a very significant change in the longitudinal force coefficient of a ballasted ship.
Due to the magnitude of the variations, separate curves were developed for 'conventional' and
'cylindrical' bows. Less severe variations were observed in the lateral force coefficient curves
and no distinction was made for bow shape.

Current Model Tests

Current coefficients were developed from model tests of a 190, 270, and 540 kDWT tanker
conducted at the Netherlands Ship Model Basin (NSMB) in 1968, 1974 and 1975. The tests were
run for loaded and ballasted tanker models for water depth to draft ratios ranging from 1.05 to 4.5.
The current angle of attack was varied from 0 to 180 degrees at irregular intervals. Different
current speeds were investigated in the three test programs. The effect of bow shape and bilge
keels were also investigated. The drag and lift forces and point of application of these forces on
the tanker were measured in the horizontal plane.

The deep water current coefficients (WD/T >= 6) were developed from the data in the Design
Manual of the United States Navy.

Generally, good agreement of the test data was achieved among the three independent test
programs. The test results for one test series with low Reynolds numbers exhibited vortex
shedding for small water depth to draft ratios and quartering to beam-on currents. It was noted
that this phenomenon was significantly less at higher Reynolds numbers. It was therfore assumed
that for a prototype for which the Reynolds number would be two orders of magnitude higher that
there would be little or no alternating vortex shedding. The data from this one test was adjusted
accordingly.

The majority of the current tests were conducted for full load conditions, but the results are
believed to be equally valid for all load conditions at each water depth to draft ratio.

The coefficients and forces should provide a good estimate of the current forces on
geomentrically similar hulls. For reference sake, the typical range of geometric ratios for the
models tested were:
Ratio of LBP / B : 6.3 to 6.5
Ratio of B / T : 2.2 to 2.6

The shape of the bow has a significant impact on the longitudinal current force for WD/T ratios up
to 1.5.