Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Subject PSYCHOLOGY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Learning Outcomes
2. Introduction
3. Anxiety
6. Summary
1. Learning Outcomes
After studying this module, you shall be able to
2. Introduction
Freud based on his clinical observations and in depth studies was convinced that intra-psychic
events played an important role in motivating behavior. The psychoanalytic approach to
personality assumes that a dynamic interplay of inner forces often conflict with each other and
shape the personality of the individual. There is a focus on the unconscious determinants of
behavior. Freud believed that every human action has a cause and is purposeful. His theories
regarding the levels of consciousness, the structure of personality, the ego defense mechanisms
and the psychosexual stages are very much important in the discussion of personality; how the
inner forces, instinctual drives and the childhood development all have an impact on the
personality of a person and its development.
3. Anxiety
Freud gives emphasis on interplay of tensions between various components of personality,
between competing drives, tensions from sources of suffering etc which lead to anxiety.
According to him, anxiety is “a felt, affective, unpleasant state accompanied by a physical
sensation that warns the person against impending danger”. The unpleasantness is often vague
and hard to pinpoint, but the anxiety is always felt (Feist & Feist, 2009). It is the ego which feels
the anxiety but ego’s interaction with the id, superego and the external reality results in three
different forms of anxiety:
Objective/realistic anxiety: (reality vs. ego) this kind of anxiety is the one which is
associated with the objective threats to our well-being. There is a generalized feeling of
anxiety which may involve possible danger. For e.g. walking alone at night in a
dangerous alleyway. The anxious feelings are justified here since there is a possibility of
adverse events happening but it is different from fear, because the feeling is not regarding
a specific object of fear. The objective anxiety arises when the ego is threatened by
objective forces in the world. The force is a function of the strength of the ego in relation
to the power or perceived power of the objective threat.
Neurotic anxiety: (Id vs. ego) this arises when the ego is threatened by the irrational
forces of the Id. Here the source of the anxiety is from within our own personality and
hence there is no obvious escape from it. There is an apprehension about an unknown
danger, which may be triggered by some elements in the environment like occurrence of
certain events or presence of certain people. The person is not able to understand why
Moral anxiety: (superego vs. ego) here it is the irrational demands of the superego that
threaten to overcome the ego. And here also there is no escape as the threat is from within
the personality. Moral anxiety is experienced as guilt over real or imagined departures
from internalized values. The superego acts as a dictator here, chastising the person for
yielding to morally incorrect temptations.
4. Ego-defense mechanisms
As we saw, when the Ego confronts the impulse of the Id or the superego that threatens to go out
of control or when it is faced with dangers from the environment, it results in anxiety. Ego then
tries to reduce the anxiety through realistic strategies. But when these are ineffective it resorts to
certain unconscious mental operations that deny or distort the reality. The anxiety would become
intolerable if the ego can not resort to these defensive behaviors. These behaviors serve the
function of protecting the ego against the pain of the anxiety (Feist & Feist, 2009).
The employment of defense mechanisms is adaptive and normal. But when resorted to
exceedingly, it may lead to compulsive, repetitive and neurotic behavior. According to Freud’s
conception of expending the psychic energy, the employment of defense mechanisms also
requires utilization of energy. This leaves lesser energy for the id to satisfy its impulses (Feist &
Feist, 2009). Thereby fulfilling the ego’s purpose of avoiding dealing with the irrational impulses
and defending itself against the anxiety that accompanies them. Freud initially identified certain
principal defense mechanisms including repression, displacement, reaction formation, regression,
projection, sublimation, introjections and fixation. Later his daughter Anna expanded his work in
the area and identified further mechanisms. These are the various psychoanalytic Ego-defense
mechanisms:
Repression: it is the most basic of all defense mechanisms. It is an active defense process
in which the Ego pushes away the anxiety-arousing impulses into the unconscious mind.
For e.g. developing amnesia about a childhood sexual abuse episode that has been
repressed.
Often feelings and thoughts are so strongly repressed that they remain in the unconscious
throughout the life. Repression may be complete or partial. In partial repression, the
impulse may express itself in a disguised manner.
According to Freud, several things might happen to the impulses once they are repressed
into the unconscious. The first is that they remain there, unchanged. The second is that
they could force their way into the conscious in an altered form. In this case the repressed
Displacement: redirecting the repressed emotions onto an object less dangerous than the
initial one which aroused the emotion. The redirection may be onto not only a single
object alone but a variety of people or object such that the original impulse is disguised or
concealed.
For e.g. taking out your anger towards your boss onto your kids back home. It may also
be displaced onto your spouse, at other drivers as you drive home, at the government
policies and what not!
Freud used the term displacement in several ways. He used it to refer to the replacement
of one neurotic symptom for another; like the compulsive urge to masturbate may be
replaced by the compulsive urge to wash hands. i.e. there is a displacement of libido from
one activity to another. Displacement may occur in dreams where the expression is
displaced from the latent content to the manifest content. For e.g. a girl who has a sibling
rivalry with her younger sister and has aggressive impulses against her dreaming that she
is tearing up a doll, the latent meaning of which is her sister. Here the displacement of the
impulse from the sister to the doll.
The sexual aim of early oral activity is to incorporate or receive into one’s body the
object-choice which is the nipple. During this oral receptive phase, infants feel no
ambivalence towards the pleasurable object and their needs are usually satisfied with
minimum anxiety. As they grow older, however, they are far more likely to experience
feelings of frustration as a result of less frequent feedings and eventual weaning (Feist &
Feist, 2009). The traits that develop at this stage include a general sense of optimism
versus pessimism, trust versus mistrust and dependency on others. These relate to the fact
that infants at this age are particularly helpless and dependent on their caregivers.
The next part of the oral stage is the oral sadistic phase and it begins with teething. The
sexual pleasure now comes from biting and chewing. According to Carver & Scheier “the
adult personality traits arising during this phase can be traced to this newly acquired
In the late anal stage children often develop a friendly interest in their excreta, and may
present it to their parents as a valued prize. If they are chastised for this behavior children
may adopt an anal retentive habit; they may attempt to withhold feces. The anal retentive
personality is characterized by rigidity and excessive orderliness. The traits of the adult
anal retentive is sometimes referred to as the anal triad: stinginess, obstinacy and
orderliness. If the child is punished and ridiculed they may react in another manner too.
They may adopt a pattern of rebellion and develop anal expulsive habits, excreting
forcefully when the parents least want it. The adult anal expulsive personality is
characterized by sloppiness, excessive lavishness and general disorderliness. On the other
hand if the child is appreciated for his or her effort in being disciplined, then it is likely
that he or she will grow into a generous and magnanimous adult.
The Phallic Stage:
The stage lasts from three to five years of age. During this period the erogenous zone is
the genital organ. According to Freud this is the time when most children begin to
masturbate for the first time, as they become aware of the sensory pleasure that arises
from genital manipulation. Just as their experiences with weaning and toilet training had
implications in the development of the adult personality, the children’s experiences with
the suppression of masturbation also has implications. But Freud focuses more on the
resolution of the Oedipus complex as the major determinant of adult personality at this
stage.
At first the sexual pleasure is totally derived from self stimulation but gradually the libido
begins to shift towards the opposite sex parent, as boys develop an interest in their
mothers and girls develop an interest in their fathers. At the same time the child becomes
hostile towards the same sex parent because of the perceived competition between them
over the affection of the other parent (Carver & Scheier, 1996).
The Oedipus complex: this is the term Freud used to denote the unconscious desire of
the male child to sexually possess the mother. There is a jealousy, hostility and hatred
towards the father whom the child perceives as being more loved by the mother.
Sometimes, the jealousy may be so extreme that he may want the father out of the family
or even dead. These feelings induce strong feelings of guilt and also the fear that the
physically greater father will castrate him. Freud called this castration anxiety. Boys
eventually bury their impulses out of the castration anxiety and the complex is usually
resolved by identification with the father. The process of identification serves multiple
The female Oedipus complex (sometimes known as the Electra complex): this is the
counterpart of the Oedipus in girl children. And according to Freud they have a sexual
desire for the father and experience what is termed as penis envy. Upon discovering their
lack of penis they abandon their love for the mother and blame her for this condition. The
girl’s attention is drawn to her father because he does have a penis, the symbol of power.
Ultimately she desires that she bear her father’s child as a substitute for the penis. The
complex is resolved when the girl gives up masturbation, surrenders her desire for the
father and identifies with her mother. But the identification helps in an indirect manner;
by becoming more like her mother, she gains vicarious access to her father. And just as in
irresolution of the male Oedipus, unsuccessful resolution here may result in the girl being
father-fixated.
First, psychoanalytic concepts are vague and not operationally defined and the
hypotheses derived from them cannot be tested. Thus much of the theory is difficult to
evaluate scientifically.
Second, the theory does not reliably predict what will occur; it is applied retrospectively
– after the events have occurred. Thus the theory involves historical construction, not
scientific construction of probable actions and predictable outcomes.
Third, several of Freud’s proposals are not consistent with the findings of modern
research – for instance, his ideas about the meaning of dreams.
Fourth, the theory is based on a small number of clinical case studies which cannot be
considered as representative of human beings generally. In addition, the theory never
included observations or studies of children although it is a developmental theory.
Fifth, the theory contains so many different concepts that they can explain virtually any
behaviour in an after-the-effect manner. The vague formulations permit manipulation to
fit the evidence at hand.
Finally, there is growing concern among feminists that the Freudian perspective has an
androcentric bias (male-centered bias) and views women as vain, sensitive and
dependent on men.
However, some aspects of Freud’s theory continue to gain acceptance as they are
modified and improved through empirical scrutiny. e.g. the concepts of unconscious,
defense mechanisms and the importance of anxiety in psychological disorders have been
explored and accepted. The theory thus remains the most complex, comprehensive and
compelling view of normal and abnormal personality functioning – even when its
predictions prove wrong.
Applications
Unconscious processes have been universally accepted; research has demonstrated that
non-conscious mental and emotional phenomena do indeed occur and affect our
behaviour.
Freud’s conception of anxiety and defense mechanisms is widely accepted and supported
by experimental research.
Recognition that our behaviour reflects a compromise between our wishes and our fears
accounts for many of the apparent contradictions in our behaviour.
Freud’s method of free association opened up new database of observations that had
never been explored systematically.
Freud’s work influenced later theorists and led to the development of the field.
Limitations
6. Summary
We have learned how anxiety is produced due to the interactions within the psyche and as
a result of external reality. And we studied the different kinds of anxiety.
We learned how the ego deals with the anxiety by employing various defense
mechanisms to distort the experiences and reality.
We also learned about the psychosexual stages of development and how the child’s
negotiation with his or her impulses at each stage determines the adult personality.
We understood Freud’s concept of the male and female Oedipus complexes and how
resolution of these are important in attaining a psychosexual maturity as an adult.