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Lesson 2 - ETHICS

Ethics (Bicol University)

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THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMA
The ethical standards of an organization have a major
influence on how it conducts its functions. A positive
approach to maintaining ethical standards can lead to
positive outcomes in an organization. However, moral and
ethical shortcomings also exist even in the most successful
organizations. These can be classified at three levels:
 Individual dilemma – Organizations and
businesses are run by people. Therefore, the
ethical standards of these individuals are an
important consideration.
- Because individuals can have different set of
ethical standards, this can lead to tensions
putting them in a situation called moral
dilemma.
- Factors such as peer pressure, personal
financial position and socio-economic status
may influence an individual’s ethical
standards.
 Organizational dilemma – At a company,
corporate or organizational level, ethical standards
are embedded in the policies and procedures of
the organization, and form an important
foundation on which the organization is built.
- There can be a gap between the
company/organization policy on ethical
standards and the conduct of those leaders in-
charge of running the organization, which can
present an ethical challenge for some
employees.
 Structural dilemma – Factors such as political
pressures, economic conditions, societal attitudes
to certain businesses, and even business regulation
can influence a system’s operating standards and
policies. Leaders must be aware of how these
pressure affect operations, relationships, and how
they may impact people locally, nationally or
internationally.
MORAL VS. NON-MORAL STANDARDS
Morality – standards that a person or a group has about
what is right and wrong, or good and evil.
Moral Standards - those concerned with or relating to
human behavior, especially the distinction between good
and bad (or right and wrong) behavior.
- involve the rules people have about the kinds of
actions they believe are morally right and wrong,
as well as the values they place on the kinds of
objects they believe are morally good and morally
bad.
- Some ethicists equate moral standards with moral
values and moral principles.
Non-moral Standards - refer to rules that are
unrelated to moral or ethical considerations.
Dianna Rose O. Belen, RN, LPT
2018-2019
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- Either these standards are not necessarily linked to
morality or by nature lack ethical sense.
- Basic examples of non-moral standards include
rules of etiquette, fashion standards, rules in
games, and various house rules.
- Technically, religious rules, some traditions, and
legal statutes (i.e. laws and ordinances) are non-
moral principles, though they can be ethically
relevant depending on some factors and contexts.
The following six (6) characteristics of moral standards
further differentiate them from non-moral standards:
a. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits.
- Moral standards deal with matters which can
seriously impact, that is, injure or benefit human
beings.
- For instance, following or violating some
basketball rules may matter in basketball games
but does not necessarily affect one’s life or
wellbeing.
 
b. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values.
- Moral standards have overriding character or
hegemonic authority.
- If a moral standard states that a person has the
moral obligation to do something, then he/she is
supposed to do that even if it conflicts with other
non-moral standards, and even with self-interest.
 
c. Moral standards are not established by authority figures.
- Moral standards are not invented, formed, or
generated by authoritative bodies or persons such
as nations’ legislative bodies.
- Ideally instead, these values ought to be
considered in the process of making laws.
 
d. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.
- Simply put, it means that everyone should live up
to moral standards.
- To be more accurate, however, it entails that
moral principles must apply to all who are in the
relevantly similar situation.
- If one judges that act A is morally right for a
certain person P, then it is morally right for
anybody relevantly similar to P.
 e. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.
- Moral standard does not evaluate standards on the
basis of the interests of a certain person or group,
but one that goes beyond personal interests to a
universal standpoint in which each person’s
interests are impartially counted as equal.
- Impartiality is usually depicted as being free of
bias or prejudice. Impartiality in morality requires
that we give equal and/or adequate consideration
to the interests of all concerned parties.
f. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and
vocabulary.
- Prescriptivity indicates the practical or action-
guiding nature of moral standards.
- These moral standards are generally put forth as
injunction or imperatives (such as, ‘Do not kill,’
GE 8 ETHICS 2nd Sem
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‘Do no unnecessary harm,’ and ‘Love your

neighbor’).
- These principles are proposed for use, to advise,
and to influence to action.
- Retroactively, this feature is used to evaluate
behavior, to assign praise and blame, and to
produce feelings of satisfaction or of guilt.
 
If a person violates a moral standard by telling a lie even to
fulfill a special purpose, it is not surprising if he/she starts
feeling guilty or being ashamed of his behavior afterwards.

On the contrary, no much guilt is felt if one goes against

the current fashion trend (e.g. refusing to wear tattered
jeans).

FREEDOM: FOUNDATION OF MORALITY

By: Alex Salter

What is the role of human freedom in morality?

- Every ship must be well run on its own, but each

must also coordinate with all the others so that
they avoid collisions and stay in formation. Finally,
the fleet must be set on a destination, which
constitutes the purpose of their journey. This is a
helpful way to think about morality regarding self,
others, and our ultimate end.

Personal Morality

- The personal aspect of morality—which might

more properly be called ethics—is about the
cultivation of virtue: the development of character
traits so that choosing the good becomes a matter
of habit.

- An efficient and well-run ship is like a virtuous

person: both have regularized the internal
practices necessary to be a good example of what
it is. There is one crucial difference, however: a
ship’s crew is run hierarchically, under the
command of a captain. But a person, in order to
be truly virtuous, must be free to cultivate the
virtues, or not.

- There is no virtue in being temperate when you

are being forced not to indulge. There is no virtue
in being charitable when someone is forcing you
to give up what is yours. Virtue can be guided by
cultural traditions and social institutions, but it
cannot be coerced. A virtuous man must also be a
free man.

- Thus, freedom is essential to a genuinely good

human life at all the levels of morality.

Dianna Rose O. Belen, RN, LPT GE 8 ETHICS 2nd Sem

2018-2019

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