Unit 8: Inferential Statistics-Test of Relationship: Activating Prior Knowledge

Unit 1: xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Unit 8: INFERENTIAL STATISTICS-TEST OF

RELATIONSHIP
Introduction
In the conduct of research investigation, one of the common area of interest
among researchers is to confirm whether assumptions on the variables involved
are baseless or grounded. One way to objectively determine the reasons is to look
for a relationship or association between the variables. Therefore, in this unit, you
will learn the measures of association between and among variables. More so, you
will learn how to explore relationships using SPSS inferential statistics.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you are expected to:
1. Solve research problem using the chi-square test
2. Solve research problem using the Pearson’s product- moment correlation
3. Solve problems involving regression analysis
Activating Prior Knowledge

Identify which test of relationship is appropriate among the given
inferential questions. Indicate check (/) mark on the box if the type of test
of relationship is applicable to answer the inferential question, otherwise
put a cross (x) mark. Then, state a reason for your answer.
Inferential Questions Test of Relationship Reason
Chi- Correlation Regression
square
1. Is there a significant
relationship between the
performance of students in
Math and their learning
styles?
2. Which of the factors
singly or in combination
that can predict the students’
Math performance?
relationship between the
1
gain scores of the pupils and

their parent’s educational
attainment?
relationship between gender
and multiple intelligences
among learners?
relationship between pupils’
oral proficiency level and
their extent of use of CLT
strategies and activities?
Topic 1. CHI SQUARE
Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
1. Discuss the characteristics of Chi-Square Test
2. Conduct and interpret chi-square test of independence hypothesis tests
using the SPSS Statistic.
Presentation of Content
Inferential statistics: Examining Relationships between Variables
Inferential questions that deals with relationships or associations between
two or more variables answers problems such as:
 Is there a significant relationship between number of “Balik
Probinsya” arrivals and COVID-19 positive rates in Cagayan?
 Is there a significant relationship between Math performance and
learner’s Problem solving skills?
 Is there a significant relationship between learner’s Math
performance and teacher’s teaching styles?
NOTE: There are three popular inferential statistics examining
relationships between variables namely:
 Chi-square test
 Correlations
 Simple linear regression and Multiple Regression
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Pearson Chi-Square Test

The Pearson Chi-Square Test is used to tests for the strength of the
association between two categorical variables (ethnicity, educational
attainment, civil status, etc.). In other words, the chi-square distribution
can be used to find relationships between two things, like teacher’s gender
and their educational philosophies. Remember that Pearson Chi-Square
Test accompanies a cross tabulation between the two variables. More so,
categorical independent and dependent variable is needed to perform this
type of test.
The chi square distribution is a theoretical or mathematical distribution
which has wide applicability in statistical work. The term ‘chi square’
(pronounced with a hard ‘ch’) is used because the Greek letter χ is used to
define this distribution. It will be seen that the elements on which this
distribution is based are squared, so that the symbol χ 2 is used to denote
the distribution.
The inferential question below is an example of a research question for
Chi-Square test:
 Is there a significant relationship between gender and multiple
intelligences of the BSEd students of the College of Teacher
Education for the SY 2020-2021?
 There are two variables: gender and multiple intelligences.
 Gender is the independent variable, and multiple intelligences
of the students is the dependent variable.
 Gender is categorical, and multiple intelligences (whether
Mathematical-logical, Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, Bodily-,
Kinesthetic, Linguistic etc.) is also categorical.
 Pearson Chi-square appropriate as criteria are met.
Ask these questions to make sure that the Pearson Chi-Square is

appropriate for the inferential question (Devonish, Dwayne):
 How many variables?
 Which one is the independent variable, and which one is the
dependent variable?
 What types of variables are they?
 So Chi-square appropriate?
Characteristics of Chi Square
3
 Evaluates whether the proportions of individuals who fall into

categories are equal to hypothesized values.
 The variable can have two or more categories.
 The categories can have quantitative (one category reflects a higher
value than another; e.g., Likert scale responses of Agree and
Disagree) or qualitative grouping (e.g., course delivery method)
 The chi-square test does not recognize any quantitative distinction
among categories; it simply assesses whether the proportions
associated with the categories are significantly different from the
hypothesized values.
 The larger the discrepancies between the observed and expected
frequencies, the larger the resulting chi-square statistic will be.
 The chi-square can range from zero to infinity.
 The chi-square statistic requires the expected frequency of at least five
to a cell.
 The chi-square test (as a non-parametric test) is based on frequencies
and not on the parameters like mean and standard deviation.
 The chi-square test is used for testing the hypothesis and is not useful
for estimation.
 The chi-square test possesses the additive property since squaring
each of the discrepancies of equal amounts regardless of direction will
add equal contributions to this statistic.
 The chi-square test can also be applied to a complex contingency table
with several classes and as such is a very useful test in research work.
 This test is an important non-parametric test as no rigid assumptions
are necessary in regard to the type of population, no need of parameter
values and relatively less mathematical details are involved.
NOTE: There are ways that the Chi-Square test can be applied namely:
Goodness-of-fit (or one-sample) test, Test of independence (or association) and
Independent-samples test. However, in this unit, it will focus on the chi-square for
independence, also called Pearson’s chi-square test of the chi-square test for
association.
Tests of independence may also involve using a contingency table of observed
(data) values. The test statistic for a test of independence is similar to that of a
goodness-of-fit test:
where:
O = observed values
E = expected values
i = the number of rows in the table
j = the number of columns in the table
4
(O−E)2
There are i⋅j terms of the form .
E
A test of independence determines whether two
factors are independent or not.
NOTE: The expected
value for each cell needs Calculating and Interpreting Pearson Chi-
to be at least five in order Square using SPSS
for you to use this test.
Example 1: Instructors are looking for ways on
how to teach Statistics and Probability to undergraduates as part of a BSEd degree
course especially now during the COVID-19 pandemic. With current technology,
it is possible to present how-to guides for statistical programs online instead of in
a book. However, different students learn in different ways. An instructor of the
College of Teacher Education would like to know whether gender (male/female)
is associated with the preferred type of learning medium (online vs. books).
Therefore, the instructor wanted to calculate an association between Gender and

Preferred Learning Medium of the teachers.
NOTE: You have two nominal variables: Gender (male/female) and Preferred
Learning Medium (online/books). Independent variable is the gender while the
dependent is the Learning Medium. Both variables are considered as categorical.
Solution: (Steps & Photos adopted from SPPS Statistics, IBM Corporation)
In SPSS Statistics, you need to create two variables so that you could enter your
data: Gender and Preferred Learning Medium.
To properly enter data in SPSS Statistics, visit https://statistics.laerd.com/spss-
tutorials/entering-data-in-spss-statistics.php for a “quick start” guide or watch the
video tutorial: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MoKDcPpRa_0
After which, follow the steps below on how to analyze your data using a chi-
square test for independence in SPSS statistics.
Step 1: Click Analyze > Descriptives Statistics > Crosstabs... on the top menu, as
shown below:
5
Step 2: You will be presented with the following Crosstabs dialogue box:
Step 3: Transfer one of the variables into the Row(s): box and the other variable
into the Column(s): box. In the example, you need to transfer the
variable into the Row(s): box and into the
Column(s): box. There are two ways to do this. You can either: (1) highlight the
variable with your mouse and then use the relevant right arrow button to transfer
the variables; or (2) drag-and-drop the variables. How do you know which
variable goes in the row or column box? There is no right or wrong way. It will
depend on how you want to present your data.
If you want to display clustered

bar charts (recommended), make
sure that Display clustered bar
charts checkbox is ticked.
You will end up with a screen

similar to the one on the right
side.
6
Step 4: Click on the button. You will be presented with the following
Crosstabs: Statistics dialogue box:
Step 5: Select the Chi-square and Phi and Cramer's V options, as shown
below:
7
Step 6: Click on the Continue button.
Step 7: Click on the button. You will be presented with the following
Crosstabs: Cell Display dialogue box:
Step 8: Select Observed

from the –Counts– area,
and Row, Column
and Total from the –
Percentages– area, as shown
below:
8
Step 9: Click on the button.

Step 10: Click on the button.
Step 11: You will be presented with the photo below. This option allows you to
change the order of the values to either ascending or descending.
Step 12: Once you have made your choice, click on the button.
Step 13: Click on the button to generate your output.
You will be presented with some tables in the Output Viewer under the title
"Crosstabs". The tables of note are presented below:
This table allows you to understand that both males and females prefer to
learn using online materials versus books.
9
When reading this table just focus on the results of the "Pearson Chi-Square"
row. You can see here that χ(1) = 0.487, p = .485. This tells you that there is no
statistically significant association between Gender and Preferred Learning
Medium; that is, both Males and Females equally prefer online learning versus
books.
Example 2. Interpret the result of the chi-square test below:

A professor in the College of Teacher Education is interested in whether there is a
relationship between gender and preference for learning statistics face to face or
online. A poll was taken with 100 students (50 males and 50 females) to
determine their preference for learning. Is there a significant relationship between
gender and preference for learning statistics face to face or online?
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Solution: A chi-square test of independence revealed a significant relationship

between gender and preference for learning statistics, X2 (1, N = 100) = 4.00; p = .
046. Consequently, the null hypothesis was rejected.
Application
Calculate and Interpret the result of the Chi-Square Test using the SPSS Statistic.
Statement of the Problem: Is there an association between personality and color
preference?
A group of students were classified in terms of personality (introvert or extrovert)
and in terms of color preference (red, yellow, green or blue). Personality and color
preference are categorical data. Access the data at
https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1ONg5_WEh_7NjRIUD5b_fdwpw62sqi7
o4vHDw1hKzOx4/edit?usp=sharing
Indicate the table and the interpretation below:
Value df Asymp.Sig. Exact Exact
(2-sided) Sig (2- Sig (1-
sided) sided)
Pearson Chi-Square Continuity
Correctiona Likelihood Ratio
Fisher's Exact Test
Linear-by-Linear Association
N of Valid Cases
Interpretation: ____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________.
Feedback
Goal: Your task is to determine if there is an association between the gender of
the students and Multiple Intelligences of the students.
Role: You are a college instructor and one of the requirements given by your
Dean is to make a study involving associations between two variables.
Audiende: Your target respodents are your students in the College of Teacher
Education (20 males and 20 females).
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Situation: There is a need to conduct a study involving the associations between

the two variables to fulfill your requirement. You decided to make a study that
will determine whetehr there is an association between gender of the students and
Multiple Intelligences of the students.
Product/Performance and Purpose: You need to submit the following:
a. E-copy of the questionnaire
b. Evidence of floating the questionnaire and a tally showing the data
gathered from the respodnents
c. The crosstabulation and chi-square test table from the SPSS Statistic
d. The interpretation of the result
e. Conclusion and Recommendation
Outputs will be graded using the following rubrics:
Criteria Exceeds Meets Does Not Score
Expectations Expectation Meet
3 points 2 points Expectation
1 or 0 point
Collects and records Complete and
Missing or
data accurate records
Complete and incomplete
including
accurate data;
supplementary
records inaccurate
data from the
records
SPSS
Contributes
Recommendation cont
adequately or Does not
ributes data for a Contributes well
relates to contribute
larger research study
larger study
Explains data; Poor or
Analyzes data; Explains data;
accurate, missing
organizes and explains accurate, logical
logical explanation
information explanations
explanations of data
Reaches a
Develops conclusions, Reaches a Reaches a
reasonable
synthesizes creative, sensible poor decision
decision based
information and decision based on based on few
on most
makes decisions all factors or no factors
factors
Research Poor or
Adequate
questionnaire Well-constructed missing
research
addresses research questionnaire research
questionnaire
question(s). questionnaire
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Topic 2. CORRELATION
Learning Objectives
1. Describe characteristics of Correlations.
2. Calculate the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient using the
SPSS Statistic; and
3. Solve problem involving correlation analysis.
Correlation tests (Pearson correlation) are commonly used to examine
relationships between two or more quantitative/numerical variables. These
commonly measure the strength and direction of association that exists
between two variables measured on at least an interval scale.
NOTE: The Pearson correlation coefficient, r, can take a range of values
from +1 to -1. A value of 0 indicates that there is no association between
the two variables. A value greater than 0 indicates a positive association;
that is, as the value of one variable increases, so does the value of the
other variable. In other words, high values on the one variable are
associated with high values of the next. A value less than 0 indicates a
negative association; that is, as the value of one variable increases, the
value of the other variable decreases. In other words, high values on one
variable are associated with low values on the next. This is shown in the
diagram below:
A positive correlation example:

 SAT scores and college
 GPAAge and reading ability
 Years of education and salary
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A negative correlation examples:

 Anxiety and test performance
 Stress and job satisfaction
The inferential question below is an example of a research question for
Correlations:
 Is there a significant relationship between Math performance and
learner’s Problem solving skills?
 There are two variables: Math performance and Problem
Solving Skills.
 Problem Solving Skill is the independent variable, and
Mathematics Performance is the dependent variable.
Characteristics of Pearson Correlations
 Correlations have different strengths:
 0.10 to 0.29 = Weak correlation/relationship
 0.30 to 0.49 = Moderate relationship/Medium correlation
 0.50 and above= Strong relationship/high correlation.
NOTE: The closer the value of r to 0 the greater the variation around the line of
best fit.
 Scatterplots can help us describe both the direction and the strength of the
correlation.
Negative
Positive Correlation
 The sign of the relationship does not indicate the strength; (-).50 is the
same strength as (+).50 but different direction.
 ‘r’ is the symbol of the correlation coefficient.
 You cannot use any type of variable for Pearson's correlation coefficient,
your two variables should be measured at the interval or ratio level (i.e.,
they are continuous). There must be a linear relationship between your two
variables and there should be no significant outliers.
 The Pearson product-moment correlation does not take into consideration
Askwhether a variable
these questions has sure
to make beenthat
classified as a dependent
the Correlation or independent
is appropriate for
variable. Itquestion
the inferential treats all(Devonish,
variables equally.
Dwayne):
 How many variables?
 Which one is the independent variable, and which one is the 14
dependent variable?
 What types of variables are they?
 So Correlation appropriate?
Calculating and Interpreting Pearson Product Correlation using SPSS
Example 1: A PE teacher of Aparri East National High School wants to

know whether a student's height is related to how well they perform in a
long jump. The researcher recruited untrained individuals from the general
population, measured their height and had them perform a long jump. The
researcher then investigated whether there was an association between
height and long jump performance by running a Pearson's correlation.
data: Height and Distance jumped in a long jump.
After which, follow the steps below on how to analyze your data using Pearson’s
correlation in SPSS statistics.
Step 1: Click Analyze > Correlate > Bivariate... on the main menu, as shown
below:
You will be presented

with the Bivariate
Correlations dialogue
box:
15
Step 2: Transfer the variables Height and Jump_Dist into the Variables: box by
dragging-and-dropping them or by clicking on them and then clicking on the right
button. You will end up with a screen similar to the one below:
NOTE: If you study involves calculating more than one correlation and you want
to carry out these correlations at the
same time, we show you how to do this
in our enhanced Pearson’s correlation
guide. We also show you how to write
up the results from multiple
correlations.
Step 3: Make sure that the Pearson

checkbox is selected under the –
16
Correlation Coefficients– area (although it is selected by default in SPSS

Statistics).
Step 4: Click on the Options button and you will be presented with the Bivariate
Correlations: Options dialogue box. If you wish to generate some descriptives,
you can do it here by clicking on the relevant checkbox in the –Statistics– area.
Step 5: Click on the button. You will be returned to the Bivariate

Correlations dialogue box.
Step 6: Click on the button. This will generate the results of Pearson's
correlation.
Therefore, when running the Pearson’s correlation procedure, you will be
presented with the Correlations table in the IBM SPSS Statistics Output
Viewer. The Pearson's correlation result is highlighted below:
The results are presented in a matrix such that, as can be seen above, the
correlations are replicated. Nevertheless, the table presents the Pearson correlation
coefficient, its significance value and the sample size that the calculation is based
on.
In this example, we can see that the Pearson correlation coefficient, r, is 0.706,
and that it is statistically significant (p = 0.005). For interpreting multiple
correlations, see our enhanced Pearson’s guide.
Interpretation: A Pearson product-moment correlation was run to determine the
relationship between height and distance jumped in a long jump. There was a
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strong, positive correlation between height and distance jumped, which was
statistically significant (r = .706, n = 14, p = .005).
Example 2: Interpret the result of the Pearson Correlation below:

Statement of the Problem: Is there a significant relationship between age and
satisfaction?
Solution: The hypothesis was tested through the computation of a Pearson

Product Moment Correlation between age and satisfaction in an online course.
The correlation was not significant (r = -.593, p = .07).
Application
Calculate and Interpret the result of the Correlation Test using the SPSS Statistic.
Statement of the Problem: Is there aa significant relationship between Math
performance and gender of learners?
A group of students were classified in terms of their gender (male/female) and in
terms of Math performance. Access the data at
https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1ONg5_WEh_7NjRIUD5b_fdwpw62sqi7
o4vHDw1hKzOx4/edit?usp=sharing
Indicate the values on the table and the interpretation below:
Gender Math
performance
Gender Pearson Correlation
18
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Math performance Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Interpretation: ____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________.
Feedback
Goal: You are to seek answers to the following research questions:
1. What is the profile of the students in terms of:
a. Gender
b. Age
c. Familiy monthly income
d. Parent’s highesdt educational attainment
e. Parent’s occupation
2. What is the Multiple Intelligences of the students?
3. What is the Math performance of the learner’s in their Math?
4. Is there a significant relationship between learner’s Mathematics
performance and their profile variables and Multiple Inteligences?
Audiende: Your target respodents are your respondents from the previous activity
(20 males and 20 females).
Situation: There is a need to conduct a study involving the associations between
the variables to fulfill your requirement. You decided to make a study that will
determine whetehr there is an association between Math peformance and stduent’s
profile and gender of the students and preferences for assessing student learning.
a. E-copy of the questionnaire
b. Evidence of floating the questionnaire and a tally showing the data
gathered from the respodnents
c. The crosstabulation and correlation table from the SPSS Statistic
d. The interpretation of the result
e. Conclusion and Recommendation
19

1 or 0 point
Missing or
including
accurate data;
supplementary
records inaccurate
data from the
records
SPSS
Contributes
Recommendation cont
larger study
accurate, missing
logical explanation
Reaches a
reasonable
decision based
on most
factors
Research Poor or
Adequate
questionnaire Well-constructed missing
research
questionnaire
Topic 3. LINEAR REGRESSION
Learning Objectives
1. Describe characteristics of Linear Regression.
4. Calculate the Linear Regression using the SPSS Statistics; and
5. Solve problem involving Linear Regression.
Linear regression is the next step up after correlation. Regression analyses are
used to examine the effect of different (predictor/independent) variables on a
single outcome (dependent) variable. More so, the use of the term “prediction” is
20
central to regression analyses. One examines whether if one variable predicts

(explains/impacts) another variable. The variable we want to predict is called the
dependent variable (or sometimes, the outcome variable). The variable we are
using to predict the other variable's value is called the independent variable (or
sometimes, the predictor variable).
NOTE: If you have two or more independent variables, rather than just one, you
need to use multiple regression.
Characteristics of Linear Regression
1. Your two variables should be measured at the continuous level (i.e., they
are either interval or ratio variables).
2. There needs to be a linear relationship between the two variables.
3. There should be no significant outliers.

4. Multiple regression is a more popular extension of linear regression. It
examines the effects of the multiple predictors or independent variables on
a single outcome variable. Thus, same output as the linear regression
analysis, and interpretation.
Calculating and Interpreting Linear Regression using SPSS
Example 1: A salesperson for a large car brand wants to determine whether

there is a relationship between an individual's income and the price they pay
for a car. As such, the individual's "income" is the independent variable and
the "price" they pay for a car is the dependent variable. The salesperson
wants to use this information to determine which cars to offer potential
customers in new areas where average income is known.
data: income (independent variable) and price (dependent variable).
21

After which, follow the steps below on how to analyze your data using Linear
Regression in SPSS statistics.
Step 1: Click Analyze > Regression > Linear... on the top menu, as shown below:
You will be presented with the Linear

Regression dialogue box:
Step 2: Transfer the independent

variable, Income, into the Independent(s): box and the dependent variable, Price,
into the Dependent: box. You can do this by either drag-and-dropping the
variables or by using the appropriate Right arrow buttons. You will end up with
the following screen:
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Step 3: Click on the button. This will generate the results.

Below, we focus on the results for the linear regression analysis only.
The first table of interest is the Model Summary table, as shown below:
This table provides the R and R2 values. The R value represents the simple
correlation and is 0.873 (the "R" Column), which indicates a high degree of
correlation. The R2 value (the "R Square" column) indicates how much of the
total variation in the dependent variable, Price, can be explained by the
independent variable, Income. In this case, 76.2% can be explained, which is very
large.
The next table is the ANOVA table, which reports how well the regression
equation fits the data (i.e., predicts the dependent variable) and is shown below:
23
This table indicates that the regression model predicts the dependent variable
significantly well. How do we know this? Look at the "Regression" row and go
to the "Sig." column. This indicates the statistical significance of the regression
model that was run. Here, p < 0.0005, which is less than 0.05, and indicates that,
overall, the regression model statistically significantly predicts the outcome
variable (i.e., it is a good fit for the data).
The Coefficients table provides us with the necessary information to predict price
from income, as well as determine whether income contributes statistically
significantly to the model (by looking at the "Sig." column). Furthermore, we can
use the values in the "B" column under the "Unstandardized Coefficients"
column, as shown below:
to present the regression equation as:

Price = 8287 + 0.564(Income)
Example 2: Interpret the result of the linear regression below.

Research question: Do nationality, satisfaction with restaurants, and satisfaction
with prices in the destination predict (impact) overall destination satisfaction
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Interpretation: The information that needs to taken from this table is the R-square
(.133). The R-square is the proportion of variation in the dependent variable
(overall satisfaction) that is explained by the three independent variables. It is
expressed as a percentage. So 13.3 percent of the variation in overall satisfaction
can be explained by three independent variables in the model.
Interpretation: The table shows whether the proportion of variance explained in

the first table is significant. It also tells whether the overall effect of the three
independent variables on overall satisfaction is significant. The sig. (or p-value) is
.000 which is below the .05 level; hence, you can conclude that the overall model
is statistically significant, or that the variables have a significant combined effect
on the dependent variable.
Look at the sig. (p-values) first. You can see that nationality (.000) and
satisfaction with restaurants (.000) are significant predictors (or significantly
related to) of overall satisfaction. The standardized beta tells you the strength and
direction of the relationships (interpreted like correlation coefficients).
Satisfaction with restaurants is positively related to overall satisfaction (.26). High
levels of this satisfaction correspond to higher overall satisfaction.
Nationality is a dichotomous variable where 1 = European, and 2 = U.S. The
positive coefficient (correlation) for nationality suggests that high value on this
variable (which is 2 = U.S) corresponds to higher scores on the dependent
variable (i.e. high levels of overall satisfaction). It is interpreted as U.S tourists
(=2) reported higher levels of overall satisfaction compared with European
tourists (=1).
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Solution. “Multiple regression was conducted to examine whether nationality,

satisfaction with restaurants, and satisfaction with prices impact on overall
satisfaction with destination. The overall model explained 13.3 percent of
variance in productivity, which was revealed to be statistically significant, F
(3,216) = 11.09, p < .001. An inspection of individual predictors revealed that
satisfaction with restaurants (Beta = .25, p < .001) and nationality (Beta = .26, p <
.001) are significant predictors of overall satisfaction with destination. Higher
levels of satisfaction with restaurants are associated with higher levels of overall
satisfaction with the destination, and U.S tourists reported significantly more
overall satisfaction than did European tourists.
Example 3: Multiple Regression Analysis
Research question: Do satisfaction with accommodation, and with local transport,
and number of children affect overall satisfaction?
Interpretation: The R-square is the proportion of variation in the dependent

variable (overall satisfaction) that is explained by the three independent variables.
It is expressed as a percentage. So 28.9 percent of the variation in overall
satisfaction can be explained by three independent variables (no. of children,
satisfaction with restaurants, and with transport) in the model.
As stated before, this table shows that the overall model explains a significant
proportion of variance (see Table 1 on prior slide), or that the overall model is
statistically significant – all three independent variables have a significant
combined effect on overall satisfaction, F (3, 181) = 24.55, p < .001.
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The table also shows that satisfaction with local transport (Beta = .289, p < .001)
and satisfaction with accommodation (Beta = .32, p < .001) were positively
correlated with overall satisfaction, suggesting that higher levels of satisfaction
with the two categories are associated with higher levels of overall satisfaction.
Number of children is not a significant predictor of overall satisfaction (p = .12).
Solution. “Multiple regression was conducted to examine whether satisfaction
with local transport, satisfaction with accommodation, number of children and
impact on satisfaction. The overall model explained 28.9 percent of variance in
overall satisfaction, which was revealed to be statistically significant, F (3,181) =
24.55, p < .001. An inspection of individual predictors revealed that satisfaction
with local transport (Beta = .29, p < .001) and satisfaction with accommodation
(Beta = .32, p < .001) are significant predictors of overall satisfaction. Higher
satisfaction with accommodation, and with local transport were associated with
higher levels of overall satisfaction.”
Application
A health researcher wants to be able to predict "VO 2 max", an indicator of
fitness and health. Normally, to perform this procedure requires expensive
laboratory equipment and necessitates that an individual exercise to their
maximum (i.e., until they can longer continue exercising due to physical
exhaustion). This can put off those individuals who are not very active/fit
and those individuals who might be at higher risk of ill health (e.g., older
unfit subjects). For these reasons, it has been desirable to find a way of
predicting an individual's VO2 max based on attributes that can be
measured more easily and cheaply. To this end, a researcher recruited 100
participants to perform a maximum VO2max test, but also recorded their
"age", "weight", "heart rate" and "gender". Heart rate is the average of the
last 5 minutes of a 20 minute, much easier, lower workload cycling test.
The researcher's goal is to be able to predict VO2 max based on these four
attributes: age, weight, heart rate and gender.
27
Interpret the result of multiple regression analysis below:
Interpretation:_____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________.
1 or 0 point
accurate, missing
logical explanation
Develops conclusions, Reaches a Reaches a Reaches a
synthesizes creative, sensible reasonable poor decision
28
decision based
on most
factors
Feedback
Goal: Based from the results of the activity along correlation, anwer the
additional research question:
Which of the factors singly or in combination that can predict the students’ Math
performance?
Situation: After the conducting the correlations among the variables, determine
the variables that predicts Math performance.
a. The tables generated from the Linear Regression from the SPSS Statistics
f. The interpretation of the result
g. Conclusion and Recommendation
1 or 0 point
Missing or
including
accurate data;
supplementary
records inaccurate
data from the
records
SPSS
Contributes
Recommendation cont
larger study
accurate, missing
logical explanation
Reaches a
reasonable
decision based
on most
factors
Research Well-constructed Adequate Poor or
29
questionnaire missing
research
questionnaire
Summary
 There are three popular inferential statistics examining relationships
between variables namely:
 Chi-square test
 Correlations
 Simple linear regression and Multiple Regression
 The Pearson Chi-Square Test is used to tests for the strength of the
association between two categorical variables.
 Correlation tests (Pearson correlation) are commonly used to examine
relationships between two or more quantitative/numerical variables.
 Linear regression is the next step up after correlation. It examines whether
if one variable predicts (explains/impacts) another variable.
 If you have two or more independent variables, rather than just one, you
need to use multiple regression.
Reflection
Congratulations! You are done with the first unit of this module. Now, go back to
the activities and lessons you have taken in this unit and answer the following
questions. Limit your answers for each question to 5 to 10 sentences only.
1. What are the differences among the three popular inferential statistics
examining relationships between variables?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.
2. Which of the topics in this unit you had like/disliked most? Why?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.
3. Which of the activities in this unit did you enjoy the most/ the least? Why?
30
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
References
https://app.nova.edu/toolbox/instructionalproducts/Statistics%20&
%20SPSS/Module%209%20Nonparametric%20tests.pdf
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introstats1
https://statistics.laerd.com/spss-tutorials
Exploring Relationships using SPSS inferential statistics (Part II) by Dwayne
Devonish
31

Unit 8: Inferential Statistics-Test of Relationship: Activating Prior Knowledge

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Unit 1: xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

Unit 8: INFERENTIAL STATISTICS-TEST OF

Activating Prior Knowledge

gain scores of the pupils and

Topic 1. CHI SQUARE

Pearson Chi-Square Test

Ask these questions to make sure that the Pearson Chi-Square is

Characteristics of Chi Square

 Evaluates whether the proportions of individuals who fall into

Therefore, the instructor wanted to calculate an association between Gender and

If you want to display clustered

You will end up with a screen

Step 6: Click on the Continue button.

Step 8: Select Observed

Step 9: Click on the button.

Example 2. Interpret the result of the chi-square test below:

Solution: A chi-square test of independence revealed a significant relationship

Situation: There is a need to conduct a study involving the associations between

A positive correlation example:

A negative correlation examples:

Calculating and Interpreting Pearson Product Correlation using SPSS

Example 1: A PE teacher of Aparri East National High School wants to

You will be presented

Step 3: Make sure that the Pearson

Correlation Coefficients– area (although it is selected by default in SPSS

Step 5: Click on the button. You will be returned to the Bivariate

Example 2: Interpret the result of the Pearson Correlation below:

Solution: The hypothesis was tested through the computation of a Pearson

Criteria Exceeds Meets Does Not Score

Topic 3. LINEAR REGRESSION

central to regression analyses. One examines whether if one variable predicts

3. There should be no significant outliers.

Calculating and Interpreting Linear Regression using SPSS

Example 1: A salesperson for a large car brand wants to determine whether

To properly enter data in SPSS Statistics, visit https://statistics.laerd.com/spss-

You will be presented with the Linear

Step 2: Transfer the independent

Step 3: Click on the button. This will generate the results.

to present the regression equation as:

Example 2: Interpret the result of the linear regression below.

Interpretation: The table shows whether the proportion of variance explained in

Solution. “Multiple regression was conducted to examine whether nationality,

Interpretation: The R-square is the proportion of variation in the dependent

Interpret the result of multiple regression analysis below:

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