LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

The following 14 psychological factors pertain to the learner and the learning process. They focus on psychological
factors that are primarily internal to and under the control of the learner rather than conditioned habits or physiological
factors. However, the principles also attempt to acknowledge external environment or contextual factors that interact
with these internal factors.
The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real-world learning situations. Thus, they
are best understood as an organized set of principles; no principle should be viewed in isolation. The 14 principles are
divided into those referring to cognitive and metacognitive, motivational and affective, developmental and social, and
individual difference factors influencing learners and learning.
Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners-from children, to teachers, to administrators, to parents, and
to community members involved in our educational system.
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
1. Nature of the learning process. The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional
process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
There are different types of learning processes; for example, habit formation in motor learning, and learning
that involves the generation of knowledge or cognitive skills, and learning strategies. Learning in schools
emphasizes the use of intentional processes that students can use to construct meaning from information,
experiences, and their own thoughts and beliefs. Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating,
and assume personal responsibility for contributing to their own learning.
2. Goals of the learning process. The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance,
can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal directed. To construct useful representations of
knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning strategies necessary for continued learning success across
the life span, students must generate and pursue personally relevant goals. Initially, students’ short-term goals
and learning may be sketchy in an area, but over time their understanding can be refined by filling gaps,
resolving inconsistencies, and deepening their understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach longer-
term goals. Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are consistent with both
personal and educational aspirations and interests.
3. Construction of knowledge. The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.
Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new information and experiences
and their existing knowledge base. The nature of these links can take a variety of forms, such as adding to,
modifying, or reorganizing existing knowledge or skills. How these links are made or develop may vary in
different subject areas and among students with varying talents, interests, and abilities. However, unless new
knowledge becomes integrated with the learner’s prior knowledge and understanding, this new knowledge
remains isolated, cannot be used most effectively in new tasks, and does not transfer readily to new situations.
Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a number of strategies that have been
shown to be effective with learners of varying abilities, such as correct mapping and thematic organization or
categorizing.
4. Strategic thinking. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to
achieve complex learning goals.
Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning, reasoning, problem solving, and concept
learning. They understand and can use a variety of strategies to help them reach learning and performance goals,
and to apply their knowledge in novel situations. They also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by
reflecting on the methods they use to see which work well for them, by receiving guided instruction and
feedback, and by observing or interacting with appropriate models. Learning outcomes can be enhanced if
educators assist learners in developing, applying, and assessing their strategic learning skills.
5. Thinking about thinking. Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate
creative and critical thinking.
Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or performance goals, select
potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and monitor their progress toward these goals. In
addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if they are not making sufficient or timely
progress toward a goal. They can generate alternative methods to reach their goal (or reassess the
appropriateness and utility of the goal). Instructional methods that focus on helping learners develop these
higher order (metacognitive) strategies can enhance student learning and personal responsibility for learning.
6. Context of learning. Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and
instructional practices.
Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive role with both the learner and the
learning environment. Cultural or group influences on students can impact many educationally relevant
variables, such as motivation, orientation toward learning, and ways of thinking. Technologies and instructional
practices must be appropriate for learners’ level of prior knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning and
thinking strategies. The classroom environment, particularly the degree to which it is nurturing or not, can also
have significant impacts on student learning.
Motivational and Affective Factors
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning. What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s
motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional states, beliefs, interests and
goals, and habits of thinking.
The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for success or failure can enhance or
interfere with the learner’s quality of thinking and information processing. Students’ beliefs about themselves
as learners and the nature of learning have a marked influence on motivation. Motivational and emotional factors
also influence both the quality of thinking and information processing as well as an individual’s motivation to
learn. Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally enhance motivation and facilitate learning and
performance. Mild anxiety can also enhance learning and performance by focusing the learner’s attention on a
particular task. However, intense negative emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and relative thoughts
(e.g., worrying about competence, ruminating about failure, fearing punishment, ridicule or stigmatizing labels)
generally detract from motivation, interfere with learning, and contribute to low performance.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn. The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute
to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty relevant to
personal interests, and providing for personal choice of control.
Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major indicators of the learners’ intrinsic
motivation to learn, which is in large part a function of meeting basic needs to be competent and to exercise
personal control. Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as interesting and personally
relevant and meaningful, appropriate in complexity and difficulty to the learners’ abilities, and on which they
believe they can succeed. Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to real-world
situations and meet needs for choice and control. Educators can encourage and support learners’ natural
curiosity and motivation to learn by attending to individual differences in learners’ perception of optimal novelty
and difficulty, relevance, and personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation and effort. Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort
and guided practice.
Without learners’ motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion. Effort is
another main indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex knowledge and skills demands the
investment of considerable learner energy and strategic effort, along with persistence over time. Educators need
to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies that enhance learner effort and commitment to learning
and to achieving high standards of comprehension and understanding. Effective strategies include purposeful
learning activities, guided by practices that enhance positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to learn, and
methods that increase learners’ perceptions that a task is interesting and personally relevant.
Developmental and Social Factors
10. Developmental influences on learning. As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints
for learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within and across physical, intellectual,
emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and is presented in an enjoyable
and interesting way. Because individual development varies across intellectual, social, emotional, and physical
domains, achievement in different instructional domains may also vary. Overemphasis on one’s type of
developmental readiness–such as reading readiness, for example–may preclude learners from demonstrating
that they are more capable in other areas of performance. The cognitive, emotional and social development of
individual learners and how they interpret life experiences are affected by prior schooling, home, culture, and
community factors. Early and continuing parental involvement in schooling, and the quality of language
interactions and two-way communications between adults and children can influence these developmental
areas. Awareness and understanding of developmental differences among children with and without emotional,
physical, or intellectual disabilities, can facilitate the creation of optimal learning contexts.
 11. Social influences on learning. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and
communication with others.
Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to collaborate with others on
instructional tasks. Learning settings that allow for social interactions, and that respect diversity, encourage
flexible thinking and social competence. In interactive and collaborative instructional contexts, individuals have
an opportunity for perspective taking and reflective thinking that may lead to higher levels of cognitive, social,
and moral development, as well as self-esteem. Quality personal relationships that provide stability, trust, and
caring can increase learners’ sense of belonging, self-respect and self-acceptance, and provide a positive climate
for learning. Family influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction in self-motivation strategies can
offset factors that interfere with optimal learning such as negative beliefs about competence in a particular
subject, high levels of test anxiety, negative sex role expectations, and unique pressure to perform well. Positive
learning climates can also help to establish the context for healthier levels of thinking, feeling, and behaving.
Such contexts help learners feel safe to share ideas, actively participate in the learning process, and create a
learning community.
Individual Differences Factors
12. Individual differences in learning. Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning
that are a function of prior experience and heredity.
Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents. In addition, through learning and social
acculturation, they have acquired their own preferences for how they like to learn and the pace at which they
learn. However, these preferences are not always useful in helping learners reach their learning goals. Educators
need to help students examine their learning preferences and expand or modify them, if necessary. The
interaction between learner differences and curricular and environmental conditions is another key factor
affecting learning outcomes. Educators need to be sensitive to individual differences, in general. They also need
to attend to learner perceptions of the degree to which these differences are accredited and adapted to by varying
instructional methods and materials.
13. Learning and diversity. Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds are taken into account.
The same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction apply to all learners. However,
language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and socioeconomic status all can influence learning. Careful attention to these
factors in the instructional setting enhances the possibilities for designing and implementing appropriate
learning environments. When learners perceive that their individual differences in abilities, backgrounds,
cultures, and experiences are valued, respected, and accommodated in learning tasks and contexts, levels of
motivation and achievement are enhanced.
14. Standards and assessment. Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as
well as learning progress including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment are integral parts of the
learning process.
Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all stages of the learning process.
Effective learning takes place when learners feel challenged to work towards appropriately high goals.
Therefore, appraisal of the learner’s cognitive strengths and weaknesses, as well as current knowledge and
skills, is important for the selection of instructional materials of an optimal degree of difficulty. Ongoing
assessment of the learner’s understanding of the curricular material can provide valuable feedback to both
learners and teachers about progress toward the learning goals. Standardized assessment of learner progress and
outcomes assessment provides one type of information about achievement levels both within and across
individuals that can inform various types of programmatic decisions. Performance assessments can provide
other sources of information about the attainment of learning outcomes. Self-assessments of learning progress
can also improve students’ self-appraisal skills and enhance motivation and self-directed learning.

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of mental
development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding
the nature of intelligence.1 Piaget's stages are:
 Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years
 Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
 Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
 Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up
Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists as they perform
experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they
continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new
information.

Illustration by Joshua Seong, Verywell

How Piaget Developed the Theory
Piaget was born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and was a precocious student, publishing his first scientific paper when
he was just 11 years old. His early exposure to the intellectual development of children came when he worked as an
assistant to Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon as they worked to standardize their famous IQ test.
Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children was inspired by his observations of his own nephew
and daughter. These observations reinforced his budding hypothesis that children's minds were not merely smaller
versions of adult minds.
Up until this point in history, children were largely treated simply as smaller versions of adults. Piaget was one of the
first to identify that the way that children think is different from the way adults think.
Instead, he proposed, intelligence is something that grows and develops through a series of stages. Older children do
not just think more quickly than younger children, he suggested. Instead, there are both qualitative and quantitative
differences between the thinking of young children versus older children.
Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults, they simply think differently.
Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so simple only a genius could have thought of it."
Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive development involves changes in
cognitive process and abilities.2 In Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves processes based upon actions
and later progresses to changes in mental operations.
The Stages
Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual development that included four
distinct stages:
The Sensorimotor Stage
Ages: Birth to 2 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
 Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence)
 They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
 They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them
During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory
experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through
basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses.
It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of dramatic growth and learning. As kids interact
with their environment, they are continually making new discoveries about how the world works.
The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively short period of time and involves
a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to perform physical actions such as crawling and walking; they
also learn a great deal about language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also broke this stage down into
a number of different substages. It is during the final part of the sensorimotor stage that early representational thought
emerges.
Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the understanding that objects continue to exist
even when they cannot be seen, was an important element at this point of development.
By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an existence of their own outside of
individual perception, children are then able to begin to attach names and words to objects.
The Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development
The Preoperational Stage
Ages: 2 to 7 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in very concrete terms.
The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous stage, but it is the emergence of
language that is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development.3
Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development, yet continue to think very
concretely about the world around them.
At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point of view of other people.
They also often struggle with understanding the idea of constancy.
For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then give a child the choice
between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into
a flat pancake shape. Since the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece even though
the two pieces are exactly the same size.
Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development in Young Children
The Concrete Operational Stage
Ages: 7 to 11 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
 During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
 They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in
a tall, skinny glass, for example
 Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
 Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle
While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in development, they become much more
adept at using logic.2 The egocentrism of the previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about
how other people might view a situation.
While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it can also be very rigid. Kids at this
point in development tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts.
During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people might think and feel.
Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that not
everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.
The Concrete Operational Stage in Cognitive Development
The Formal Operational Stage
Ages: 12 and Up
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems
 Abstract thought emerges
 Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and
abstract reasoning
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information
The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and an
understanding of abstract ideas.3 At this point, people become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to
problems and think more scientifically about the world around them.
The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the formal operational stage of cognitive
development. The ability to systematically plan for the future and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical
abilities that emerge during this stage.
It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a quantitative process; that is, kids
do not just add more information and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested
that there is a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process through these four stages.4 A child at
age 7 doesn't just have more information about the world than he did at age 2; there is a fundamental change in how he
thinks about the world.
Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development
Important Concepts
To better understand some of the things that happen during cognitive development, it is important first to examine a
few of the important ideas and concepts introduced by Piaget.
The following are some of the factors that influence how children learn and grow:
Schemas
A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing. Schemas are
categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world.
In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that knowledge.3 As
experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously existing schemas.
For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole experience has been
with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the child
encounters an enormous dog. The child will take in this new information, modifying the previously existing schema to
include these new observations.
What Role Do Schemas Play in the Learning Process?
Assimilation
The process of taking in new information into our already existing schemas is known as assimilation. The process is
somewhat subjective because we tend to modify experiences and information slightly to fit in with our preexisting
beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is a case of assimilating the animal into the child's dog
schema.
Assimilation and Jean Piaget's Adaptation Process
Accommodation
Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas in light of new information, a process
known as accommodation. Accommodation involves modifying existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new
information or new experiences.5 New schemas may also be developed during this process.
The Role of Accommodation in How We Learn New Information
Equilibration
Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and accommodation, which is achieved
through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it
is important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to
account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helps explain how children can move from one stage of
thought to the next.3
A Word From Verywell
One of the most important elements to remember of Piaget's theory is that it takes the view that creating knowledge
and intelligence is an inherently active process.
"I find myself opposed to the view of knowledge as a passive copy of reality," Piaget explained. "I believe that knowing
an object means acting upon it, constructing systems of transformations that can be carried out on or with this object.
Knowing reality means constructing systems of transformations that correspond, more or less adequately, to reality."
Piaget's theory of cognitive development helped add to our understanding of children's intellectual growth. It also
stressed that children were not merely passive recipients of knowledge. Instead, kids are constantly investigating and
experimenting as they build their understanding of how the world works.
Educational ImplicationsAn important implication of Piaget's theory is adaptation of instruction to the learner's developmental level. The
content ofinstruction needs to be consistent with the developmental level of the learner.The teacher's role is to facilitate learning by providing a variety
of experiences. "Discovery learning" provides opportunities for learners to explore and experiment, thereby encouraging new u nderstandings.
Opportunities that allow students of differing cognitive levels to work together often encourage less mature students to advance to a more mature
understanding. One further implication for instruction is the use of concrete "hands on" experiences to help children learn. Additional suggestions
include:§Provide concrete props and visual aids, such as models and/or time line§Use familiar examples to facilitate learning more complex ideas,
such as story problems in math.§Allow opportunities to classify and group information with increasing complexity; use outlines and hierarchies to
facilitate assimilating new information with previous knowledge. §Present problems that require logical analytic thinking; the use of tools such as "brain
teasers" is encouraged.Huitt and Hummel (1998) assert that "only 35% of high school graduates in industrialized countries obtain formal operations;
many people do not think formally during adulthood". This is significant in terms of developing instruction and performance s upport tools for students
who are chronologically adults, but may be limited in their understanding of abstract concepts. For both adolescent and adult learners, it is important to
use these instructional strategies
§Use visual aids and models.§Provide opportunities to discuss social, political, and cultural issues. §Teach broad concepts rather than facts, and to
situate these in a context meaningful and relevant to the learner.
Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development
By Saul McLeod, updated 2018
Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial
development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could
have a positive or negative outcome for personality development.
For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs of the
individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e., social).
According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic
virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.
Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and therefore a more
unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time.
Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age
1. Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0 - 1½
2. Autonomy vs. Shame Will 1½ - 3
3. Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 3-5
4. Industry vs. Inferiority Competency 5 - 12
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity 12 - 18
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Love 18 - 40
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Care 40 - 65
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom 65+

1. Trust vs. Mistrust

Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at birth
continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they
live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.
If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense of trust which will carry
with them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even when threatened.
If these needs are not consistently met, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety may develop.
If the care has been inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the infant may develop a sense of mistrust,
suspicion, and anxiety. In this situation the infant will not have confidence in the world around them or in their abilities
to influence events.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope that as
new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there as a source of support. Failing to acquire the
virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear.
This infant will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened
insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around them.
Consistent with Erikson's views on the importance of trust, research by Bowlby and Ainsworth has outlined how the
quality of the early experience of attachment can affect relationships with others in later life.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. This stage
occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years. According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused
on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will. If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their
increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.
If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel
inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a
sense of shame or doubt in their abilities.
What Happens During This Stage?
The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile, and discovering that he or she has many skills and
abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the child's growing sense of
independence and autonomy.
For example, during this stage children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their mother, picking
which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.
What Can Parents Do to Encourage a Sense of Control?
Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging
environment which is tolerant of failure.
For example, rather than put on a child's clothes a supportive parent should have the patience to allow the child to try
until they succeed or ask for assistance. So, the parents need to encourage the child to become more independent while
at the same time protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided.
A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child, but if the child fails at
a particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents (particularly when toilet training).
The aim has to be “self control without a loss of self-esteem” (Gross, 1992).

3. Initiative vs. Guilt

Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. During the initiative
versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently.
These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. According to Bee (1992), it is a “time of vigor of
action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive."
During this period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other children at school. Central to
this stage is play, as it provides children with the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating
activities.
Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children
develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions.

Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt. The
child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness, and the danger is that the parents will tend to punish the child
and restrict his initiatives too much.
It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge grows. If the parents treat
the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance or embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as threatening then the
child may have feelings of guilt for “being a nuisance”.
Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some guilt is, of course,
necessary; otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self-control or have a conscience.
A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of purpose,
while failure results in a sense of guilt.

4. Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. inferiority occurs during childhood between
the ages of five and twelve.
Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things on their own. Teachers
begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they teach the child specific skills.
It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a major source of the child’s
self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by
society and begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments.
If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious (competent) and feel
confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher,
then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or her potential.
If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g., being athletic) then they may develop
a sense of inferiority.
Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Again, a balance between competence and
modesty is necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is identity vs. role confusion, and it occurs during
adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity,
through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.
During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are becoming more
independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The individual
wants to belong to a society and fit in.
The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage between childhood and adulthood, and
between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be developed by the adult (Erikson, 1963, p. 245)
This is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. It is during this
stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is. Erikson suggests that
two identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational.
According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is “a reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants
to do or be, and of one’s appropriate sex role”. During this stage the body image of the adolescent changes.

Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for a while until they can adapt and “grow
into” the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity.
Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when there may be
ideological differences.
During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the outcome of their
explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society ("I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up")
can lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in
society.
In response to role confusion or identity crisis, an adolescent may begin to experiment with different lifestyles (e.g.,
work, education or political activities).
Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in
addition to this feeling of unhappiness.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place
during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs.
During this period, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people.
During this period, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward
longer-term commitments with someone other than a family member.
Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within
a relationship.
Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This
stage takes place during during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs).
Generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world through creating or nurturing things that will outlast an
individual.
People experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees or creating positive
changes that will benefit other people.
We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community
activities and organizations. Through generativity we develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture.
Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.
By failing to find a way to contribute, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. These individuals may feel
disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole. Success in this stage will lead to the
virtue of care.

8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson’s stage theory of psychosocial development.
This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death.
It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading
a successful life.
Erikson described ego integrity as “the acceptance of one’s one and only life cycle as something that had to be” (1950,
p. 268) and later as “a sense of coherence and wholeness” (1982, p. 65).
As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as a
retired person.
Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish
our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense
of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.
Wise people are not characterized by a continuous state of ego integrity, but they experience both ego integrity and
despair. Thus, late life is characterized by both integrity and despair as alternating states that need to be balanced.

Critical Evaluation
By extending the notion of personality development across the lifespan, Erikson outlines a more realistic perspective
of personality development (McAdams, 2001).
Based on Erikson’s ideas, psychology has reconceptualized the way the later periods of life are viewed. Middle and
late adulthood are no longer viewed as irrelevant, because of Erikson, they are now considered active and significant
times of personal growth.
Erikson’s theory has good face validity. Many people find that they can relate to his theories about various stages of
the life cycle through their own experiences.
However, Erikson is rather vague about the causes of development. What kinds of experiences must people have to
successfully resolve various psychosocial conflicts and move from one stage to another? The theory does not have a
universal mechanism for crisis resolution.
Indeed, Erikson (1964) acknowledges his theory is more a descriptive overview of human social and emotional
development that does not adequately explain how or why this development occurs. For example, Erikson does not
explicitly explain how the outcome of one psychosocial stage influences personality at a later stage.
However, Erikson stressed his work was a ‘tool to think with rather than a factual analysis.’ Its purpose then is to
provide a framework within which development can be considered rather than testable theory.
One of the strengths of Erikson's theory is its ability to tie together important psychosocial development across the
entire lifespan.
Although support for Erikson's stages of personality development exists (McAdams, 1999), critics of his theory provide
evidence suggesting a lack of discrete stages of personality development (McCrae & Costa, 1997).
Maslow vs Erikson
Maslow Erikson
Proposed a series of motivational stages, each building
Proposed a series of predetermined stages related to personality
on the previous one (i.e., cannot progress without
development. The stages are time related.
satisfying the previous stage).
Progression through the stages is based a person’s age (i.e., rigid).
Progression through the stages is based on life
During each stage an individual attains personality traits, either
circumstances and achievement (i.e., it is flexible).
beneficial or pathological.
There is only one goal of achievement, although not The goal of achievement vary from stage to stage and involve
everyone achieves it. overcoming a psychosocial crisis.
Individuals move up the motivational stages / pyramid Successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and
in order to reach self-actualisation. The first four stages the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic
are like stepping stones. strengths used to resolve subsequent crises.
Psychosocial Stages Summary
Like Freud and many others, Erik Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order, and builds
upon each previous stage. This is called the epigenetic principle.
Trust vs. Mistrust
This stage begins at birth and lasts through around one year of age.
The infant develops a sense of trust when interactions provide reliability, care, and affection.
A lack of this will lead to mistrust.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately age two to three years.
The infant develops a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.
Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging
environment which is tolerant of failure.
Success leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
Initiative vs. Guilt
This stage occurs during the preschool years, between the ages of three and five.
The child begins to assert control and power over their environment by planning activities, accomplishing tasks and
facing challenges. Success at this stage leads to a sense of purpose.
If initiative is dismissed or discourages, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt.
Industry vs. Inferiority
This stage occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve.
It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a major source of the child’s
self-esteem. The child is coping with new learning and social demands.
Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
Identity vs. Role Confusion
The fifth stage occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years.
Teenagers explore who they are as individuals, and seek to establish a sense of self, and may experiment with different
roles, activities, and behaviors.
According to Erikson, this is important to the process of forming a strong identity and developing a sense of direction
in life.
Intimacy vs. Isolation
This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 19 and 40.
During this period, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads
to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.
Generativity vs. Stagnation
This stage takes place during middle adulthood between the ages of approximately 40 and 65.
People experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees or creating positive
changes that will benefit other people.
Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
This stage takes place after age 65 and involves reflecting on one's life and either moving into feeling satisfied and happy with
one's life or feeling a deep sense of regret.
Success at this stages leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
What Is Sociocultural Theory?
Sociocultural theory is an emerging theory in psychology that looks at the important contributions that society makes
to individual development. This theory stresses the interaction between developing people and the culture in which
they live. Sociocultural theory also suggests that human learning is largely a social process.

Illustration by Brianna Gilmartin, Verywell

An Introduction to Sociocultural Theory
Sociocultural theory grew from the work of seminal psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who believed that parents, caregivers,
peers, and the culture at large were responsible for developing higher order functions.
According to Vygotsky, learning has its basis in interacting with other people. Once this has occurred, the information
is then integrated on the individual level:
Vygotsky was a contemporary of other great thinkers such as Freud, Skinner, and Piaget, but his early death at age 37
and the suppression of his work in Stalinist Russia left him in relative obscurity until fairly recently. As his work
became more widely published, his ideas have grown increasingly influential in areas including child development,
cognitive psychology, and education.
Sociocultural theory focuses not only how adults and peers influence individual learning, but also on how cultural
beliefs and attitudes impact how instruction and learning take place.
According to Vygotsky, children are born with basic biological constraints on their minds. Each culture, however,
provides what he referred to as 'tools of intellectual adaptation.' These tools allow children to use their basic mental
abilities in a way that is adaptive to the culture in which they live. For example, while one culture might emphasize
memory strategies such as note-taking, other cultures might utilize tools like reminders or rote memorization.
Piaget vs. Vygotsky: Key Differences
So how does Vygotsky's sociocultural theory differ from Piaget's theory of cognitive development?
First, Vygotsky placed a greater emphasis on how social factors influence development. While Piaget's theory stressed
how a child's interactions and explorations influenced development, Vygotsky stressed the essential role that social
interactions play in cognitive development.1
Another important difference between the two theories was that while Piaget's theory suggests that development is
largely universal, Vygotsky suggested that cognitive development can differ between different cultures. The course of
development in a Western culture, for example, might be different than it is in an Eastern culture.
Piaget's Four Stages of Cognitive Development
The Zone of Proximal Development
An important concept in sociocultural theory is known as the zone of proximal development.2
According to Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development "is the distance between the actual development level as
determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-
solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers."
Essentially, it includes all of the knowledge and skills that a person cannot yet understand or perform on their own
yet but is capable of learning with guidance. As children are allowed to stretch their skills and knowledge, often by
observing someone who is slightly more advanced than they are, they are able to progressively extend this zone of
proximal development.
Exploring the Zone of Proximal Development
Observations About Social Learning Theory
In his text, "Social and Personality Development," author David R. Shaffer explains that while Piaget believed that
cognitive development was fairly universal, Vygotsky believed that each culture presents unique differences. Because
cultures can vary so dramatically, Vygotsky's sociocultural theory suggests that both the course and content of
intellectual development are not as universal as Piaget believed.
Practical Applications for Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
Sociocultural theory has gained popularity in recent years, particularly in educational settings. Some examples of how
this theory can be put into practice in the real-world:
In the Classroom
Understanding the levels of the zone of proximal development can be helpful for teachers.3 In classroom settings,
teachers may first assess students to determine their current skill level. Once this has been ascertained, educators can
then offer instruction that stretches the limits of each child's capabilities. At first, the student may need assistance from
an adult or more knowledgeable peer, but eventually their zone of proximal development will expand.
 Teachers can plan their instruction and lessons. For example, the teacher might organize the class into groups where
less skilled children are paired with students who have a higher skill level.
 Hints, prompts, and direct instruction can be used to help kids improve their ability levels.
 Educators might also utilize the concept of scaffholding, where the teacher provides prompts to move the child
progressively forward towards a goal.
Socializing and Play
Vygotky's theory also stressed the importance of play in learning.4 Teachers and parents can utilize this knowledge by
providing children plenty of opportunities for play experiences. Vygotsky believed that through playing and imagining,
children were able to further stretch their conceptual abilities and knowledge of the world.
Types of play that can further learning include imaginary play, role-playing, games, and reinactments of real events.
Such activities help foster the growth of abstract thought.
Social Development Theory (Lev Vygotsky)
Overview
 The major theme of Vygotsky’s theoretical
framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky (1978) states:
“Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual
level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to
voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual
relationships between individuals.” (p57).
A second aspect of Vygotsky’s theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive development depends upon the “zone
of proximal development” (ZPD): a level of development attained when children engage in social behavior. Full
development of the ZPD depends upon full social interaction. The range of skill that can be developed with adult
guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone.
Vygotsky’s theory was an attempt to explain consciousness as the end product of socialization. For example, in the
learning of language, our first utterances with peers or adults are for the purpose of communication but once mastered
they become internalized and allow “inner speech”.
Vygotsky’s theory is complementary to Bandura’s work on social learning and a key component of situated learning
theory as well. Because Vygotsky’s focus was on cognitive development, it is interesting to compare his views with
those a constructivist (Bruner) and a genetic epistemologist(Piaget).
Application
This is a general theory of cognitive development. Most of the original work was done in the context of language
learning in children (Vygotsky, 1962), although later applications of the framework have been broader (see Wertsch,
1985).
Example
Vygotsky (1978, p56) provides the example of pointing a finger. Initially, this behavior begins as a meaningless
grasping motion; however, as people react to the gesture, it becomes a movement that has meaning. In particular, the
pointing gesture represents an interpersonal connection between individuals.
Principles
1. Cognitive development is limited to a certain range at any given age.
2. Full cognitive development requires social interaction
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Kolhberg’s theory of moral development states that we progress through three levels of moral thinking that
build on our cognitive development.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
 Summarize Kohlberg’s stages of psychosocial development

KEY POINTS

o Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to explain the moral
development of children, which he believed follows a series of stages.
 o Kohlberg defined three levels of moral development: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.
Each level has two distinct stages.
o During the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled. Children accept and believe
the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers, and they judge an action based on its consequences.
o During the conventional level, an individual’s sense of morality is tied to personal and societal relationships.
Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now because they believe that this is
necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order.
o During the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract principles
and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or eliminated.
o Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for its cultural and gendered bias toward white, upper-class men and boys.
It also fails to account for inconsistencies within moral judgments.

TERM
 moralityRecognition of the distinction between good and evil or between right and wrong; respect for and obedience
to the rules of right conduct; the mental disposition or characteristic of behaving in a manner intended to produce good
results.
FULL TEXT
Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to explain the moral development
of children. Kohlberg believed that moral development, like cognitive development, follows a series of stages. He used
the idea of moral dilemmas—stories that present conflicting ideas about two moral values—to teach 10 to 16 year-old
boys about morality and values. The best known moral dilemma created by Kohlberg is the “Heinz” dilemma, which
discusses the idea of obeying the law versus saving a life. Kohlberg emphasized that it is the way an
individual reasons about a dilemma that determines positive moral development.
After presenting people with various moral dilemmas, Kohlberg reviewed people’s responses and placed them in
different stages of moral reasoning. According to Kohlberg, an individual progresses from the capacity for pre-
conventional morality (before age 9) to the capacity for conventional morality (early adolescence), and toward attaining
post-conventional morality (once Piaget’s idea of formal operational thought is attained), which only a few fully
achieve. Each level of morality contains two stages, which provide the basis for moral development in various contexts.

Kohlberg’s stages of moral development

Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. Each level
is associated with increasingly complex stages of moral development.
Level 1: Preconventional
Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled. Children accept and believe
the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers. A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted
or internalized society’s conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external
consequences that certain actions may bring.
Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation
Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished. For example, an action is perceived as
morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished; the worse the punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is
perceived to be.
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation
Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behavior is defined by whatever the individual
believes to be in their best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point
where it might further the individual’s own interests. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty
or intrinsic respect, but rather a “you scratch my back, and I’ll scratch yours” mentality. An example would be when a
child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks “what’s in it for me?” and the parents offer the child
an incentive by giving him an allowance.
Level 2: Conventional
Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and societal relationships. Children
continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive
relationships and societal order. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages, and a rule’s
appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.
Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation
In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval. Emphasis is placed on good
behavior and people being “nice” to others.
Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation
In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their importance in maintaining a functioning
society. Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and obeying rules by doing what one is “supposed” to do is
seen as valuable and important. Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in
stage three. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold
laws and rules. Most active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by
an outside force.
Level 3: Postconventional
Throughout the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract principles and
values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a
growing realization that individuals are separate entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules
inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their own ethical principles—principles that
typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful but changeable
mechanisms, rather than absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional individuals
elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can
sometimes be confused with that of those at the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many
people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation
In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such perspectives should be mutually
respected as unique to each person or community. Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those
that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest
number of people. This is achieved through majority decision and inevitable compromise. Democratic government is
theoretically based on stage five reasoning.
Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation
In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. Generally, the chosen
principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus on ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only
insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws.
People choose the ethical principles they want to follow, and if they violate those principles, they feel guilty. In this
way, the individual acts because it is morally right to do so (and not because he or she wants to avoid punishment), it
is in their best interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it is previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage
six exists, he found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently operated at that level.
Critiques of Kohlberg’s Theory
Kohlberg has been criticized for his assertion that women seem to be deficient in their moral reasoning abilities when
compared to men. Carol Gilligan (1982), a research assistant of Kohlberg, criticized her former mentor’s theory because
it was based so narrowly on research using white, upper-class men and boys. She argued that women are not deficient
in their moral reasoning and instead proposed that males and females reason differently: girls and women focus more
on staying connected and maintaining interpersonal relationships.
Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for emphasizing justice to the exclusion of other values, with the result that it
may not adequately address the arguments of those who value other moral aspects of actions. Similarly, critics argue
that Kohlberg’s stages are culturally biased—that the highest stages in particular reflect a westernized ideal of justice
based on individualistic thought. This is biased against those that live in non-Western societies that place less emphasis
on individualism.
Another criticism of Kohlberg’s theory is that people frequently demonstrate significant inconsistency in their moral
judgements. This often occurs in moral dilemmas involving drinking and driving or business situations where
participants have been shown to reason at a lower developmental stage, typically using more self-interest driven
reasoning (i.e., stage two) than authority and social order obedience driven reasoning (i.e., stage four). Critics argue
that Kohlberg’s theory cannot account for such inconsistencies.