CONSTRUCTIVISME AND INDUCTIVE MODEL

INTRODUCTION

Teaching models are methods of teaching underlying philosophies that guide teaching

methods. Effective teachers will integrate different teaching methods and models depend on their

student need and level. Inductive Model is one of the method of teaching in classroom. The most

famous inductive model is The Inductive Model that was developed by Hilda Taba in 1960s

based on the focus to assist student to build deeper understanding of specific topic or ideas.

CONSTRUCTIVISME : Foundation of Inductive Model

Constructivism is a theory that based on observation and scientific study about what

people learn. This theory says that people or student construct their own learning understanding

and knowledge of the learning through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences.

Student will reconcile new things or knowledge with their previous knowledge by asking,

questioning, exploring and accessing what we know. Constructivism is a view of learning that

suggests that students can develop their own understanding through active participation

Inductive teaching and learning can also under an umbrella term that encompasses a

range of instructional methods, including inquiry learning, problem-based learning, project-based

learning, case-based teaching, discovery learning, and just-in-time teaching. These methods of

learning have many features in common, besides the fact that they all have qualify as an

inductive model. All of these methods are all student centered, meaning that they impose more

responsibility on students for their own learning than the traditional lecture-based deductive

approach does before. They are all supported by research findings that students learn by fitting

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new information into existing cognitive structures and are unlikely to learn if the information has

few apparent connections to what they already know and believe. They can all be characterized

as constructivist methods, building on the widely accepted principle that students construct their

own versions of reality rather than simply absorbing versions presented by their teachers. These

methods almost always involve students discussing questions and solving problems in class or

active learning, with much of the work in and out of class being done by students working in

groups such as collaborative or cooperative learning.

INDUCTIVE MODEL : AN OVERVIEW

The Inductive Model is often called guided discovery and it is grounded in the principles

of constructivism. There are many types of inductive methods such as inquiry learning, problem-

based learning and project. When teaching using inductive model teacher’s role is to provide

examples that illustrate the content and then guide students’ efforts to find patterns in the

information. Student or learners will construct their own understanding with careful guidance

and questioning by teachers during learning process. Inductive Model also can be defined as a

view of learning that suggests students can develop their own understanding through active

participation. Inductive instruction makes student noticing when teacher present them with many

examples.

Knowledge is built primarily from a learner experiences and interactions with

phenomena. Teachers using inductive methods to expose their student to concrete instances of

the concept then observe patterns, raise questions and make generalizations from their

observations.

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SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF THE MODEL

Social structures refers to the characteristics of the classroom environment necessary for

learning to take place and the roles of the teacher and students in the environment. The Inductive

Model requires a classroom environment in which students feel free to take risks and offer their

thoughts and ideas without fear of criticism or embarrassment.

TEACHERS ROLE

In Inductive Model, teacher’s role is to provide safe and supportive learning area and

environment for their student. Teachers also create the opportunities for their student to be

skilled at questioning and have clear learning. Teachers also have the state the objectives of the

learning or learning goals. In Inductive Model teachers will monitor their students and make

instant decisions in learning process. Teachers also have motivation to do a lot of activities in

their classroom. As examples are the most accurate factor in learning, teachers should have a lot

of example to guide their student understanding.

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GOALS FOR THE INDUCTIVE MODEL

The Inductive Model is designed to accomplish two primary goals. The first is to help

students develop a deeper understanding of content and critical thinking skills of specific topics

such as nutrition or Mendel`s Law. Second, it`s designed to put students in a active role in the

process of constructing their understanding. Teachers provided students with data in the form of

example, demonstration or model. Thus, students try to make sense of the information with

guidance of teacher. They both construct a thorough understanding of the topics and gain skill

and confidence in their thinking abilities.

CHARACTERISTIC OF THE MODEL

 Highly sophisticated and demanding instruction

 Teachers must be expert in questioning

 Teachers must monitor behavior

 Teachers must make on the spot decisions about what questions to ask and which students to

call on

 The students must be guided to analyze the information

The Inductive Model was highly sophisticated and demanding instruction which is

students engaged in activities through which they develop skills and acquire concepts. Teachers

also must be expert in questioning skill when teaching using inductive model so that student can

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practices their thinking skill. During the teaching and learning process teacher must monitor their

student behavior so that student will get benefit from the learning process.

Teachers also must make on the spot decisions about what questions to ask and which

student to call which is can make a good social interaction among them when they share their

ideas together. In Inductive Model students also must be guided to analyze the information that

comes to them, manipulate them, discover and create knowledge to fit their belief system.

THEORITICAL FOUNDATION AND CONCEPTS

Lessons using Inductive Model begin with and are built around examples. These

examples become the experiences that learner use to construct their understanding of the topic.

Social interaction is used to analyze the examples. Social interaction and teacher guidance will

help eliminate misinterpretation of the examples. The teacher guides the students. It is a dual

role which is accepting and honoring the students’ “inventions” of knowledge even when they

are wrong while at the same time guiding the students toward a more mature understanding. As a

example these categories come with common characteristics such as mental categories, sets, or

classes. Thus latitude, rectangle, perspective in art is a concept. The number of concepts in the

school curriculum is nearly endless. As example Cars Best to present a “fuzzy” concept using

either prototypes or exemplars. Prototypes are the best representatives of its class.

The concept should includes the following like definition, characteristics, examples,

super ordinate concept for larger category, subordinate concept as a subsets of the concept,

coordinate concept as a related subset of the super ordinate category.

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 In addition, to make concept clear to student, teachers should give a clear definition and

carefully selected examples to use in teaching and learning process and also carefully selected

non examples to make sure student not confuse. Teachers also should make sure about the

principals of the concepts and also relationships among concepts accepted as valid for all known

cases. The principles are also known as laws, as examples all like magnetic poles repel or unlike

magnetic poles attract. The generalizations is general patterns with known exceptions as

example a daily dose of aspirin reduces the danger of a heart attack. This example is generally

accepted as good medical practice, but there are exceptions for certain medical conditions. The

academic rules are the relationships between concepts arbitrarily derived by people as example

rounding numbers. The rule for rounding number is round up a number if the last digit is 5 or

higher but student could have set the last digit at 6 or higher, so that they have arbitrarily set it at

5 or higher.

PLANNING LESSON WITH THE INDUCTIVE MODEL

There are 3 essential steps to planning lesson using inductive model:

1) Identify Topics

Teacher has to identify the topic first in planning their lesson plan. Each of the

learning topic should served at the beginning point for teachers planning. The topic might

be come from textbooks, curriculum guides and others. It’s including concepts,

principles, generalization and academic rules. It also must be align to learning outcomes

and has it standards format.

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2) Specify Learning Objectives

When planning a lesson plan teacher must have a question in their mind such as :

 What do you want students to learn/know?

 What thinking skills do you want students to develop/

When teachers specify their learning objectives and goals, their aim is to make sure

student know about the topic. Teachers also should have a clear goal in mind and teach

directly towards them. Clears goals is important to provide a framework to teacher as a

guide in teaching and learning process. When teacher have a clear goals in mind it also

help them to select examples to use during teaching and developing student critical

thinking.

3) Selecting Example

Examples are very important for student to understand about the topic. Examples

are use as the information for students need to understand and clearly observable.

Teacher should use quality and variety of examples in their lesson such as real world

examples and concrete materials which is the real thing that can be used to

demonstrations and hands on activities. This is the best example for student and teachers

should be used whenever possible.

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 Pictures also one of best example can be used by teacher an acceptable when

concrete material are possible. Teachers can use pictures as a replacement to concrete

material because it can be as close as possible to reality. Model also can be used for

content which is impossible to observe directly and allows student to visualize and

identify essential characteristic of reality.

Teacher also can use case study as example to illustrate the concept internal

conflict such as the hard concept so that an abstract definition would be easy to learn. The

case study usually use in social studies or literature use technology and computer

software.

Some of the topic we teach are difficult to represent and this difficulty is what makes

them hard to learn. It is for the topic that technology can effectively use (Alessi &

Trollip, 1991). This is why teacher also can using computer software to develop

simulation and can be use when concepts are hard to illustrate in other way. By using

computer software can intent for student to notice by way of the examples how the

concepts works. Teachers present with many examples showing how concepts is used

ASSESSMENT

Teachers must make sure that learning objectives, learning activities, and assessments are

aligned in inductive teaching model. Different kind of assessment method could arrive a different

conclusions. Moreover, valid and reliable assessment of high level thinking skill are difficult to

obtain.

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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF INDUCTIVE MODEL

Motivation to learn affects the amount of time students are willing to devote to learning.

Learners are more motivated when they can see the usefulness of what they are learning and

when they can use it to do something that has an impact on others (Bransford, J.D., Brown, A.L.,

and Cocking, R.R.,2000).

Inductive model can emphasizes critical, higher-order thinking in student. It also can

increases student motivation so learner involvement and success will be at high level. Using

inductive method can evokes curiosity and challenges students to find an “unknown” knowledge

and idea. When use an example to provide background information to accommodate individual

differences can also be a creative model peaks student interest. Learners also are more engaged

in teaching learning process because learning becomes more interesting because teachers begin

with the experiences of the students helps the development of the learners higher order thinking

skill to see path and analyze the same in order to arrive a generalization requires analytical

thinking and offers advantages to student with different learning strength and motivations.

Even inductive model have many advantages it also have a few disadvantages. Teaching

using inductive methods may take long time and be less efficient. In this method certain ideas do

not lend themselves easily and can be open ended inductive activities

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IMPLEMENTING LESSONS USING THE INDUCTIVE MODEL

Implementing a lesson using the inductive model combines five interrelated phases. Five

steps are lesson introduction, the open-ended phase, the convergent phase, closure and lastly the

application phase.

Phase 1: Lesson Introduction

Teachers start the lesson by telling students that they are going to look at some examples

and their task is to look for patterns and differences in them. The teacher can do this in a variety

of ways. A simple statement such as, ``Today, I`m going to show you some examples. I want

you to be very good observers and try to see what kind of pattern exists in them.`` Or the lesson

can begin as Judy Nelson did when she posed the problem or specifying for a new friend exactly

where the students lived. Another example is in teaching science chapter nutrition, teacher can

bring picture or a real food as a introduction for induction set. Each of these introduction

provides a conceptual framework for a lesson.

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Phase 2: The Open-Ended Phase

For the open-ended phase, students begin the process of constructing meaning from the

examples. Teachers can start this phase in several ways :

1. Teacher can present an example and asks students to observe and describe it.

2. Teacher can present two or more examples and asks students what they have in common.

3. Teacher can present an example and a non-example and asks the students to contrast the two

4. Teacher can begin with a negative example and have the students describe it.

So whatever option that teacher use, the lessons must continue by having students

respond to open-ended questions. This will allow variety of acceptable answers. Open-ended also

have several advantages compared to typical questions that require a single, convergent, correct

answer.

1. Open-ended questions are easy to think up and ask. Teachers can ask students to describe or

compare and then use students` responses as the basic for further questions.

2. Since the questions can be asked and answered quickly, it is easy for teachers to call on

several different students in a short time period. Research indicates that larger numbers of

classroom questions promote students involvement and are related to increased achievement

(Pratton & Hales, 1986).

3. The questions allow for brisk lesson pacing, which produce greater students attention than

slower-paced lessons.

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4. Open-ended questions have been found effective with cultural minorities and students with

limited English language proficiency, encouraging them to participate in lessons (Langer et al.,

1990)

In open-ended phase, students `construct` new understanding based on their background,

so diagnosing their existing understanding is important. This is an efficient way of obtaining this

information.

Phase 3 : The Convergent Phase

The open-ended phase is designed to increase student involvement, motivation and

ensure success. Teachers have to specify content goal and help students reach the goal. So,

teacher need to narrow the range of student responses and assist them in identifying the

relationship. This is because the students responses converge on a specific answer and this is

called the convergent phase. The open-ended phase flows naturally into the convergent phase.

Example in teaching science topic nutrition, teacher use students responses about `Eating For

Healthy` in open-ended phase and asked them to plan a balance diet from information that they

got before the convergent phase.

In this convergent phase, all students bring a considerable amount of back ground

knowledge with them to the learning situation, and this knowledge influences their learning.

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Phase 4 : Closure

Closure is the point at which students identify the characteristics of the concept or can

state the principle generalization or rule that asked by teacher. Phase 4 also provides

opportunities to help students develop thinking skills related to recognizing irrelevant

information. It is quite easy to assess the examples for nonessential information which in turn

sensitizes students to this important thinking skill.

Phase 5 : The Application Phase

The application phase typically includes a seatwork or homework assignment. However,

in spite of careful development of the concept, principle, generalization, or rule, application is a

transition that often requires additional help from teacher.

Teacher need to monitor and discuss students` initial efforts at application helps solidify

ideas in students` minds, makes the topic more meaningful for them and helps bridge the gap

between the teacher-led learning activity and independent practice.

When teacher satisfied that most students can comfortably apply the information on their

own, teacher can give an assignment that requires further application. While students work

independently, teacher can help those who haven`t fully grasped the idea or who aren`t yet ready

for application on their own.

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THE INDUCTIVE MODEL : EMPHASIS ON THINKING & UNDERSTANDING

Teaching and learning using Inductive Model actually encompasses a range of

instructional methods, including inquiry learning, problem-based learning, project-based

learning, case-based teaching, and discovery learning. What are the similarities among all these

instructional methods? They emphasis thinking and understanding. In class, teacher promotes

thinking in their students. For example, teacher asks students to compare and contrast about

certain topics that they had learnt. Sometimes students are required to find patterns and

generalization.

For example, when teacher present students with data, she or he will tell them to make

observations of that data, and on the basis of those observations, teacher ask students to state the

concept or generalization. This was found to be effective teaching strategy because it encourages

participation, which helps any activity to be more interesting.  

When activity becomes interesting, the easier to get students focused and involved in the

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lesson. The inductive teaching method is also effective for developing perceptual and

observational skills. Students not only learn content but they learn how to process data and how

to use it to arrive at appropriate conclusions. 

“Inductive approach” is something like giving a mystery. Starting a class with mystery is

very effective to attract students to the class. For example in English class, students might try to

find a grammatical rule just like solving a mystery. Finally, this process will lead to more

successful grammar learning. From a student’s perspective, an inductive approach enables them

to think more before stating some concrete ideas. It is also give students more thinking

opportunities. In inductive approach, students can have various answers from their discussion,

interactions or independent thinking. This inductive approach seems to benefit the active

students more than the passive ones.

Teachers would prefer to use Inductive Model to teach Science. Their students’ ability of

thinking will increase by using inductive approach since the students try to find the answers,

concepts, methods or rules from given examples. As a result, their brains work well and it is

more meaningful than spoon-fed.

USING THE INDUCTIVE MODEL TO INCREASE LEARNER MOTIVATION BY

ENCOURAGEMENT

‘Nine-tenths of education is encouragement.’ This shows the significance of

encouragement in students’ learning process. When teacher assign certain topic to be discuss in

group, and the students have to present their result or finding to the class, teacher can praises

students’ effort and talent during presentation. Teachers also offer specific feedback rather than

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general comments. For example, instead of saying, “Good job,” teachers can comment on

specific behaviors.

On the other hand, teachers who encourage students will create an environment in which

students do not have to fear about evaluation. They are allowed to make mistakes and learn from

them. Most students thrive in encouraging environments where they receive specific feedback

and have the opportunity to evaluate their own behavior and work. Encouragement will

contribute positive self-esteem, a willingness to explore and acceptance of self and others.

Teacher also can praises and encourages students who are well behaved. For example, after give

out tasks to students, thank them for well behaved or for doing something seriously in their own

groups.

INDUCTIVE MODEL : QUESTIONING AND DISCUSSION

According to Danielson (2007) there are two purposes for questions in a classroom:

helping students explore new ideas and providing teachers with evidence of student learning.

History reveals that purposeful questioning and discussion began approximately 2,000 years ago

with Socrates, who strove to engage the intellectuals in rhetorical analysis that required critical

thinking to solve the political, medical, religious, and philosophical problems of the day (Gross,

2002). As soon as children begin talking, they begin asking questions and discussing what they

just learned. This curious inquiry process until they grow up. When teacher uses Inductive

Model, questioning, discussion and giving feedback in class can be promoted.

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 Feedback can promote learning and growth. A number of studies have demonstrated that

feedback may stimulate growth in learning may effects positive change in student (Ganesh &

Matteson, 2010). Hilda Taba proposes questioning strategies in her study as stated in the table

below.

Overt Activity Covert Mental Operations Eliciting Questions

1. Enumeration, listing Differentiation (identifying What do you see? hear? note?
separate items)
2. Grouping Identifying common What belongs together? On
properties, abstracting what criterion?
3. Labeling, categorizing Determining the hierarchical How would you call these
order of things (super- and groups? What belongs to
subordination) what?
Source: Hilda Taba, Teacher's Handbook for Elementary Social Studies (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc.,
1967) p. 92.

Overt Activity Covert Mental Operations Eliciting Questions

1. Identifying critical Differentiating What did you notice? see?
relationships find?
2. Exploring relationships Relating categories to each Why did this happen?
other
Determining cause-and-effect
relationships
3. Making inferences Going beyond what is given What does this mean? What
Finding implications, picture does it create in your
extrapolating mind? What could you
conclude?
Source: Hilda Taba, Teacher's Handbook for Elementary Social Studies (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc.,
1967) p. 101.

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 Overt Activity Eliciting Questions
Covert Mental Operations
1. Predicting consequences, Analyzing the nature of the What would happen if . . . ?
explaining unfamiliar problem or situation,
phenomena, retrieving relevant knowledge
hypothesizing
2. Explaining and/or Determining the causal links Why do you think this would
supporting the predictions leading to prediction or happen?
and hypotheses hypothesis
3. Verifying the prediction Using logical principles or What would it take for this to
factual knowledge to be generally true or probably
determine necessary and true?
sufficient conditions
Source: Hilda Taba, Teacher's Handbook for Elementary Social Studies (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc.,
1967) p. 109.

INDUCTIVE MODEL : ASSESSING STUDENT LEARNING

First and foremost, before assessing students’ learning, teacher must be very clear in

learning goals, learning activities & assessment. Maintaining the consistency through assessment

phase can be challenging.  The objective of this assessment here is to discover what the learners

know, understand, or can do. Classroom assessment that is fair and provides accurate

information about student achievement can serve to support instructional and program

improvement and increase student motivation and achievement. Effective assessment occurs

when there is a clear understanding of the knowledge and skills students are expected to

demonstrate as a result of their learning.

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 The purpose of assessment is to improve student achievement. Assessment continually

guides the development, implementation and support of instruction. During experiment for

example, students need to receive timely, specific and directive feedback in order to get the

accurate result or correct product. Formative assessment which usually conducted after finish

certain topic or subtopic in class, provides valuable and immediate feedback to the students. The

teachers may outlining strengths and needs in the next class. Evaluation occurs at the end of a

grading period and is reported as a number, level, or letter grade in accordance to the

achievement chart.

Asking questions which is encouraged in Inductive Model can also be used in assessing

student learning. Doing so will help you increase student participation and encourage active

learning. The strategies will also help you formulate questions for exams . Educators agreed that

questioning and discussion techniques had to become a focus for improvement. However, they

do not tend to ask higher-order, curious, critical thinking, and problem solving questions that

produce large gains in student achievement (Almeida, 2010).

CONCLUSION

There are many varieties of inductive approaches, each of which can be implemented in many

ways—with greater or lesser instructor involvement, with or without formal facilitation of

teamwork, with most of the work being done in or out of class, and so on. Two articles may

claim to be studies of, say, problem-based learning, but they could involve dramatically different

forms of instruction and may well produce different learning outcomes. In summary, inductive

approaches to teaching and learning have much in their favor.

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 SGDC5034 LESSON PLAN

DAILY LESSON PLAN

(SCIENCE)

Subject : Science
Form : 2 Gemilang
No. of students : 25
Date (Day) : 27 March 2015 (Thursday)
Time (Duration) : 9.30am – 11.40am (60 minutes)
Theme : Nutrition
Topic : Balanced Diet

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Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, students are able to:
i. Classify food into six categories – carbohydrate, protein, fats, vitamins, minerals and
water
ii. Find information to maintain a healthy body
iii. Create healthy and balanced diet

Prerequisite Knowledge : Students have been exposed to the six food classes.

Behaviors Needed

1) Skills : Students will be required to understand how to work cooperatively with other
students, learn to work with peers in a respectful and productive way.

2) Concepts : Students will need to understand the concepts of brainstorming & writing skills.

3) Behaviors : At the start of the school, students were taught the rules of the classroom and
how to treat one another with respect. In order for this lesson to run smoothly, the students will have
to keep the classroom conduct rules in mind as they interact with one another and the teachers.

Teaching Aids : Picture cards, cue cards, mahjong paper, and blackboard.
Values Integrated : Cooperation, respective each other’s and give contribution in activity.

PROCEDURE

STEPS CONTENT TEACHING AND LEARNING NOTES/VALUES/

(duration) ACTIVITIES TEACHING AIDS

PHASE 1 : Introduction – 1. Teacher reviews the classroom Real foods such

as bread and
INTRODUCTION Identifying what food rules.
cracker
Set Induction should students eat to 2. Teacher asks students to identify
(3 min.) keep fit and healthy what food should students eat
to keep fit and healthy
3. Teacher asks students to share

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 STEPS CONTENT TEACHING AND LEARNING NOTES/VALUES/
(duration) ACTIVITIES TEACHING AIDS

their responses, tell them that

today you will be looking at the
foods they eat and asking them
to think if they have a healthy
and balanced diet.

PHASE 2 : THE Foods groups 1. Teacher asks students to classify PowerPoint

presentation
OPEN-ENDED all the foods into their groups.
PHASE 2. Students present their results to Worksheets
the class.
Step 1 3. Then teacher evaluate students
response in class and explain
(12 min.) them about the six foods groups.

PHASE 2 : THE Maintain a healthy 1. Students are given articles on `Eating for
health’ article
OPEN ENDED body topic `Eating for Healthy` and
PHASE they are asked to discuss why Mahjong paper
and whiteboard.
foods are important to their
body.

Cooperation with
Step 2 2. Students will ask to complete classmates.
(20 min.) the word puzzle which prepared
in mahjong paper in front of the
class.
3. Teacher explain different
functions which help to maintain
a healthy body.

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 STEPS CONTENT TEACHING AND LEARNING NOTES/VALUES/
(duration) ACTIVITIES TEACHING AIDS

PHASE 3 : THE Plan a balanced diet 1. Students plan their own `My Plate`
worksheet
CONVERGENT balanced meals in `My Plate`
PHASE game.
2. Students are asked to consider
Step 3 what they had for
breakfast/lunch/dinner are
(20 min.) balanced diet or not
3. Then, students have to present
their `meals`.

PHASE 4 : Conclusion of the day’s 1. Teacher asks students to state

CLOSURE lesson one principle based on today’s

lesson on balanced diet.

Closure (3 min)

PHASE 5 : THE  Students apply 1. Teacher gives task to the

APPLICATION knowledge students for next lesson’s
PHASE  Links new class.

learning to prior
Application knowledge 2. Students should gather or
read information about
(2 min.) health issue; obesity among
kids, junk food, unhealthy

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 STEPS CONTENT TEACHING AND LEARNING NOTES/VALUES/
(duration) ACTIVITIES TEACHING AIDS

fast food.

Self-evaluation :

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_____________________________________________________________________________________

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Supervisor’s Comments :

_____________________________________________________________________________________

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_____________________________________________________________________________________

REFERENCES

Almeida, P. A. (2010). Questioning patterns, questioning profiles and teaching strategies in

secondary education. The International Journal of Learning, 17(1), 578-600.

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Danielson, C. (2007). Enhancing professional practice: A framework for teaching (2nd ed.).

Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Ganesh, B. & Matteson, S. M. (2010). The benefits of reteaching lessons in preservice methods

classes. Action in Teacher Education, 32(4), 52-60.

Gross, R. (2002). Socrates’ way: Seven master keys to using your mind to the utmost. New York,

NY: Tarcher/Putnam.

Eggen, Paul D. & Kauchak, Donald P. (2012). Strategies For Teachers: Teaching Content And

Thinking Skills (6th ed.). Boylston Street, Bonston : Pearson.

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