Mechanical Engineering Department

WEL - COME

Academic Year :- 2020-21

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,
Satara
 Class :- T. Y. B. Tech
Mechanical Div.- A
Engineering

THERMODYNAMICS
M rs. Pawar.S.D
As s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r
Mechani cal Eng
g. D e p a r t m e n t
Pure Substance

A pure substance is one which has a homogenous and invariable chemical

composition even though there is a change a phase.

Ex: Liquid water,mixture of water and steam(vapour),mixture of ice and

water etc.

But mixture of air and water is not a pure substance since it has variable
chemical composition.

Working substance: A working substance refers to the fluid used in a

thermodynamics system to serve as a medium for the transfer of energy
between the system and its surroundings.
Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,
Satara
 Energy

Definition: Energy may be defined as its capacity to do work.

Energy may exist in different forms and can be converted from

one form to another form,its conversion may be partial or
complete.Energy may exists in transition(transfer of energy
across the boundaries) due to potential difference or in the form
of internal energy.

Eg: of transitional energy are work, heat and electrical energies.

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,
Satara
 Internal energy

Internal enrgy is present in a system due to molecular motion,

arrangement of atomic structure and its chemical composition.

Types:
1. Chemical energy:energy is released due to changes in
chemical composition.
2. Atomic energy: energy released due to changes in atomic
structure
3. Molecular internal energy:energy due to molecular motion and
its configuration is called the internal energy.
Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,
External energy

1.Potential energy:energy of position of mass with respect to the

earth .It is restricated to gravitational energy.From newton’s 2 nd
law, F= m.g….. If mass ‘m’ and height ‘z’ above earth surface
P.E= F.Z = m.g.z
2.Kinetic energy: energy arising due to motion of mass
K.E= ½ m.c 2
3. Total energy: E = internal energy + K.E + P.E
E = U+ ½ m. c2 + m.g.z

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

State of a System

Condition of physical existence of a system at any instant

State of a thermodynamic system is described by specifying
its
thermodynamic co-ordinates or thermodynamic properties
At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed
values

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

Properties of a System

Any characteristic of a system is called a property.

Some familiar properties are Pressure P,
Temperature T, Volume V, and Mass m

Quantities which identify the state of a system .

Property must have a definite value when
the system is at a particular state.

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

Classification of properties

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

Satara
Explanation

Intensive properties are those that are

independent of the mass of a system, such as
temperature, pressure, and density

Extensive properties are those whose values

depend on the size or extent of the system. Total
mass, total volume, and total momentum are some
examples of extensive properties

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

Equilibrium

Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states. The word equilibrium

implies a state of balance. In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system. A system
in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is isolated from its
surroundings.
A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium , if it satisfies the
following requirements of equilibrium

❖ Mechanical equilibrium
❖ Thermal equilibrium
❖ Chemical equilibrium
❖ Phase equilibrium
Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,
Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,
Thermodynamic PROCESS and cycles

1.Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is
called a process
Transformation from one state to another
2.If any one or more properties of the system undergo a change due to energy or mass
transfers we say that the system has undergoes a change of state
3.If the system undergoes two or more processes and returns to its original state, after
conculsion of processes, the system is said to have undergone a cycle.

CYCL
PROCESS E
Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,
Satara
Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,
NON Quasistatic process or irreversible process

Defn: If the process of the system has finite departures from thermodynamic equilibrium path the
process is said to be non-quasistatic process or irreversible process.
The system will reach to new equilibrium state-2 defined by (p 2 ,v 2 ,T 2 ).the intermediate states of
the system can not be defined since it has passed through non-equilibrium states.The process is
said to be non-quasistatic process.
Irreversible process is
usually represented by
a dotted line joining
the end states
In a real process, the
intermediate state
points cannot be
located

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

Quasistatic process or reversible process

Defn: A process in which the properties of the system depart (extremely small) from the
thermodynamic equilibrium path.
The departure of each state of the system from thermodynamic equlilbrium state is
infinitesimally small and the locus of such thermodynamic equilibrium states is represented
by process path by solid lines. such process is said to be quasistatic or reversible process.

In reversible process,
two states can be
shown by a
continuous line
Reversible process is
an ideal
process

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,
 Types of Processes

1. Constant volume or Isochoric process: A process in which the

volume is remains constant.
2. Constant pressure or Isobaric process: A process in which
the pressure is remains constant.
3. Isothermal or constant temperature process: A process in
which the temperature is remains constant.
4. Adiabatic process: A process in which there is no transfer of
heat between the system and its surroundings.

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

 Pressure

Pressure is defined as the normal force exerted by a system per unit

surface area. P=F/A

If force,F is measured in Newton’s and area A in m 2 and the units of

pressure ‘p’ in S.I system is N/m2 or Pascals (Pa)

1 bar = 10 2 N/m 2 = 10 N/cm 2 = 100 k N/m2 (kPa)

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

pressure

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

Barometric pressure

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

Barometric pressure

Mass of liquid in tube, m=ρ.a.h ,g= 9.81 m/s 2

F = m.g
Atmospheric pressure, Patm = F/ a = m.g/ a = ρ.a.h.g / a
= ρ.g.h

Atmospheric pressure: is defined as the pressure exerted by tha

atmosphere.

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

Pressure Measuring Devices

Manometer
Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,
Absolute pressure

The absolute pressure in the vessel is determined by adding the

atmospheric pressure to the gauge pressure.

Absolute pressure = (+ -)gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure

1 atm pressure = 1.01325 bar

= 10.33 m of water column
= 76 cm of hg column

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

 Temperature

• The temperature is a property of the system or thermal state of a body which

distinguishes a hot body and cold body.
• Instruments which measures temperature is called thermometer and measuring
high temperature are called pyrometer

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

Thermal equilibrium(Equality of temperature)

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

Measurements of temperature and various
instruments

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

2.Thermocouple

A thermocouple is a sensor that measures temperature. It consists of two different types of metals,
joined together at one end. When the junction of the two metals is heated or cooled, a voltage is
created that can be correlated back to the temperature. A thermocouple is a simple, robust and
cost-effective temperature sensor used in a wide range of temperature measurement processes.

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

3.Glass Thermometer

Glass thermometer is the most popular thermometer used around the world to measure body
temperature. It consists of a sealed glass tube with a small internal diameter (like a lumen)
connected to a reservoir. Increasing the temperature expands and pushes up the fluid in the
reservoir and tube. A scale on the tube and the location of the expanded fluid indicate the
temperature

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

4.Electrical resistance thermometer

Electrical-resistance thermometers characteristically use platinum and operate on the principle that electrical
resistance varies with changes in temperature. Thermocouples are among the most widely used industrial
thermometers. They are composed of two wires made of different materials joined together at one end and
connected to a voltage-measuring device at the other. A temperature difference between the two ends creates
a voltage that can be measured and translated into a measure of the temperature of the junction end.
The bimetallic strip constitutes one of the most trouble-free and durable thermometers. It is simply two strips
of different metals bonded together and held at one end. When heated, the two strips expand at different rates,
resulting in a bending effect that is used to measure the temperature change

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

Temperature scale

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

Numerical

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,
PATH

The series of states through which a system passes during a process is called the path of the
process

To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states of the process,
as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

Point Function

POINT FUNCTIONS

When two coordinates are located on the graph, they define a point and two properties on the graph
define a state.
These properties are called as a point function.

❖ Properties does not depend on the path followed in reaching the state, but only on the
equilibrium state itself

❖ Point functions are properties of the system

❖ Point functions have exact differentials designated by the symbol ‘d’

❖ Eg. Pressure, Volume, Temperature, Density, Enthalpy, Entropy

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

Path Function

Path Functions
❖ If the value of the thermodynamic variable depends upon the path
followed in going from one state to another
❖ Path functions are not properties of the system
❖ Path functions have inexact differentials designated by the symbol ‘δ’
❖ Eg. Work(W), Heat(Q)

; Not (W 2 – W 1); Not dW

; Not (Q2 – Q 1) ; Not dQ

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,
CYCLE

When a system in a given initial state

experiences a series of processes and returns
to the initial state, the system undergoes a
cycle. At the end of the cycle the properties
of the system have the same values they had
at the beginning.

Thermodynamic path in a cycle is in closed

loop form

Cyclic integral of any property in a cycle is

zero

∮dp =0 ; ‘p’ is any thermodynamic

Mrs.S.D.Pawar,
property Assistant Professor,DIET,
HEAT

Heat is defined as the form of energy that is

transferred between two systems (or a system
and its surroundings) by virtue of a
temperature difference
The transfer of heat into a system is frequently
referred to as heat
addition and the transfer of heat out of a
system as heat rejection
Heat is transferred by three mechanisms:
Conduction, Convection,
and Radiation
A process during which there is no heat
transfer is called an
adiabatic process

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

WORK

Work, like heat, is an energy interaction

between a system and its surroundings

Positive work is done by a system when the

sole effect external to the
system could be reduced to the rise of a
weight

Work is the energy transfer associated with a

force acting through a distance. A rising
piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire
crossing the system boundaries are all
associated with work interactions
Units of work is Nm or J
Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,
Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,
Sign convention

Heat transfer to a
system and work done
by a system are
positive;
heat transfer from a
system and work done
on a system are
negative
POWER: it is the time rate of doing work. Its unit in S.I system is watt (j/s or Nm/s) or KW
POWER , P = W/t =
Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,
 Similarities Between Heat and Work

• Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross the

boundaries. That is, both heat and work are boundary phenomena
• Systems possess energy, but not heat or work

• Both are associated with a process, not a state. Unlike properties, heat
or work has no meaning at a state

• Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the path
followed during a process as well as the end states)
• Heat is low grade energy and work is high grade energy

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

Specific heat of a substance

Specific heat of any substance is defined as the amount of heat

required to raise the temperature of 1kg of substance by 1 degree
of temperature.

mathematically, Q = m . C ∆t

Where, Q = heat transfer in KJ

m = mass in kg
c = specific heat

Units of specific heat C is KJ/KgK

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,
SPECIFIC HEATS for ideal gases

The specific heat is defined as the energy

required to raise the temperature of a unit
mass of a substance by one degree
The specific heat at constant volume, Cv can be
viewed as the energy required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of a substance by
one degree as the volume is maintained
constant
The specific heat at constant pressure, Cp can be
viewed as the energy required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of a substance by
one degree as the pressure is maintained
constant
Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,
Heat Capacity, C = Q/dT

Specific heat capacity, c = Q/(mdT), J/Kg K

cp = Q/ [m(T2-T1)]

cv = Q/ [m(T2-T1)]

cp/ c v = γ ; γ- ratio of specific heats

For air, c p= 1.005 KJ/Kg K, c v= 0.718 KJ/Kg K, γ= 1.4

The specific heat at constant pressure Cp is always greater than Cv because at

constant pressure the system is allowed to expand and the energy for this
expansion work must also be supplied to the system

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,
Latent heat

Latent heat: The amount of heat energy required for 1kg of a

substance for change of phase is called latent heat.

The heat required if solid ice at 00c changes into water 0 0c is

called latent heat of fusion.

The heat required to convert at its saturation temperature into

dry saturated vapour at a give pressure is called the latent heat
of vaporisation.

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

 ENTHALPY

H = U+ p.v
In the above equation U, p and V are point functions i.e they
represent the property of the system.
Therefore, H so defined is also the property of the system. This
property H is called enthalpy.

H is an extensive property

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

 Numericals

Q)An air tank has three manometer connected to it. The fluids in them are oil (specific gravity =
0.8) water and mercury ( specific gravity = 13.6). If the absolute pressure in the tank is 1.2 bar and
barometer reads 760 mm of Hg.Estimate the height of fluids in each of manometer.

Solution:
atm pressure = 760 mm of Hg = 1.01325 bar
absloute pressure in the tank = 1.2 bar
Gauge pressure ,
Absolute pressure = (+ -)gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure
∆p = Absolute pressure - atmospheric pressure
= 1.2 – 1.01325 = 0.18675 bar = 18675 N/m 2
∆p = ρ . g . h
In case of the oil manometer
∆p = ρ . g . h

density of oil ρ = specific gravity Mrs.S.D.Pawar,

* density of water
Assistant Professor,DIET,
 18675 = (0.8 * 1000)9.81* h
h = 2.3796 m

In case of water manometer,

∆p = ρ . g . h
h = 1.9037 m
In case of mercury manometer,
∆p = ρ . g . h
h = 0.1399m or 13.99 cm

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

Q) In a piston cylinder arrangement the pressure is proportional to the square of
volume.The initial pressure is 10 bar in the cylinder and initial volume is 0.1 m3 .
The volume is now changed so that the final pressure is 2 bar.Find the work done
in KJ.
Sol:
Initial condition : p 1 = 10 bar , v1 = 0.1 m 3
Final condition: p2 = 2 bar
Given: pressure ∞(directly proportional) volume 2
p = c . v2
initial condition: p1 = c . V 1 2
c= 10 8 N/m 2
process equation becomes,
p = 10 8 v 2
Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,
p2 = 2 bar
2 * 10 5 = 10 8 v 2
v2 = 0.04472 m 3
work done , w = v2∫v1 p . dv

= - 30.352 kj

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

Books

T1: P.K.Nag, “ Engineering Thermodynamics”, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi,

3rd edition,2005.
T2: Y. A.Cengel, M. A. Boles, “ Thermodynamics - An Engineering
Approach”, Tata McGraw Hill, 5thedition, 2006.
R1: G. J. VanWylen, R. E. Sonntag, “ Fundamental of Thermodynamics”,
John Wiley and Sons, 5thedition, 1998.
R2: M. J. Moran, H. N. Shaprio, “Fundamentals of Engineering
Thermodynamics”, JohnWiley and Sons, 4th edition, 2004.

Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,

Instructions

• Attendance is mandatory to all lectures. It is recorded in excel sheet from

google meet automatically. So your user name should be
• All study material, assignments, quizes, google meet links will be shared
only through google classroom and you have to complete it within
stipulated time and submit it in google classroom as per instructions
from course teacher.
• Do not share google meet link to other students who have not joined to
google classroom.
• At the end of every week, there will be online test on covered topic in
Mrs.S.D.Pawar, Assistant Professor,DIET,