Psych Handout2

EASY EDUCATION | PSYCH 1X03 FALL 2020
12 月 08 日 FINAL REVIEW
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导师：BOHAN | EASY EDUCATION MCMASTER 校区 1

1. Research Methods
The Scientific Method 科学实验方法:
1. Theory 理论: Collect a general set of ideas
2. Hypothesis 猜想: Form a testable statement guided by theories that makes specific
predictions. (Null Hypothesis: opposite from what you are trying to prove)
3. Research Methods 实验⽅法: Determine a way to test the hypothesis.
4. Collect Data 收集数据: Measure the outcomes of the test.
5. Analyze Data 分析数据: Understand the data and discover trends/relationships.
6. Report Findings 发表成果: Publish the article.
7. Revise Theories 修缮理论: Incorporate new information.
Anecdotal Evidence 道听途说/轶事证据: Evidences from one’s own or others experiences; untested,
unreliable, not representative of the whole population.
Independent Variables vs. Dependent Variables:

-Independent Variables ⾃变量: those variables that are being manipulated by scientists
-Dependent Variables 因变量: those variables that are being observed by scientists
试验者操控的是⾃变量，试验者测量的是因变量
Control Group vs. Test Group: Difference only by Independent Variable

-Control Group 对照组: does not receive the treatment (IV)
-Test (Treatment/Experimental) Group 实验组: receiving the treatment (IV)
Subject Designs:
-Within Subjects Design 同组做两次实验: manipulating the independent variable within each
participant
to minimize the effect o external variables;(Make some guy take the test, then make him drink
the energy drink, then write the same test.) Within subject designs takes a longer period of time
to collect data and also cost a lot more; Prone to practice effects: improved performance over
the course of an experiment due to becoming more experienced.
-Between Subjects Design 两组做⼀次实验: have a control group and a treatment group, keep
everything the same except for the independent variable;(Make two groups of people to write the test,
one group is given the energy drink, the other one is not) Since the subject is different, its prone to the
confounding variables: a variable other than the IV that has an effect on the results.
Selecting Subjects: How representative are the subjects to the population?

-Random Sample 随机挑选: choosing samples at random from the general group. Accurately
represent the population of interest.
-Random Assignment 随机分组: assigning subjects to either the experimental group or the
control group to avoid bias
Placebo Effect 安慰剂效应: a fake treatment, an inactive substance like sugar, distilled water, or saline
solution; It can sometimes improve a patient's condition simply because the person has the expectation
that it will be helpful. Letting the subjects to know what to expect can unintentionally effect the outcome.
Bias: 偏⻅，偏差
Subject Biases 实验对象偏⻅: occurs when subjects are aware of whether if they are in the control
group or the experimental group, or which treatment they are receiving.
Experimenter Biases 实验者偏⻅: occurs when the experimenters are aware of which group is which,
and unintentionally bias towards the outcomes they predict.
Subject Blinding 单盲: subjects don't know which group they are in nor what treatments they are
receiving.
Double-Blind Studies 双盲: neither the experimenter nor the subjects know which group they are
assigned to.
Measures of Central Tendency: Where the data is centered.

-Mean 平均数: Average
-Median 中位数: Middle number
-Mode 众数: Most common
1，1，2，2，2，3，4，4, 4, 4, 7，7，7，7，7，8，8，9，9，9
Mean = 103/20 = 5.15
Mode = 7
Median = (4+7)/2 = 5.5

Measures of Variation: Standard Deviation (SD) How spread out the data is.
Descriptive Statistics 描述统计学: uses the data to provide descriptions of the population
Inferential Statistics 推论统计学: makes inferences and predictions about a population based on a
sample of data
Correlation 关联性: correlation coefficient r -1 ≤ r ≤ 1

- r close to 1: strong positive correlation
- r close to -1: strong negative correlation
-Correlation DOES NOT equal causation.
Causation 因果关系: Correlation ≠ Causation!!!!
T-test: A type of inferential statistic used to determine if there is a significant difference between the
means of two groups, or how likely the results are found by chance. The T-test produces a p value.
-P value: statistical significance; must less than 0.05 or 5%
An ideal experiment will turn samples from the same population into two different populations
after the experiment.
T-test measures the probability that the control and experimental group is still within the same
population, by giving you a p-value.
Aka: the experiment didn’t really work, the results were by chance, or if we repeat the
experiment, we will not find the same result.
Significance 显著性: p value ≤ 5% or 0.05

Type I vs. Type II Errors:

-Type I error: False Positive 假阳性; whereas we claim the IV manipulation has an effect on the
subjects, when in reality the difference is caused by sampling error;
-Type II error: False Negative 假阴性; whereas we claim the IV manipulation has no effect on
the subjects, when in reality it did. Also caused by sampling error.
2. Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov: Dog + Bell + Food = Salivation --> Dog + Bell=Salivation experimenter.
Contingency 连结: when the first event (signal) is consistently followed by the second event, an
association may be formed between those two events.
Classical Conditioning 条件反射: the learning of a contingency between a particular signal and a later
event that are paired;
-Unconditioned Stimulus (US): any stimulus or event, occurs naturally, prior to learning.
-Unconditional Response (UR): response occurs after the unconditioned stimulus; occurs
naturally, prior to learning.
-Conditioned Stimulus (CS): paired with the unconditioned stimulus to produce a learned
contingency.
-Conditioned Response (CR): the response that occurs once the contingency between the CS
and US has been learned. Similar to the UR.
Acquisition 学习/获得: The process of learning a contingency between the CS and US. Most learning
takes place in early trials.
Dietary Neophobia ⻝物恐新症（⽼⿏）: mouses won’t eat unfamiliar foods, or just small quantities at
first.
Extinction 废⽌: when a CS no longer triggers a CR; happens when the CS is continuously presented,
without the presence of the US(Rings the bell but no food is given) then a new inhibitory response is
formed. Some contingencies can be learned through one trial, such as taste aversion. However, the
same is not true of learning an inhibitory contingency during extinction. When learning that a
contingency is no longer valid, it takes multiple trials where the CS does not predict the US.
Reacquisition 重新学习: reacquiring the original contingency after inhibitory conditioning is even faster
than it was originally formed.

Inhibitory Conditioning 抑制训练: the original CR response is being replaced through the learning of a
new contingency.
Spontaneous Recovery ⾃主复原: after a rest period, the CS can elicit the CR again; this spontaneous
recovery demonstrates that the original contingency is not unlearned, its just hindered by the inhibitory
response.
High-Order Conditioning:
-Two or more conditioned stimulus (CS) can elicit the same conditioned response (CR);
however, the conditioned response produced by the original conditioned stimulus is more resistant to
extinction.
Stimulus Generalization 普及化:
Phobia training: Systematic Desensitization vs. Implosive Therapy
Stimulus Discrimination 特殊化:
CS+ predicts the presence of the US, CS- predicts the absence of the US

Homeostasis 体内平衡: Human body’s ability to maintain its natural states

-Compensatory response 补偿反应: mechanism used in homeostasis to balance changing conditions
within the body
Addictions:
-Environmental Cues 环境提示: environment around addicts when they usually take the drug.
-Overdose(OD) 吸毒过量: When a frequent drug user administers drugs, the drug effects (US) trigger
compensatory responses to maintain homeostasis (UR) and the environment in which the individual
normally takes drugs becomes the CS, triggering the CR of compensatory responses. Therefore, when
this drug user administers drugs in an unfamiliar environment, there is no longer the CR of
compensatory response before the drugs are administered and so the drugs seem to have a stronger
effect on the individual, sometimes leading to a drug overdose.
From Textbook and Lecture:
Habituation: Decrease in response to a repeated stimulus
Dishabituation: Change in familiar stimulus will increase your response
Sensitization: Repeat presentation leading to increase response
Temporal Arrangement: Time between stimulus and reinforcement

3. Instrumental Conditioning
Instrumental Conditioning (Operant conditioning): Learning the contingency between a behaviour and
its consequences.
Edward L. Thorndike: CATS IN A PUZZLE BOX

Cats have no “AHA!” moment!
The Law of Effect 效果定律: Stamping in vs. Stamping out:

-Stamping in 印⼊: useful behaviours gradually increase in frequency
-Stamping out 剔除 : useless behaviours gradually decrease in frequency
Four Consequences:

Reinforcer 强化刺激: any stimulus, when presented after a response, changes the rate of such
response.
Reward 奖励: Presentation of Positive Reinforcer, increase behaviour

Example: Kid gets A in math test, gets chocolate.
Punishment 惩罚: Presentation of Negative Reinforcer, decrease behaviour

***NO GOOD: Contingency between the authorities’ figure and fear/pain may be linked through
classical conditioning! ***
Example: Kid fails a test, have to do the dishes.
Omission 剔除: Removal of Positive Reinforcer, decrease behaviour

Example: Time-out Procedure: kid who behaves badly, sits in the corner and don't get to play.
Escape 避除: Removal of Negative Reinforcer, increase behaviour

Example: Kid gets A in math test, don't have to do the dishes tonight.
Acquisition (Classical Conditioning): The process of learning a contingency between the CS and US.
Acquisition (Instrumental Conditioning): The process of learning a contingency between the action and
consequence.
AutoShaping vs. Shaping by Successive Approximation:

AutoShaping ⾃⾏塑成 when the desired behaviour can be achieved without building up to it.
AutoShaping is a special kind of instrumental conditioning where rewards are given for certain
behaviours automatically and the subject learns this contingency through exploration, without any
explicit training or external influence.
Example: Bird getting food by pushing a button
Shaping by Successive Approximation 逐次逼近法: Smaller steps, build up to a full response

to a stimulus.
Example: Pigeons learning ping pong, Pigeons using vending machines.

Discriminative Stimulus 辨别／开关: the third variable: is the contingency valid?

-SD: Contingency is ON (Parents Home)
-S Delta: Contingency is OFF (Grandparents Home)
CS≠SD!
CS of Classical Conditioning: Automatically elicits a response
SD of Instrumental Conditioning: Sets the occasion for a response
Four Enforcement Schedules:
Fixed Ratio (FR): Pause-and-Go Fixed Interval (FI): Scallop Line
Variable Ratio (VR): Straight Line Variable Interval (VI): Straight Line
i.e.
FR-5: Every 5 times
FI-5: Every 5 minutes
VR-5: On average every 5 times
VI-5: On average every 5 minutes

FR-5 steeper slope than FR-20
Robust: More difficult for extinction
Law of Effect: actions leading to satisfactory effect is more likely to increase in frequency
Primary Reinforcer: Food, water or mate
Secondary Reinforcer: Higher needs, money
Delay of gratification: Marshmallow test
Chaining: Adding on more complex behaviour requirements to the original requirement, rewarded by a
opportunity to complete the next task.
Over justification effect: kids playing soccer
Compulsory Phone Checking: VI Schedule
Mirror Neurons: Activated when we observe others do things

4. Problem Solving & Intelligence

Deductive / Inductive Reasoning:
Deductive 推断: idea (it will rain) >> conclusion (ground will be wet)
general information >> conclusion 从⼤到⼩
Inductive 归纳: info (ground is wet) >> general idea (must have rained)
observation of specific case >> general information 从⼩到⼤
Arch of knowledge:
general theory + deductive reasoning >> facts
Facts + inductive reasoning >> theories (general ways of thinking)
开始做实验时，要先⽤deductive reasoning从理论中提炼⼀个具体的猜想，才能开始实验
做完实验分析数据时，要使⽤inductive reasoning把数据贴合证明之前的猜想

Intelligence Testing:
Qualities of a test:
Reliability 重复性: measures ability to produce consistent results.
Validity 可靠性: measures what researchers claims to be measuring.
Stanford –Binet intelligence test: diff amount of reasoning for diff versions of age group
(intelligence scale)
IQ Test 发展史
第⼀代：Francis Galton: Reaction Time >> Intelligence
第⼆代：Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test: 30 Questions, Multiple aspects
第三代：Charles Spearman & G: One generalized intelligence behind all others (does
well on one test, will do well on all others)
第四代：Multiple Intelligence: Gardner’s 8 Intelligence: each type independent from

others ***Critics: that they were interrelated: person did well on one would do well on
most others as well***
Human Intelligence:
第五代：Weschler Scale
WAIS: Weschler’s Adult Intelligence Scale
WISC: Weschler’s Intelligence Scare for Children.
IQ – standardized test comparing results to large sample.
Genetic & Environment:

Identical twins (100% Genes) = higher correlation of intelligence vs. fraternal (50% Genes) 0.8
vs. 0.6
Environment Manipulation: identical twins, high correlation (0.73)

Mean scale for IQ test steadily increasing (raw score = rising) = Flynn effect
Flynn Effect - Raw IQ scores are rising since 1932! (9-15 points/30 years)
原始IQ分数逐年增⾼
Piaget & Developmental Psychology
Piaget:
Active learning: incorporating new info from environment with known information
Schema 认知模式／框架: mental framework of interpreting the world (frown = unhappy)
Assimilation 同化: incorporating new info into existing schema

在框架⾥添加新知识
Accommodation 调节: modifying existing schemas to fit new incompatible information

为了适应新知识，更改框架

4 Stages of Development:
(S) Sensorimotor stage (birth – 2 years): effect change on environment 环境互动, act with intention
⽬的性.
☑By the end of this stage: Object Permanence 物体恒存: objects continue to exist when not in sight
Example: toy fell down underneath the bed, but its still there.
(P) Pre-operational Stage (2-7):

☑Object Permanence
Egocentrism ⾃我中⼼ (only understands own perspective – 3 mountain task). ✖
Seriation 排序: complete when able to place objects in order of magnitude (not able to place sticks in
order of length) ✖
Reversible relationships 关系逆反: “I have brother, brother doesn’t have sister” ✖
Conservation 物质不变: cylinders of milk ✖
(C) Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 yrs)

☑Object Permanence ☑Egocentrism ☑Seriation ☑Reversible Relationships
☑Conservation
Difficult to think in abstract terms 抽象概念 ✖
(F) Formal Operational stage (12+)

☑Object Permanence ☑Egocentrism ☑Seriation ☑Reversible Relationships
☑Conservation ☑Abstract
fantasy realities, role play
Limitations: some kids develop out of order, relies on understanding language / what is being asked.
Biases & Heuristics

Conformation Bias 确认偏误:
Seeking out info to directly support hypothesis. 只关注符合猜想的证据不去证伪
Doctors diagnostic, failing to look for disconfirming evidence
Availability Heuristic 易得性直觉:

Make decision based on info most easily available. 偏向于常⻅的信息
Person with British accent must come from UK
Professor / farming
关键词：Easily comes to mind, most available, most salient

Representativeness Heuristic 代表性直觉:

Info based on average in mind / larger category (comparable known)
Assumes something should match random pattern – should match pattern (gamblers pattern?)
Comparing to a typical case (if it’s likely to happen once, happen again?)
关键词：Typical, ideal, representative of…
Functional Fixedness
Bounded Rationality
Anchoring
Framing
Building Better Brains (Jonides, 2012): Working Memory Exercise, N-back test
Latent learning 潜在学习: we understand things before we know how to use them.

5. Language
A language must be:
Regular 规矩： rules and grammar – able to be reorganized
Arbitrary 抽象: sound doesn’t describe the word (cat doesn’t describe what word is)
Productive 无限可能: no limit to combining words to describe anything – limit to sounds and
combos of words
Whorf - Sapir Hypothesis: Language influences our thoughts & the way we perceive the world
We think in our native languages.
Evidence: cultures only have words for 1, 2, many (many could be 3-99 which couldn’t be
understood) – lacks words to distinguish.
Counter evidence: one word for older male relative – but can distinguish between them all
(uncle, grandfather) Some have one word for each relative (Korean)
Structure of Language:
Morphemes 语素: smallest unit which can convey information
(table)(cloth) = 2
(table)(s) = 2 (s gives indication of multiple)
Phonemes ⾳素: Breaking down morphemes

/d/o/g/ /ch/ai/r
k/v/t – many other languages but not English
Syntax 语法: Rules that control how sentences are put together (grammar)
Example: French = gender of each word
Semantics 语义: Meaning of each words.
Could have perfect syntax but not sematic meaning.
"Colorless green ideas sleep furiously"

Language Development Timeline:
12 weeks – cooing
16 weeks – acknowledge noises (turns head)
6 months – imitate sounds
1 year – babble
2 years - 50-250 words
2.5 years – vocabulary > 850
Language explosion: 1.5 – 6 years = vocabulary rapid increase
Segmentation Problem:
Person speaking new language sounds very fast – not able to break down speech into word
units.
Children who have good speech segmentation (able to pick out repeated / familiar sounds) =
higher vocab.
Implications: potential for infant screening test to predict later language problems (possible early
treatment)
Infant Directed Speech:

Mothers use higher pitch / exaggerated pitch changes – helps to segment child’s speech
Universal Phonetic Sensitivity:

Phonemes Sensitivity:
Phonemes in other languages adults cannot distinguish, children can
Universal Phoneme sensitivity: can distinguish btw all sounds
Werker’s head turn / head turn procedure:

Child’s head turn to discriminate new sound from others
Children = as good with foreign phonemes as ppl from that culture.
Cannot distinguish non-native sounds
Meaning: easier for child to learn new language when young / recognize new phonemes.
Accents:
foreign accent syndrome:
Person develops a foreign accent (brain damage / stroke)
Broca’s area (speech production)
Cerebellum (motor coordination – ability to pronounce phonemes)

Social Learning Theory:

Imitation: mom says word – so child says back
Operant: reinforcement – parent gets excited when child says word
Evidence: “Genie” No explicit exposure to language, not developed properly.
Counter Evidence: Once learned, words are combined into models not heard before / errors
not heard in adult speech
Over-regularizations: using grammatical rule too broadly (runned – ran)
Early Language:
Over extension 过度使⽤: applies rule too broadly – to many things that are similar
Doggy – all 4-legged creatures = doggy
Under extension 扩展不⾜: apply to only specific object

Dog = only one specific stuffed dog of hers
Innate Mechanism Theory:
All born with mechanism which allows to learn language
All languages follow fundamental underlying concepts
Chomsky’s LAD: language acquisition device
All languages follow certain rules
b/c innate mechanism: allow to understand / use universal rules
Psychological Response: predisposition to exposure self to sounds / language in the brain.
Evidence: Spontaneous signing by those who haven’t learned it previously.
Counter Evidence: Genie
Interactionist Theory:
Combined nurture / nature
Acquire by testing, evaluating about rules of language.
Influences: maturation of brain + social interaction + cognitive preparedness.

Perceptual Narrowing 知觉窄化 = losing universal phoneme sensitivity after 1 year of age
Infant Directed Speech ⼉向语
Telegraphic Speech phase: short sentences containing most of the information (where teddy?)
Left Hemisphere:
Broca’s Area: Speech production, fluency, motor (Left Frontal Lobe)
Wernicke’s Area: Speech meaning (Left Temporal Lobe)
Foreign Accent Syndrome: Damage to left hemisphere
Rest of the brain:
Basal Ganglia 基底核: Production of swear words
Amygdala 杏仁核: Perception of swear words
Uncontrollable Swearing 秽语综合征: Damage to Basil Ganglia
Cathartic Swearing 宣泄式脏话: When injured, confined, triggered
Animal Communications:
Bee’s waggle dance: angle with the sun = direction, repetition = distance

5.5 Quizterm
We CANNOT multitask!
Highlighting = BAD
Rereading = BAD
Testing with a friend = OKAY
Self-explanation = OKAY
Practice testing = GOOD
Distributed practice = GOOD
Generate test questions = GOOD
Highlight < Re-read < Testing < Generate test questions (Peerwise)
Dunlosky, J. (2013). Strengthening the Student Toolbox: Practice testing > just learning
SSSS: better after test in 5 minutes
STTT: better after test in 7 days
Distributed Practice: small tests ahead of time, instead of one day before
Successive Relearning: learning the same material several times
Spacing Effect: don’t cram!
Desirable Difficulty: feels hard and not efficient at first, but better in the long run
Pomodoro Technique: Study 25 minutes at a time, save time on task switching, reduce distraction

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EASY EDUCATION | PSYCH 1X03 FALL 2020

We acknowledge that this package contains some materials provided by professors

Easy Education Inc.

导师：BOHAN | EASY EDUCATION MCMASTER 校区 1

Independent Variables vs. Dependent Variables:

Control Group vs. Test Group: Difference only by Independent Variable

导师：BOHAN | EASY EDUCATION MCMASTER 校区 2

Measures of Central Tendency: Where the data is centered.

导师：BOHAN | EASY EDUCATION MCMASTER 校区 3

Correlation 关联性: correlation coefficient r -1 ≤ r ≤ 1

Causation 因果关系: Correlation ≠ Causation!!!!

Significance 显著性: p value ≤ 5% or 0.05

导师：BOHAN | EASY EDUCATION MCMASTER 校区 4

Type I vs. Type II Errors:

导师：BOHAN | EASY EDUCATION MCMASTER 校区 5

Stimulus Generalization 普及化:

Phobia training: Systematic Desensitization vs. Implosive Therapy

Stimulus Discrimination 特殊化:

导师：BOHAN | EASY EDUCATION MCMASTER 校区 6

Homeostasis 体内平衡: Human body’s ability to maintain its natural states

From Textbook and Lecture:

Habituation: Decrease in response to a repeated stimulus

Dishabituation: Change in familiar stimulus will increase your response

Sensitization: Repeat presentation leading to increase response

Temporal Arrangement: Time between stimulus and reinforcement

导师：BOHAN | EASY EDUCATION MCMASTER 校区 7

Edward L. Thorndike: CATS IN A PUZZLE BOX

The Law of Effect 效果定律: Stamping in vs. Stamping out:

导师：BOHAN | EASY EDUCATION MCMASTER 校区 8

Reward 奖励: Presentation of Positive Reinforcer, increase behaviour

Punishment 惩罚: Presentation of Negative Reinforcer, decrease behaviour

Omission 剔除: Removal of Positive Reinforcer, decrease behaviour

Escape 避除: Removal of Negative Reinforcer, increase behaviour

AutoShaping vs. Shaping by Successive Approximation:

Shaping by Successive Approximation 逐次逼近法: Smaller steps, build up to a full response

导师：BOHAN | EASY EDUCATION MCMASTER 校区 9

Discriminative Stimulus 辨别／开关: the third variable: is the contingency valid?

CS of Classical Conditioning: Automatically elicits a response

SD of Instrumental Conditioning: Sets the occasion for a response

Four Enforcement Schedules:

Fixed Ratio (FR): Pause-and-Go Fixed Interval (FI): Scallop Line

导师：BOHAN | EASY EDUCATION MCMASTER 校区 10

FR-5 steeper slope than FR-20

Robust: More difficult for extinction

From Textbook and Lecture:

Primary Reinforcer: Food, water or mate

Secondary Reinforcer: Higher needs, money

Delay of gratification: Marshmallow test

Over justification effect: kids playing soccer

Compulsory Phone Checking: VI Schedule

Mirror Neurons: Activated when we observe others do things

导师：BOHAN | EASY EDUCATION MCMASTER 校区 11

4. Problem Solving & Intelligence

导师：BOHAN | EASY EDUCATION MCMASTER 校区 12

Validity 可靠性: measures what researchers claims to be measuring.

第⼀代：Francis Galton: Reaction Time >> Intelligence

第⼆代：Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test: 30 Questions, Multiple aspects

第四代：Multiple Intelligence: Gardner’s 8 Intelligence: each type independent from

WISC: Weschler’s Intelligence Scare for Children.

IQ – standardized test comparing results to large sample.

Genetic & Environment:

Environment Manipulation: identical twins, high correlation (0.73)