High-Pour-Point and Asphaltic
Crude Oils and Condensates
Robert N. Tuttle, SPE, Shell Oil Co.
Summary
The production and transportation of oil and gas can be
significantly affected by deposition of paraffin and
asphaltenes in the reservoir rock tubulars, pumps,
vessels, and pipelines. A wide range of solutions has
been developed for the operating problems caused by
these deposits. Field examples of problems and solutions
are cited.
Introduction
Paraffin and asphaltene control can be expensive and dif-
ficult in fields where deposition of these materials is
prevalent. The paraffin-deposition problem can vary
from very minor to extremely severe depending on the
paraffin-wax content of the crude oil, the cloud and pour
points of the crude, and the operating temperature. In
cases where the paraffin content is high, the paraffin-
control costs are significant. In locations where the wax
content is much lower, the cost is less, but the problem
remains an operating nuisance.
Asphaltene problems also vary widely, depending on
the crude-oil composition, pressure, and temperature
conditions. In the past, asphaltenes have played a signifi-
cant part in the production history and economics in such
instances as the deep horizons (Zone D-7) in the Ventura
field, CA.
Paraffin problems were reported in tubing, rod pumps,
and surface equipment as early as the 1920's. 1,2 Signifi-
cant paraffin problems have occurred outside the U.S. in
the Shengli area of China, in India, and in Russia. 3-5
Many devices, chemicals and techniques have been pro-
posed and used, both successfully and unsuccessfully, to
treat these problems.
Examples of the field problems and the techniques
chosen by Shell in the U.S. to combat these problems are
cited.
Theory
Paraffin
Paraffin deposits usually consist of straight- and
branched-chain hydrocarbons (usually ranging from
C 18 H 38 to about C 40 H 82) mixed with other organic and
0149-2136/83/0061-0004$00.25
Copyright 1983 Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME
1192
inorganic materials. The paraffin-wax content has been
as high as 50% (Altamont, UT) in some crude oils, and
as low as 1 % (South Louisiana) in others. The paraffin
wax in the Altamont crude has an usually high carbon
number (40 to 60).
Paraffin solubility in crude oil depends on the
chemical composition of the crude oil, pressure, and
temperature. Paraffin will begin to crystallize out of
solution as soon as the equilibrium temperature and
pressure is reached (cloud point). The paraffin deposits
will often begin on surfaces cooler than the liquid. The
viscosity of the crude oil is increased by the presence of
the paraffin crystals and, if the temperature is reduced
sufficiently, the crude will become very viscous (pour
point). Viscosity vs. temperature curves are shown in
Fig. 1 for the Altamont and Michigan crudes. The crude-
oil viscosity behaves in a Newtonian manner until wax
crystals begin to form (Fig. 1) and, subsequently, as the
temperature is lowered, behaves in a non-Newtonian
manner. The second deflection in the curve is a result of
the large amount of crystals present in the pour-point
region of the crude. High-pour-point crude oils generally
have pour points in the 60 to 125°F range and may be
solid at room temperature (80°F). The cloud point of the
Altamont crude is as high as 170°F.
The cloud point may be determined by the ASTM
D-97-57 method and the pour point by the ASTM
D-97-66 method. Test procedures to study effects of
dispersants, solvents, and coatings on paraffin deposi-
tion have also been describe by Hunt and Jorda. 6,7
The viscosity of a waxy crude depends on the viscosity
of the oil phase and the state of agglomeration of any
paraffin-wax crystals present. Fig. 2 is a photomicro-
graph showing wax-crystal formation in the Altamont
crude. The paraffin-crystal agglomeration depends on
the quantities of wax crystals and gas present and the
mechanical and thermal history of the crude oil. 8 The
apparent viscosity of the non-Newtonian oils can be
greatly reduced by mechanical shear. The disintegration
of large spherical wax agglomerates appears to be the
primary cause of the lower apparent viscosity.
The cooling rate experienced by the crude oil affects
both the size and orientation of the paraffin-wax ag-
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
VISC OSITY IN cp
10
8
6
10
8
6
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
TEMP ERA TURE of
Fig. 1-Viscosity vs. temperature for Michigan and Altamont
crude oil.
glomerates, which, in tum, affect the apparent viscosity.
Apparent viscosities for rapidly cooled crude oils at low
flow rates are considerably higher than for the oils
cooled more slowly.
The viscosity of both viscous and waxy crude oils can
be reduced significantly by the presence of dissolved
gas. The decrease in viscosity for Newtonian oils is a
function of the amount of gas present. Generally, the
higher the oil viscosity the greater the percentage
viscosity reduction per unit volume of gas present. The
loss of gas from paraffinic crude oils increases the
amount of wax-crystal agglomeration and increases the
crude-oil viscosity.
Highly soluble gases, such as butane, lower the
viscosity principally by dilution , whereas low-solubility
gases, such as methane, lower the apparent viscosity by
prevention of wax-crystal agglomeration. The low-
solubility gases are more effective in controlling the
wax-crystal agglomeration than the more soluble gases.
Thus, loss of methane from the oil phase during the pro-
duction and surface handling of produced fluids will tend
to increase paraffin deposition .
Asphaltenes
Asphaltene deposition , although it can cause operating
problems similar to those of paraffin, is often, in many
ways, much more difficult to treat. This is a result of the
complex asphaltene depositional relationship that exists
between the crude-oil composition, pressure, and
temperature, and the low solubility of asphaltenes in
conventional organic solvents (i .e., naphtha, xylene, or
toluene).
The asphaltene fraction of an oil is defined as that part
precipitated by the addition of a low-boiling (low-
molecular-weight) paraffin solvent such as n-pentane.
The asphaltene fraction of a solid asphalt -like substance
is defined as that fraction insoluble in low-molecular-
weight paraffin solvents (the soluble fraction is known as
maltene).
The asphaltenes usually comprise condensed aromatic
and naphthenic molecules of molecular weights ranging
from several hundred to several thousand grams per
JUNE 1983
Fig. 2-Photomicrograph of wax-crystal formation in Altamont
crude oil.
mole. These contain a significant number of
heteroatoms-nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. The
asphaltic materials are generally thought to be colloidally
dispersed rather than in solution. The colloids are duplex
in nature as they are dispersed by their adsorption of the
more soluble but structurally similar maltene molecules.
Asphaltenes are characterized by a larger carbon-to-
hydrogen ratio than is found in crude oil. The low-
molecular-weight paraffin solvents are thought to cause
precipitation of the asphaltenes by removing the
maltenes (dissolution and disorption). Subsequently, the
asphaltene micelles flocculate and precipitate from the
liquid.
Water, acids , and CO 2 can also contribute to the
precipitation of asphaltenes . The asphaltenes concentrate
at the water or acid interface and cause rigid films. CO 2
appears to cause a reduction in solubility of asphaltenes
(similar to propane) and in addition can cause rigid film
formation because of its effect on the pH of any water
present.
Field Histories-Paraffin
Paraffin problems in the U.S. have ranged from the
relatively minor problems experienced in south Loui-
siana to the much more difficult problems encountered in
the Uinta basin (Altamont) and Michigan. As a result,
the operating procedures and technologies to combat
these problems have been somewhat varied but include
use of heat, hot fluids, mechanical cutting, pigging, and
chemicals.
The hot-fluid treatments, such as hot oiling, are used
to soften and/or dissolve the paraffin deposits. The hot
fluids may be pumped down the tubing, circulated
downhole in a separate tubing string, or circulated in a
flowline. Hot fluids are sometimes used in conjunction .
with mechanical cutting or pigs.
Mechanical cutting usually involves the use of
wireline-operated (manual or automatic) or other
mechanical cutters that physically remove the paraffin
deposits from the tubular or vessel walls.
Pigging operations usually involve the pumping of
rubber-like spheres or balls through a pipeline or
1193
flowline. The pigs are chosen by size and type to remove
and smooth out paraffin deposits, and remove water and
other debris. Mechanical equipment such as pig launch-
ers and receivers are required on the flowlines or
pipelines if pigs are used.
South Louisiana
Oil production from several fields in the south Louisiana
coastal region dates back more than 50 years. Paraffin
has not been a particular problem with these fields with
the exception of West Lake Verret and East Bay fields.
The West Lake Verret field is located in the Atchaf-
alaya River. The 130 wells in the field are produced by
gas lift, and the produced fluids flow through underwater
flowlines to a central tank battery. Production averages
23 BOPD per well with a 97% water cut (770 BWPD).
The wells are approximately 4,000 ft deep and the oil
gravity ranges from 26 to 36 °API. Although wellhead
temperatures are relatively high (too hot to touch), the
temperature of the produced fluids rapidly cools in the
underwater portion of the flowlines. All flowlines are
equipped with pigging facilities and a two-man crew
operates on a full-day time basis cutting paraffin and
launching and receiving pigs.
Many alternative plans to prevent and remove paraffin
have been tried. These include hot oil, hot water,
chemicals, and solvent. So far none of these methods
have proved to be as cost effective as mechanical
removal. Field tests of paraffin dispersants have been
unsuccessful in reducing the paraffin problem.
There are currently about 427 active producing oil
well~ in the East Bay area. Gas lift is used to produce ap-
proxlmately 90% of these wells. The average production
is 35 BOPD and 300 BWPD per well. Production is from
approximately 8,500 ft and the oil gravity ranges from
20 to 40° API, although most of the oil has a gravity of
approximately 26 °API.
Approximately 100 wells in East Bay have exhibited
significant paraffin problems. Despite the high rate of
water production and resulting high temperatures, paraf-
fin must be routinely removed from the tubing and
flow~ines to avoid paraffin buildup, which restricts pro-
ductIOn and eventually causes plugging. The paraffin is
remove~ by wirelines and paraffin cutters. For operating
convemence, the wells are grouped according to the fre-
quency that cutting is required. This varies from two
times per week to two times per year. Most of the 100
problem wells are cut once every 2 weeks.
Altamont Field, UT
High-pour-point crude oil has been produced from the
Uinta basin's Altamont field since April 1970. The main
producing interval is the Wasatch formation at a depth of
9,000 to 13,000 ft. The Wasatch crude has an ASTM
pour. point ranging from 95 to 125 OF and contains ap-
proxlmately 50% paraffin wax. The cloud point ranges
from 160 to 170°F. About one third of the wax content
precipitates at wellhead temperatures (80 to 90°F). This
wax is a microcrystalline wax of unusually high
molecular weight with estim~ted average carbon
numbers of about 40 to 60. Additional information on
crude-oil properties and well conditions is included in
Table 1.
1194
Several production problems have been caused by
heavy wax deposition in artificial-lift equipment, tubing,
flowlines, and facilities. The wax deposition has caused
produ~tion downtime, equipment damage, and high
operatmg cost. Severe wax deposition in the wells can
?egin as deep as 5,000 ft from the surface in the produc-
l?g wells .. The producing wells in Altamont are being
hfted by elther beam pump, hydraulic pump, gas lift, or
submersible pump depending upon the well conditions
and water cut.
The low-molecular-weight components in the crude oil
are stripped off by the gas-lift gas, resulting in a 10°F in-
crease in pour point in the gas-lift oil production. The
wax deposition in these wells is more severe and harder
to remove. The current control method for the rapid wax
buildup requires two to three wireline wax cuttings per
week with an average yearly cost of over $7,000 per
well. Paraffin buildup in the gas-lift wells also rapidly
reduces the production capacity of these wells.
Rod-pumping equipment is used to produce 13 of the
wells. The wax buildup on the tubing walls and rods of
the rod-pumped wells has resulted in frequent and
lengthy rod-pulling operations. Mechanical scraping is
currently the primary means of treatment in these rod-
pumped wells. The paraffin scrapers are mechanical
devices fixed to the rods and are used in conjunction with
surface-operated rod-rotating equipment. All scrapers
used to date have been only partially effective. Scrapers
made of steel have resulted in a number of subsurface
system failures (rods, scrapers, and tubing). Inadequate
factory installation of the scrapers on the rods and
mishandling of the rods and scrapers in the field are the
most probable cause of these problems. These problems
have resulted in tubing wear, tubing leaks, and worn or
loose scrapers. Pieces tom from the scrapers have been
found in downhole pumps and have, in some cases,
lodged between the rods and tubing, thus preventing rod
movement. Scrapers made of plastic materials such as
nylon and Ryton™ have also been used. The nylon
scrapers have been less effective than the Ryton scrapers
because of severe wear. Paraffin buildup on the rods is a
common problem for all the rod-mounted scrapers. The
paraffin tends to build up to the diameter of the scraper
and place an added load on the rods. Traveling scrapers
are now being field tested to determine their effec-
tiveness in reducing the rod-buildup problem.
The buildup of paraffin in the rod-pump wells leads to
re~uced production rates, frequent downtime, pumping-
umt overload, and parted rods. Hot oiling is used in
severe cases of paraffin buildup; however, in some in-
stances, the rods must be pulled to clean the paraffin
from the rods and tubing. The cost for hot oiling and
paraffin cutting is approximately $1 million per year in
these wells.
Paraffin deposits also playa significant role in the sur-
face faci.lity and flowline operations. Because of its high
pour pomt, the Altamont crude can gel into a highly
viscous fluid at the ambient temperatures encountered in
Utah. As a result, the crude oil is transported through a
heated and insulated flowline system. The flowlines are
insulated with a 2-in.-thick polyurethane insulation, and
the temperature is maintained at approximately 140°F.
The oil separators and storage tanks are maintained at
150°F to avoid deposition. The oil is transported from
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

TABLE 1-FIELD AND CRUDE-OIL DATA
Crude-Oil Properties Altamont Michigan
Pour point, of 95 to 125 40 to 80
Cloud pOint, of 160 to 170 80 to 100
Wax content, % 50 6 to 72
API gravity, °API at 60°F 40 to 45 36 to 40
Well Conditions
Well depth, ft 9,000 to 13,000 6,000
BHT, of 200 100
Typical water cut, % 75 10
Typical oil and water
production, BID per well 200 to 750 100 to 200
the field by trucks. Approximately 650 MMCF of gas
per year is consumed by the glycol field heating system,
which is used to heat the flowlines and vessels.
The high operating cost, fuel requirements, and fre-
quent operating problems provide a continued need to
develop better methods for controlling and removing
paraffin deposits. Some of the alternatives considered in-
clude (1) a separate tubing string to circulate hot fluids
(glycol, oil, or water) in the annulus, (2) chemical
coatings (sodium silicate), (3) plastic coatings, and (4)
paraffin dispersant chemicals. 9- 12 So far, none of these
methods are sufficiently effective to provide an
economic solution. However, considerable effort on the
part of chemical suppliers has been expended to develop
chemicals that will disperse or modify the wax-crystal
growth and wax deposition on metal surfaces. An exam-
ple of the effect that one chemical has on viscosity reduc-
tion is illustrated in Fig.3. Some of these materials have
had some success in refinery and pipeline operations in
reducing the need or frequency for remedial operations
and, after appropriate screening, the better performers
may be tried at Altamont. The laboratory screening in-
cludes photomicrograph study and use of the cold-
spot/finger tests described by Hunt and Jorda. 6,7
Michigan
Shell's oil and gas production from the Niagaran reef in
Northern Michigan began in the early 1970's. The pro-
ducing interval is approximately 6,000 ft, and the bot-
tomhole temperature (BHT) is about 110°F. The range
of crude-oil properties and operating conditions is shown
in Table 1. The pour point of the Michigan crude oil
ranges from 40 to 80°F, and for most wells the wax con-
tent is much lower than for the Altamont crude oil.
Paraffin deposits have occurred as deep as 5,000 ft in
these wells because of the high pour-point temperature
and low BHT. Conventional paraffin-removal pro-
cedures such as plunger lift, paraffin cutting, hot oiling,
and flow-line pigging have generally been successful.
The required frequency rate of cutting or hot oiling
varies from daily to very infrequently (once a month or
less). A separate tubing string to supply heat downhole
was tried but rejected because it was unable to heat the
produced oil down to the required depth. Scrapers have
JUNE 1983
SAYBOL T VISCOSITY. SSU
~ 120°F
180 r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
(SEC)
160
140
120
100
80
60
40 ~---~---~~--~~---~2000
PARAFFIN DISPERSANT PPM
Fig. 3-Effect of dispersants on Altamont crude-oil viscosity.
been used in rod-pump wells but have caused tubing
wear and other problems similar to those at Altamont.
Chemicals do reduce the frequency of the need for hot oil
or scraping, but so far their cost has outweighed the
benefits. Automatic paraffin scrapers have been used in
some wells to cut paraffin from the tubing. These are
preset to cycle 2 to 4 times per day depending on the
severity of the paraffin problem. Although these scrapers
do an adequate job, costly operating problems have oc-
curred, such as broken or kinked wirelines or mechanical
failure.
Paraffin deposition in the flowlines is especially severe
in the winter because of the low ground temperature
(35 OF) at the 4-ft depth at which the flowlines are
buried. Hot oil or pigs are used to remove the paraffin.
The frequency for the pigging or hot oiling depends upon
the oil and ground temperature conditions.
Plastic coatings have been ineffective because paraffin
continued to build up, although at a lower rate, and the
scraping or other removal methods damaged the coating.
Sodium silicate treatments have been tested in an attempt
~o ~r~vide a water-we~ .chydrorhylic) coating that would
mhIbIt paraffin depOSItIOn. 9-1 These have been unsuc-
cessful because of scale deposits from the calcium and
magnesium present in the produced water and because of
ineffective cleaning of the tubing or pipe before
treatment.
Field Histories-Asphaltenes
Asphaltene deposits have also presented significant
problems under widely varied conditions. These range
from asphaltene deposits during the early life of the
black-oil production in the Ventura field in California to
asphaltene deposition resulting from well acidizing and
CO 2 injection [enhanced oil recovery (EOR) projects].
Ventura Avenue Field, CA
Significant problems occurred during the early produc-
tive life of wells producing from Zones D-6 and D-7.
During the early development of Zone D-7 in 1944, it
was recognized that deposition of asphaltenes con-
tributed to plugging ofthe slotted, preperforated or wire-
wrapped liners and tubing. Produced sand and mud
solids also contributed to this problem. Zone D-7 was at
1195
depths greater than 8,500 ft, and the BHT ranged from
212 to 310°F. The original bottomhole pressure (BHP)
was as high as approximately 8,500 psi, and the bubble-
point of the crude ranged from 3,500 to 4,500 psi.
Circulation of oil was used as early as 1944 to circum-
vent or reduce the asphaltene problem. The oil was
thought to be beneficial because it diluted the crude oil
and reduced the tendency of asphaltenes to precipitate.
Solvent treatment and reverse and nonnal circulation
with hot oil were also tried with mixed results. Solvent
treatments were not very successful, largely because the
solvents used were limited to aromatic solvents such as
toluene. The halogenated hydrocarbon solvents, pyridine
and carbon disulfide, are much more effective in dissolv-
ing the asphaltenes but had limited value because of their
cost, safety problems, or effects on the refinery. The
chlorinated hydrocarbons can contaminate the crude-oil
stream and may decompose in the refinery and liberate
hydrochloric acid, which may cause severe corrosion
problems. Carbon disulfide has been used effectively to
remove asphaltenes but is very difficult to use in the field
because of its low flash point (fire and explosion
hazard). Carbon disulfide can also create corrosion pro-
blems in the refinery. Pyridine was too expensive to be
considered at the time.
The problems at Ventura diminished after the BHP fell
below the bubble-point of the crude. For example, one
well had plugged 15 times before the bubble-point was
reached, and, in contrast, the plugging problems were
reduced significantly as the reservoir pressure dimin-
ished below the bubble-point. Many wells were redrilled
during the early history of this field because the
asphaltene-deposition problem was not solved.
However, the wells have produced trouble-free from
asphaltenes since the early 1970's.
Well Stimulation and EOR
Well-stimulation fluids such as hydrochloric acid can
cause significant damage in wells that produce
asphaltenic crude oil. The acid can cause precipitation of
asphaltenes and rigid films when it contacts the crude oil
and, in tum, cause significant damage to the porous
media near the wellbore. Attempts to remove the
deposited asphaltene and rigid film have often been un-
successful and, in some cases, the well has been per-
manently damaged and required redrilling. Consequent-
ly, the crude oil and well-stimulation fluids should be
tested for compatibility before any well-stimulation
operations where asphaltenic crudes are present.
Asphaltene deposits were found in the production tub-
ing in the Little Creek CO 2 -injection EOR pilot in
Mississippi. Asphaltene deposition had not been
reported previously during the primary and secondary
recovery (waterflood) history of this field. This problem
is thought to have been caused by the CO 2 in the pro-
duced crude oil, which acted in a manner similar to pro-
pane in causing deposition of the asphaltenes. In addi-
tion, CO 2 can cause rigid films at the oil/water interface
because of its effect on pH. These rigid films can also
contribute to the deposits.
Conclusions
Paraffin and asphaltene deposits can be costly and inter-
rupt nonnal oil-field operations. The paraffin problems
1196
are generally handled by heat, mechanical removal (pig-
ging, or cutting), or hot fluids and solvents. Coatings
and chemical dispersants have been used but have
generally not produced an economical solution to the
problem.
Asphaltene deposition can also contribute significantly
to field problems particularly if it occurs deep in the well
or in the producing interval. Mechanical removal tech-
niques have been the most effective means of combating
the asphaltene problems. Extensive testing should be
conducted before acidizing wells that produce crude oil
with high asphaltene contents to avoid in-situ plugging
with precipitated asphaltenes. In addition, since CO 2
can contribute to asphaltene deposition, this factor
should be considered in EOR projects.
Acknowledgments
I thank the engineers who supplied data and technical
guidance during the preparation of this paper: T.M.
Doscher, E.E. Olson, I. Yung, T.M. Bourgeois, L.A.
Bradley, R.M. Dannenberg III, P.R. Scott, P.K. Dun-
can, B.W. Bradley, and R.F. Scheuennan.
References
1. Reistle, C.E. Jr.: "Methods of Dealing with Paraffin Troubles
Encountered in Producing Crude Oils," Technical Paper 414,
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2. Reistle, C.E. Jr.: "Paraffin and Congealing Oil Problems,"
Bulletin 348, USBM (1932).
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Crude Oil Pipelines," paper EUR 206, presented at the 1980
European Petroleum Conference, London, Oct. 21-24.
9. Scott, P.R.: "Method of Preventing Hydrocarbonaceous Deposi-
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10. Scott, P.R.: "Method of Pipeline Transporting of Waxy Crude,"
Cdn. Patent No. 960726 (Jan. 7, 1975).
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1957).
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(Dec. 31, 1957).
SI Metric Conversion Factors
°API 141.5/(131.5 + °API) g/ cm 3
bbl x 1.589 873 E-Ol m3
cp x 1.0* E-03 Pa's
ft x 3.048* E-Ol m
OF COF - 32)/1.8 °C
psi x 6.894757 E+OO kPa
"'Conversion factor is exact. JPT
Original manuscript received in Society of Petroleum Engineers office Aug. 31,1981.
Paper accepted for publication Feb. 7, 1983. Revised manuscript received March 17,
1983. Paper (SPE 10004) first presented at the 1982 International Petroleum Exhibi-
tion and Technical Symposium held in Beijing, China.
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY