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Optimal System Design for Weigh-In-Motion Measurements Using In-

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 Pre-Print Manuscript of Article:
Zhiming, Z., Huang, Y., Bridgelall, R., Al-Tarawneh, M., Lu, P., “Optimal System Design for Weigh-in-Motion
Measurements Using In-Pavement Strain Sensors,” IEEE Sensors Journal, DOI:10.1109/JSEN.2017.2702597, PP(99), May 9,
2017.
Optimal System Design for Weigh-In-Motion
Measurements Using In-Pavement Strain Sensors
Zhiming Zhang, Ying Huang*, Raj Bridgelall, Mu'ath Al-Tarawneh, and Pan Lu
 require the vehicles to stop. Such static weight measurements
Abstract — Weigh-in-motion (WIM) systems are widely
deployed to collect real-time traffic data. They enable multiple
applications such as truck weight enforcement, pavement design,
freight management, traffic management, and intelligent
transportation systems. Engineers currently depend on the
experiences of practitioners in the field to select parameters for
the sensor and system design. This paper introduces a
comprehensive design framework that optimizes the system
design of in-pavement WIM sensors to meet high-level application
requirements. The framework establishes the relationships
between the sampling rate, measurement resolution,
signal-to-noise ratio, sensor sensitivity, and the measurement
dynamic range. The simulations and case study presented
demonstrates an example of a specific design to accommodate
high-speed truck weight measurements.
Index Terms — weigh-in-motion (WIM), intelligent
transportation system (ITS), optimal system design, in-pavement
strain sensors
I. INTRODUCTION
M EASURING the weights of passing vehicles is an important
activity for highway administrators and engineers [1].
Agencies use such measurements to help make decisions about
pavement design and maintenance. According to the design
guide provided by the American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), pavement design
must consider traffic load accumulation by calculating the
equivalent single axle load (ESAL) [2]. Recently, the National
Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) of the
Transportation Research Board (TRB) proposed the use of load
spectra to include traffic loads into the pavement design process
[3]. Either way, the design community agrees that traffic load is
a key input to pavement designs. The availability of accurate
traffic load information, however, relies significantly on on-site
measurement solutions.
Traditionally, agencies collect vehicle weight information by
directing select vehicles off the roadway to weigh stations that
This work was partially supported by the National Science Foundation ND
EPSCoR under agreement IIA-1355466, and NDSU FORWARD program
FAR0026087. Zhiming Zhang, Mu'ath Al-Tarawneh, and Ying Huang* are in
the department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, North Dakota State
University, USA.
Raj Bridgelall and Pan Lu are in Upper Great Plains Transportation Institute
(UGPTI), North Dakota State University, USA.
* Corresponding author: ying.huang@ndsu.edu
are time consuming and expensive. The approach poses traffic
safety hazards, and induces congestion because trucks must
queue along heavily traveled highways. To overcome these
limitations, engineers developed various weigh-in-motion
(WIM) systems using strain sensors embedded inside the
pavement. Such sensors incorporate piezoelectric transducers,
bending plates, load cells, and fiber optic devices [4-7]. These
devices are all capable of estimating the gross weight of
moving vehicles by measuring their dynamic tire forces [8]. In
combination with static weight stations, the highway patrol
uses WIM technologies to enforce truck weight limits, reduce
traffic jams, increase the mobility efficiency [9, 10], and to
collect traffic flow information [3].
WIM operation at mainline speeds poses challenges to
system designers. For speeds up to 80 mph (35.8 m/s), a short
vehicle axle-spacing produces high bandwidth WIM signals. A
signal bandwidth increase to accommodate high-speed vehicle
crossings, on the other hand, increases the signal noise that
ultimately limits the measurement accuracy and precision.
Therefore, there is a need to determine a design optimization
procedure that balances the data acquisition sampling rate with
an acceptable accuracy of weight measurement [11]. The
state-of-the-art WIM system design focuses a development of
algorithms to optimize multi-sensor sensor layout
configurations to increase the measurement accuracy [12-15].
For example, Cebon derived a statistical approach to estimate
the accuracy of a WIM system with multiple, evenly spaced
force transducers, subject to heavy vehicle generated random
and dynamic tire forces [13]. As part of a European research
project called 'WAVE', Dolcemascolo and Jacob [14]
calibrated the measurement accuracy of a multi-sensory WIM
system from 100 runs of two pre-weighed test trucks.
Stergioulas et al. [15] improved the accuracy of a multi-sensory
WIM system by applying a probabilistic estimation method to
two generic vehicle models including a ‘quarter-car’ and a
‘walking beam’ model. Other researchers studied sampling
optimization for WIM measurements from the passage of a
single tire load [16-19]. It is evident from the literature review
that the field lacks a systematic approach to optimize WIM
system designs capable of supporting multiple axle crossings.
This paper introduces a comprehensive and systematic
approach to optimize the design of a high-speed WIM system
that considers multiple-axle tire loads. The system design
approach determines the minimum required data sampling rate,
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Optimal System Design for Weigh-In-Motion Measurements Using In-Pavement Strain Sensors
the maximum achievable system resolution, the measurement
dynamic range, the maximum tolerable input noise level, and
other important system design parameters. The organization of
this paper is as follows: Section 2 demonstrates the framework
of the design methodology and develops models of the signal
generated from the embedded strain transducers; Section 3
presents numerical simulations of an example system
implementation to demonstrate the framework and Section 4
describes a case study for concrete pavements. Section 5
provides the conclusion and future work.
II. METHODOLOGY
A. WIM System Design Framework
A high-speed WIM system has three major components: the
embedded strain transducer that produces a strain signal that is
proportional to the applied weight, a low-pass filter that
includes signal amplification and an analog-to-digital (A/D)
converter. The low-pass filter and the signal amplifier operate
on the analog strain voltage to suppress random noise from the
output of the in-pavement transducer. Finally, the A/D
subsystem digitizes the analog signal for subsequent recording,
analysis, and the display of the weight measure via a separate
digital sub-system. This study developed a design framework
to optimize the in-pavement WIM sensor system. The
framework guides the design optimization by linking key
system level requirements to independent variables of the
sensor system.
The optimization requires identifying the independent and
Fig. 1. Framework to optimize the WIM system design.
1) Minimum identifiable axle weight
To derive the theoretical transducer output signal, the authors
simplify the tire load of a vehicle to a constant. Hence, the
passage of a single tire across the sensor produces a strain
signal I(t), which is a convolution of the load function PL(t) and
the sensitivity function SL(t) multiplied by the vehicle’s speed v
the dependent parameters of the sensor and system. The former
includes the minimum and maximum axle spacing (Smin, Smax)
of the target vehicles, the maximum supported vehicle speed
(vmax), and the minimum measurable axle weight (Wmin).
Together, these three independent parameters determine the
minimum strain signal (I0) that the system must measure. The
other independent parameters are the strain transducer
sensitivity, the maximum axle weight (Wmax) measurable, the
maximum allowable signal distortion (Dist), and the maximum
design voltage input to the A/D converter (Vmax). In this
framework, the full-scale A/D output is a digital representation
of Vmax.
The dependent parameters are the maximum noise level at
the input of the strain transducer (n0), the measurement
sensitivity of the WIM system (Sens), the cut-off frequency of
the low-pass filter (fc), the sampling rate (fs) of the A/D
converter, the number of A/D converter bits (N-bits), and the
dynamic range of the weight measurement. The sampling rate
of the A/D converter and the type of A/D converter generally
determines the minimum signal-to-noise ratio (SNRmin) that the
A/D converter supports. The minimum SNR refers to a
maximum tolerable noise at the input of the A/D converter (n1),
which in turn propagates back to the maximum noise tolerable
at the input of the transducer.
The theoretical derivations begin with identifying the
minimum strain signal (I0) that an embedded strain transducer
can generate.
as derived in [16] and shown in Equation (1).
I (t )  v 
 PL (t   )S L ( )d
(1)
Vehicle traversals at a velocity of v yield the temporal
functions from the spatial load and sensor functions. Given the
tire load simplification, the strain signal, I(t), is a trapezoidal
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Optimal System Design for Weigh-In-Motion Measurements Using In-Pavement Strain Sensors

shape as shown in Fig. 2.

The output noise at an A/D converter, n1, has a power of Pn1,
dB where

Pn1, dB = 20log10RMS(n1). (8)

Thus, the minimum required output power to distinguish a

strain signal P0 after the filter is

P0= Pn1, dB + SNRmin. (9)

Fig. 2. Strain signal from a single tire load

Substituting Equations (9) into (4) yields

Hence with multiple axles crossings, the strain signal 2
T t
becomes a periodic pulse train, I (t ) . Fig. 3 shows the 1 0 0
. (10)
P0  
2(T0  t 0 ) T0  t 0
I (t ) dt
theoretical pulse train from the continuous crossings of equally
spaced tire loads. T1 is the time interval between adjacent axles
having a maximum and minimum axle spacing of Smax and Smin, Solving Equation (10) then determines the minimum input
respectively. T1 is a function of the axle spacing (S) and the strain signal, I0.
speed of the passing vehicle (v) such that
2) Optimal system design
T1=S/v. (2) A filter bandwidth well beyond the fundamental frequency
that multiple axle crossings induce will reduce the signal’s
distortion. On the other hand, increasing the filter bandwidth
The theoretical pulse train, I (t ) is: decreases the SNR because the filter integrates noise at higher
frequencies. Therefore, a tradeoff that maximizes the SNR
 while minimizing the signal distortion level (Dist) will yield an
I (t )   I (t  kT1 ), k = 0,  1,  2, … (3) optimal solution.
k 
By Nyquist’s Theorem, the A/D sampling rate (fs) must be at
least twice the optimal cutoff frequency of the filter (fc) such
where k is the number of axle crossings.
that

fs = 2 × f {Max[SNR(fc)], Min[Dist(fc)]} (11)

The sensitivity function of the selected strain transducer and

the minimum strain signal (I0) determines the minimum weight
Fig. 3. Strain signal from equally spaced multiple tire loads Wmin such that

Wmin  I 0  Sens. (12)

Subsequently, the power of the strain signal over the period
[-T0+t0, T0+t0] is
The maximum weight, Wmax, that the system can measure is
T0  t 0 2
1 (4) Wmax = Wmin 2N-bit .
2(T0  t 0 ) T0 t 0
P I (t ) dt (13)

These formulations yield the dynamic range [Wmin, Wmax] of

Given an A/D converter of N-bits, its minimum SNR
requirement is [16]
SNRmin = N-bit · 6.02 +1.76.
The maximum allowable noise at the input of an anti-aliasing
filter, n0(t), produces the noise power in dB, Pn0, dB, of
the WIM system. To simplify the analysis and illustrate the
framework, the authors assume a constant sensitivity factor so
that the weight is a linear transform of the strain level.
(5) Consequently, the measurement resolution, Rweight, for the WIM
system is
Rweight  Wmax 2 Nbits . (14)

Pn0, dB = 20log10RMS(n0). (6) Subsequently, the equivalent error of weight measurements

is
Given an input noise of n0, and an anti-aliasing filter with an
impulse response of h(t), the output noise, n1, must be Eweight = Wmax/2N-bit+1 . (15)

n1(t) = n0h(t) (7)

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 Optimal System Design for Weigh-In-Motion Measurements Using In-Pavement Strain Sensors

Noise Level = -13 dB

40 Noise Level = -3 dB
III. APPLYING THE FRAMEWORK Noise Level = 17 dB

This section conducts a numerical sensitivity analysis by
applying the proposed framework to a simulated load from a
truck axle. The load P is assumed to be 2,630.8 kg (5,800 lb).
Table 1 lists all the parameters used for the numerical analysis.
The parameters, a, b, and h are the length, width, and thickness
of the pavement panel. L0 and B0 are the length and width of the
tire contact area with the pavement. E and u are the modulus of
elasticity and Poisson’s ratio for the concrete. The parameter k
is the subgrade stiffness. The parameters x0, y0, and h0 are the
location coordinates of the installed sensor in the panel. P is the
weight of the tire, v is the truck speed, which is 17.4 m/s (39
mph), and S is the distance between the adjacent axles. In
practice, most vehicles have an axle space longer than 1.5m (5
ft.) and shorter than 7.9 m (26 ft.). Thus, the simulations used
random vehicle axle spaces, S, between 1.5-7.9 m (5-26 ft).
Fig. 4 shows the simulated strain signals from the passing
axles.
TABLE I
PARAMETERS FOR NUMERICAL SIMULATION
Parameter Value Unit Parameter Value
a 1.8 m k 29.8 × 10
SNR, dB
20
0
160 Hz
-20
0 500 1000 1500
fc, Hz
Fig. 5. SNR change with filter cutoff frequencies for S = 1.5-7.9 m (5-26 ft)
The authors define the distortion level of the strain signal as
the pulse width at the mean level between the maxima and the
minima of the pulse train. Fig. 6 shows the mean pulse width as
a function of the filter cutoff frequency. The exponential decay
trend establishes that there is a point of diminishing returns. For
the scenario of a 17 dB input noise level, increasing of the filter
cutoff frequency beyond 160 Hz will diminish the SNR below
the desired 3 dB level without yielding significant
improvements in distortion. Therefore, a design that sets the
cutoff frequency at 160 Hz will yield the optimum design for
this scenario. Subsequently, the corresponding sample rate
Unit must be at least twice the cutoff frequency.
6
kg/m3
Pulse Width, 1/10000 sec

400
b 1.8 m x0 1.3 m Signal without Noise
350 Noise Level = -3 dB
h 0.076 m y0 1.1 m Noise Level = -13 dB
300
L0 0.35 m h0 0.07 m
250
B0 0.23 m P 2,630.8 kg
200 160 Hz
E 15000 MPa v 17.4 m/s
150
 0.16 - S 1.5-7.9 m 0 500 1000 1500
fc, Hz
Fig. 6. Pulse width at different cutoff frequencies for S = 1.5-7.9 m (5-26 ft)
0
Using an 8-bit A/D converter and a filter cut-off frequency of
-20 160 Hz and Equation (10), Fig. 7 plots the minimum input
Strain, 

signal power as a function of input noise power. It shows that

-40 for each dB decrease of the input noise power, the minimum
detectable strain signal power increases linearly by 12.2%.
-60
Minimum Input Signal Power, dB

-80 140
0 10000 20000 Axle Distance = 5 ft
t, 1/10000 sec Axle Distance = 26 ft
Fig. 4. Strain signal from random axle spacing between 1.5 and 7.9 m (5-26 ft) 120 Axle Distance = 5-26 ft

To analyze the influence of sampling frequencies, the 100

authors applied a 7th order Bessel filter as the anti-aliasing filter
at different cutoff frequencies. Fig. 5 illustrates the expected
80
decrease in SNR as a function of the filter cutoff frequencies.
The simulations used three arbitrary input noise levels of -13
60
dB, -3 dB, and 17 dB to illustrate the linear time-invariance 0 20 40 60 80
property of the system. That is, for any given cutoff frequency, Noise Power, dB
Fig. 7. P0 change with the increase of n0 level
a higher noise results in a lower SNR. The chart also provides
guidance for setting the cutoff frequency based on an absolute
From Equation (12), Fig. 8 plots that the minimum
input noise level and an SNR requirement. For example, a 3dB
measureable weight as a function of the cutoff frequency for
SNR will require a cutoff frequency lower than 160Hz when
four different input noise levels, -10 dB, 0 dB, 10 dB, and 20
the input noise level is less than 17 dB.

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Optimal System Design for Weigh-In-Motion Measurements Using In-Pavement Strain Sensors

dB. It is evident that the minimum measurable tire weight
generally increases with the cutoff frequency at different input
noise levels. It is also evident that the filter has a greater impact
at the higher input noise levels. For a cut-off frequency of 160
Hz, the minimum measurable tire weight and resolution of the
system is 45.36 kg (100 lbs), 90.72 kg (200 lbs), 249.48 kg (550
lbs), and 816.47 kg (1800 lbs) for noise levels of -10 dB, 0 dB,
10 dB, and 20 dB, respectively. From Equation (13), the
maximum identifiable weights are 11,611.97 kg (25,600 lbs),
23,223.93 kg (51,200 lbs), 63,865.81 kg (140,800 lbs),
209,015.36 kg (460,800 lbs) for input noise levels of -10 dB, 0
dB, 10 dB, and 20 dB, respectively.
Fig. 9 categorizes the weights of standard classifications for
vehicles in the United States [20]. Hence, the weight measured
from individual axle crossings will be at least half the weights
shown. It is evident that the example WIM system with an input
noise level below 0 dB can weigh almost all the classes of
vehicles in United States.
40, which contains a concrete pavement with panel dimensions
(a × b × h) of 1.8 m × 1.8 m × 0.076 m (6 ft × 6 ft × 3 in). The
concrete used for the pavements had a Young’s modulus, E, of
15,000 MPa (2,175,566 psi) and a poison ratio, μ, of 0.16. The
subgrade under the pavement had a stiffness, k, of 29,838,932.2
kg/m3 (1,078 pci). The strain gauges, shown in Fig. 11(a), are
located 1.3m (51.2 in.), x0, away from the middle of the
pavement and 1.1m (43.3 in.), y0, away from the longitudinal
pavement panel edge. Fig. 11(b) shows the installed position. In
Fig. 11(c) is a photograph of the onsite data collection
equipment used to sample the strain signal output at a rate of
1.2 kHz. This rate was sufficiently high to examine the effects
of sampling rate reduction by post filtering.

(a) MnROAD facility

Fig. 8. Minimum identifiable weight at different cutoff frequencies for S =

1.5-7.9 m (5-26 ft)

(b) Concrete pavement of the simulation line

Fig. 10. Road sections at MnROAD for case study.

(a) Strain gauge

Fig. 9. Vehicle weights by class

IV. CASE STUDY

This section introduces a case study that applies the
framework, using the simulation parameters from Table 1. The
authors collected data from the sensor site at cell 40 of the
MnROAD Cold Weather Road Research Facility in Minnesota
[14, 15]. As shown in Fig. 10(a), MnROAD, consists of two
unique roadways: a two-lane low-volume loop that is loaded
with a 5-axle 36,287 kg (80,000 lb) semi-truck, and a section of
interstate I-94 ‘‘mainline’’ that contains two westbound lanes (b) Strain gauge configuration in the concrete pavement
with live traffic [16]. Fig. 10(b) shows the road section of Cell

Page 5/7
 Optimal System Design for Weigh-In-Motion Measurements Using In-Pavement Strain Sensors
(c) Data collection equipment
Fig. 11. The WIM in-pavement strain sensors, installation layout in pavement
panel, and data collection equipment.
Fig. 12(a) is a diagram of the 5-axle truck used to provide the
multi-axle loads. The first axle of the truck weighs 2,630.8 kg
(5,800 lb). The smallest axle distance of the semi-truck is 1.5 m
(4.9 ft), which is within the range of the random axle spacing
simulated. Fig. 12(b) shows a photograph of the testing scene.
Fig. 13 shows the strain signal acquired from the strain gauges
in the unit of µɛ as the truck passes over the in-pavement strain
sensor. The five pulses coincide with the five axle traversals of
the truck.
(a) Truck configuration
(b) Test scene
Fig. 12. WIM measurement tests at MnROAD facility.
50
0 between the sampling rate, resolution, SNR, sensor sensitivity,
Strain, 
-50
-100
-150
0 500 1000 1500 2000
t, 1/1200 sec
Fig. 13. Measured signals from the strain gauge at 1,200 Hz.
This section uses the design framework of the Section 2 to
evaluate the system design. From Equation (5), the SNRmin
is -49.9 dB for an 8-bit A/D converter. The noise reduction of
the anti-aliasing filter is 20*log(Bf) = -11.5 dB with the
fractional noise equivalent bandwidth Bf = 160 Hz/600 Hz =
0.267. Therefore, the maximum tolerable strain signal with
noise before the anti-aliasing filter is -49.9 – (-11.5) = -38.4 dB.
The full scale of the strain signal input at the A/D was set to
5,000 to benefit from their linearity within that range. The
measured sensitivity of the installed WIM sensor was 0.03
/kg (0.014 /lb) [13]. Thus, Equation (11), the system was
capable of a measuring a maximum weight of 166,665 kg
(357,143 lb).
From Equation (10), the minimum measurable weight or
weight resolution of the WIM system is 651 kg (1,395 lb).
Therefore, the strain signal level from the minimum weight is
19.53 με. Figure 5 shows that the SNR measured at the output
of A/D is 14 dB, then the actual noise is 38.4 – 14 = 24.4 dB,
which is equivalent to a signal level of 16.53  Comparing
this value with Fig. 8, the field testing validated the simulation
with very close values. From Equation (9), the power of the
strain signal is -37 dB. From Equation (13), this system would
have a measurement error of ± 325.5 kg (697.5 lb).
The sampling rate for the installed WIM system was 1,200
Hz. Hence, the bandwidth should be less than 600 Hz. Figs.14
shows the sampled data filtered with the 160 Hz cut-off
frequency determined from the simulations. It is evident that
the cutoff frequency provides a good tradeoff between
distortion and SNR as expected.
Fig. 14 Filtered signals from the case study with cut-off frequencies of 160 Hz.
V. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
This study developed a comprehensive framework to guide
the design optimization of WIM systems using in-pavement
strain transducers. The authors derived the relationships
and the dynamic range of the WIM system. The framework
identified the dependent and independent variables as a
function of the high-level application requirements. Design
parameters include the sampling rate of the data capture
equipment, the dynamic range of the weight measurement
scale, and the maximum tolerable noise levels. The theoretical
analysis, the numerical simulations, and a case study provided
evidence that the framework will be effective in guiding the
design of future WIM systems. In future work, the authors will
collect a larger amount of WIM sensor data to evaluate the
design using real highway traffic.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The National Science Foundation ND EPSCoR grant
Page 6/7
Optimal System Design for Weigh-In-Motion Measurements Using In-Pavement Strain Sensors
under agreement IIA-1355466, and the NDSU FORWARD
program FAR0026087 supported this study. The findings
and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors
only and do not necessarily reflect the views of the sponsors.
The authors also would like to thank Robert Strommen,
Leonard Palek, Benjamin Worel, and other technicians at
MnROAD facility, MnDOT, MN, for their extensive
technical help during field tests.
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View publication stats
Zhiming Zhang received PhD in civil
engineering at North Dakota State University
(NDSU), Fargo, USA. He completed his B.S.
degree in civil engineering from Liaoning
Technical University, China, in 2010 and the
M.S. degree in civil engineering from
Southwest Jiaotong University, China, in 2013.
His research interests include structural health monitoring and
intelligent transportation systems.
Mu'ath Al-Tarawneh is currently a Ph.D. student in civil
engineering at NDSU, Fargo, USA. He completed his M.S.
degree in civil engineering in civil engineering at NDSU,
Fargo, in 2016. His research interests include structural health
monitoring and intelligent transportation systems.
Dr. Ying Huang currently is an assistant
professor in the Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering at NDSU. She
received her Ph. D. degree in Missouri
University of Science and Technology in
USA in 2012 before she joined NDSU. Her
research interests include intelligent
transportation system, pipeline corrosion
mitigation and assessment, smart structures and structural
health monitoring, multi-hazard mitigation in harsh
environments, and big data for transportation. As a researcher,
Dr. Huang has more than 100 high quality peer-reviewed
publications. She serves in five international journals as
editorial board member, five distinguishing professional
society as committee member, and 30 different international
journals and conferences as peer reviewer.
Dr. Raj Bridgelall (M’91-SM’02) received
the B.S. and M.S. degrees in electrical
engineering from Stony Brook University in
1990 and 1991, respectively. Bridgelall
received the Ph.D. degree in transportation
and logistics at the NDSU, Fargo in 2015. He
served as the RFID Chief Technologist at
Motorola until 2004, as Vice President of Research &
Development at Alien Technology until 2006, and as Chief
Technical Officer at Axcess International until 2010. He is
presently Program Director of the SMARTSeSM Intelligent
Transportation Systems Center at North Dakota State
University. He is the author of more than 57 peer-reviewed
articles and holds more than 140 patents issued or pending. His
research interests include intelligent transportation systems and
smart city developments. Mr. Bridgelall was a recipient of
Sensors Magazine Best of Sensors Rising Star Award in 2014,
the IEEE Charles Hirsch Award in 2004, and the IEEE
Outstanding Young Engineer Award in 1999.
Dr. Pan Lu received the Ph.D. degree in transportation and
logistics at NDSU, Fargo in 2009. In 2010, Pan became a
Research Analyst at Upper Plains Transportation Institute
(UGPTI), at NDSU, focusing in the area of asset management,
freight transportation, sustainable transportation, rail
transportation and GIS-T applications. From 2012, Pan has
served as Associate Research Fellow at UGPTI.
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