energies

Article
Modified Rock Bolt Support for Mining Method with
Controlled Roof Bending
Krzysztof Skrzypkowski 1, * , Waldemar Korzeniowski 1 , Krzysztof Zagórski 2 and
Anna Zagórska 3
1 Faculty of Mining and Geoengineering, AGH University of Science and Technology, Mickiewicza 30 av,
30-059 Kraków, Poland; walkor@agh.edu.pl
2 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Robotics, AGH University of Science and Technology,
Mickiewicza 30 av, 30-059 Kraków, Poland; zagkrzys@agh.edu.pl
3 Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Geological Sciences, Research Centre in Kraków, Senacka 1,
31-002 Kraków, Poland; ndzagors@cyf-kr.edu.pl
* Correspondence: skrzypko@agh.edu.pl




Received: 2 February 2020; Accepted: 8 April 2020; Published: 11 April 2020


Abstract: The article presents methods of making the rock bolt support more yieldable, especially
for a stratified roof. Alongside the increasing depth of exploitation of raw material deposits,
rock bolt support units are more often designed taking into account more intensive deformations
and displacements of underground excavations. In the article, a room and pillar method with
mined roof bending and roof reinforcement with bolt patterns of 1 m × 1 m, 1.5 m × 1.5 m and
2 m × 2 m is presented. Moreover, the laboratory tests included 1.8 m long bolts, which were
embedded segmentally on the lengths of 100 mm, 150 mm and 200 mm were tested. Based on the
load–displacement characteristics, the deformation energy for flat and profiled dome bearing plates
was calculated. Making the segmentally embedded resin rock bolt support yieldable enabled it to
perform additional work. Furthermore, it was found that rock bolt support with a dome bearing plate
took over 2.5 times more energy compared to a rock bolt support equipped with a flat bearing plate.

Keywords: resin rock bolt support; embedded length; rock bolt pattern; room and pillar method with
mined roof bending; work of rock bolt support

1. Introduction
The rock bolt support used in the conditions of the stratified rock mass should be characterized
by high load-bearing capacity and considerable tensile yield, which excludes its breaking even in
the event of damage of the thick roof layers. The use of the yieldable rock bolts is favorable and
contributes to the acquisition of falling rock masses, thanks to which the excavation can retain its
functionality longer. Making the rock bolt more yieldable is still a current subject of research due to the
successive increase in the depth of exploitation, which causes the increase in the rock mass stressing,
generates seismic phenomena and contributes to the considerable growth of rock deformations in
both roadways and room excavations [1–4]. In Poland, some mining roadways are driven at a depth
of 1200 m or deeper, and their frequency is expected to increase in the coming years [5]. If there are
minor rock deformations, bolts of greater stiffness, e.g., bolts installed with resin or cement grout,
should be used [6–8]. For resin bolts, laboratory tests are carried out to determine the influence of
the embedded length on the load capacity of the bolt [9–11]. Li et al. [12] determined the minimum
embedded length for a 20 mm diameter rock bolt that was installed with a cement binder with three
different water-to-cement ratios. The model of the rock mass consisted of a concrete block. Feng
et al. [13] studied the influence of the embedded length of the segmentally installed ribbed steel bolt rod

Energies 2020, 13, 1868; doi:10.3390/en13081868 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

 Energies2020,
Energies 13,x1868
2020,13, FOR PEER REVIEW 2 2ofof19
20

installed ribbed steel bolt rod of 18 mm diameter. The steel bolt rod was 300 mm long. Ma et al. [14]
byof 18 mm diameter.
means of numerical The methods
steel bolt determined
rod was 300 the mminfluence
long. Ma of et al.
the[14] bybolt
rock means of numerical
support spacingmethods
on the
determined the influence of the rock bolt support spacing on the range of
range of the rock destruction zone in the roof. In the research, it was assumed that the initial tensionthe rock destruction zone in
isthe
40roof. In the research,et
kN. Skrzypkowski it al.
was[15]
assumed
tested that the initial
the coiled bolttension
rod, foriswhich
40 kN.they
Skrzypkowski
determinedetthe al. [15] tested
influence
the coiled bolt rod, for which they determined the influence of the diameter
of the diameter of the drillhole on its load capacity and flexibility. In addition, one of the most of the drillhole on its load
important technical parameters of the rock bolt is its ribbing, which determines the effectiveness ofis
capacity and flexibility. In addition, one of the most important technical parameters of the rock bolt
its ribbing,
the bolting. which
Aziz and determines
Jalalifar the[16]effectiveness
and Tao et al. of [17]
the bolting.
found that Aziztheand Jalalifarbetween
distance [16] andtheTaoribs
et al.
has[17]
a
found that the distance between the ribs has a greater influence on the
greater influence on the load capacity of the bolt than the height of the ribs. Ghadimi [18] derived load capacity of the bolt than
the height of the
mathematical ribs. Ghadimi
equations by means [18]ofderived
which mathematical
he found thatequations
the binder byismeans
elasticoforwhich he found that
elastically-plastic;
the binder is elastic or elastically-plastic; he also found the geometric
he also found the geometric profile of the bolt and resistance to binder compression. Yokota profile of the bolt and resistance
et al.
[19], on the basis of laboratory tests, concluded, among other things, that optimal cooperation ofother
to binder compression. Yokota et al. [19], on the basis of laboratory tests, concluded, among the
things, that optimal cooperation of the installed ribbed bolt occurs when the
installed ribbed bolt occurs when the inclination angle of the rib of the rock bolt is at least 60°. In inclination angle of the rib
of the rock bolt is at least 60 ◦ . In room and pillar methods, where excavations intersect each other,
room and pillar methods, where excavations intersect each other, there is a stress concentration area,
there
and theisdamage
a stress area
concentration
of the roofarea,rock andmassthe damage
is the largest,area of the
which roof rock
results mass is the
in developing largest,
long, which
reinforced
results
rock boltinsupports,
developing bothlong,
with reinforced
expansion rock
and bolt supports,
installed with both
thewith
use ofexpansion
adhesiveand installed
resin cartridgeswithandthe
cement binder in these areas [20,21]. In situations where there are large rock deformations, it are
use of adhesive resin cartridges and cement binder in these areas [20,21]. In situations where there is
large rock deformations, it is necessary to use yieldable bolts (Figure 1), which
necessary to use yieldable bolts (Figure 1), which will stop the rock mass falling into the excavation will stop the rock mass
falling into
without the excavation
serious damage, and without
at theserious
same time damage, and bolt
the rock at the same time
support will the rock bolt support
additionally serve aswill an
additionally serve as an
energy absorbing system [22,23]. energy absorbing system [22,23].

Figure
Figure 1. Holdingthe
1. Holding therocks
rocks
up up by rock
by the the bolt
rocksupport
bolt support whendeformations
when serious serious deformations appear:
appear: 1—original
1—original shape of the room; 2—shape of the room after rock mass deformation; 3—yieldable
shape of the room; 2—shape of the room after rock mass deformation; 3—yieldable rock bolt support.rock
bolt support.
Currently, more and more new concepts of the rock bolt support are being developed, the common
Currently,
feature of which more
is the and moretonew
ability concepts
maintain highof thecapacity
load rock bolt of support
the support are while
being accepting
developed,much the
common feature of which
greater displacements is the
and ability to maintain
deformations high loadAmong
of the support. capacitythe of the support
special while
designs ofaccepting
rock bolt
much
supportsgreater displacements
we can distinguish and thosedeformations of the support.
which are characterized Among geometry
by variable the specialalongdesigns
theiroflength.
rock
bolt supports
Ortlepp et al. we
[24]can distinguish
examined those which
the Duracable cable are characterized
bolt, which had the by variable
shape of geometry
a sine wave. along their
St-Pierre
length. Ortlepp
et al. [25] proposed et al. [24] examined
a sliding effect forthe
theDuracable
Modified Cone cableBolt,
bolt,which
whichwas hadwidened
the shape of abottom
at the sine wave.
of the
St-Pierre
opening.etLial. [25]
[26] proposed
designed theaDsliding effect isfor
bolt, which the Modified
made of a smoothConesteel Bolt,
bar which was widened
with numerous at the
attachment
bottom
points in of the
theopening,
opening.between
Li [26] which
designed boltthe D bolt,
sections of which
variableis diameter
made of are a smooth
present.steel
They bararewith
also
numerous attachment points in the opening, between which bolt sections
subject to extension. Displacements of the rock bolt support are a result of deformations of the bolt of variable diameter are
present.
materialThey
in termsare of
also subjectand
elasticity to extension.
plasticity, asDisplacements of the rock
well as the properties boltapplied
of the support are a result
binding materialsof
deformations
(cement, adhesive)of the bolt
and material
the specificin terms of elasticity
construction andand plasticity,
applied as well as
mechanisms of the
the properties of the
so-called energy
applied
absorbers.binding materials
A frequent way(cement,
to make theadhesive)
rock bolt and the specific
support construction
more yieldable is toand
use applied mechanisms
an additional element
of the so-called
inside energy
the bolt hole. Wu absorbers.
and Oldsen A frequent
[27] usedway to make
a profiled the rock
conical bolt support
polymer more yieldable
cover, which was placed is to
on
use
the an
Y-lokadditional
rock boltelement insideofthe
at the bottom thebolt hole.
hole. Wu and
Charette andOldsen
Plouffe[27]
[28] used
testedathe
profiled
Roofexconical polymer
bolt, which was
cover,
equippedwhich was
with placed
a steel on the inside
absorber Y-lok rock boltbetween
the hole at the bottom
the twoof sleeves.
the hole.Varden
Charette and
et al. Plouffe
[29] examined[28]
tested the Roofex
the Garford bolt, which
bolt equipped withwasa equipped
sliding boltingwith mechanism
a steel absorber
that inside the hole
is pressed between
against the boltthebelow
two
sleeves.
the mixingVarden et al.
section. [29] examined
During the Garford
the rock mass deformation, bolt equipped
the bolt iswith a sliding
pressed throughbolting mechanism
the construction,
that
whichis pressed
causes itsagainst the boltThe
extension. below the mixing
mechanism section.
of bolt During
pulling the rock
through themass
steel deformation,
absorber firmly thefixed
bolt
is pressed through the construction, which causes its extension. The mechanism of bolt pulling
Energies 2020, 13, 1868 3 of 20

inside the bolt hole was also tested by Wanga [30]. He et al. [31,32] examined the He bolt equipped
with an energy absorber and a steel pipe. Using a sliding pipe inside the hole, the total displacement
of the bolt can be up to 1 m. Wu et al. [33] proposed a new solution for the rock bolt, a tension and
compression-coupled (TCC) yieldable support. A section of the rock bolt in the hole can be fixed either
with the use of cement binder or the adhesive. The characteristic features of the bolt are two additional
attachment points inside the hole, between which there is a smooth steel bar not connected or very
poorly connected to the binder, which is stretched during rock mass deformation. Bolts of the length
of 2.5 to 5 m can be extended from 386 to 754 mm. One of the elements of the rock bolt support can
also be an element responsible for making it yieldable, which is placed on the rock bolt. It is located
between the bearing plate and the bolt nut. Lu et al. [34] and Sun et al. [35] proposed a way of making
the support yieldable with the use of a steel cylinder, which is deformed under load, increasing its
diameter. Korzeniowski et al. [36] made the extension rock bolt support more yieldable by using
two disc springs, which were placed between the two bearing plates. As a result of different levels
of stiffness of construction materials and geometry, the bearing plate was deformed under load and
directed inside the hole of disc springs. Chen et al. [37] examined the R bolt, which was additionally
equipped with a rubber bearing plate of 50 mm diameter and 25 mm height. Due to such a solution,
the support is able to absorb energy several times during dynamic loads. A very interesting and
innovative solution was presented by Dai et al. [38], whose idea to make the support more yieldable
was to do it with the use of a divided sleeve with wall thickness of 2 to 4 mm and length of 150 mm,
which is divided into four irregular parts under load. The sleeve serves as both an element making
the support yieldable and a load indicator. The use of such a solution results in the fact that it can be
included in the nondestructive methods for determining the load of the rock bolt support in industrial
conditions [39–41]. These yieldable forms cause the rock bolt to deform in the range of several dozen to
several hundred millimeters. In the underground copper mines in the Legnica-Głogów Copper District
in Poland, rock bolts are installed by means of resin cartridges on the full column. On the other hand,
there are no resin rock bolts installed partially with a yieldable support in the form of a dome bearing
plate. According to the authors, this solution may contribute to changing the technology of installing
the resin rock bolts by significantly reducing the number of resin cartridges. Additionally, yieldable
rock bolts installed segmentally directly extend the functionality of the excavation in the event of a
sudden, unexpected fall of roof rocks. Considering the lack of information in the literature regarding
the increase in the scope of work, through the use of a bearing plate for segmentally embedded resin
rock bolts, we investigated the yieldable rock bolts, which were installed in the rock mass model for
three different embedment lengths in order to determine the load–displacement characteristics, which
were then compared with nonyieldable rock bolts.

2. Characteristics of the Room and Pillar Methods with Mined Roof Bending

2.1. Characteristics of Geological Conditions in the Areas of Ore Deposits in the Polkowice-Sieroszowice Mine
The copper ore deposits exploited in the Legnica-Głogów Copper Belt by the underground
mine Polkowice-Sieroszowice owned by KGHM Polska Miedź S.A. have the form of an irregular
pseudoseam and fall at an angle from 1 to 6◦ in the northeast. The deposit is located at a depth of
670.2 to 1385 m in the Głogów Gł˛eboki Przemysłowy mining area. Copper minerals are found in three
main lithological forms of rocks. The different types of copper are sandstone, shale and carbonate.
Carbonate and shale ores dominate, accounting for over 77% of the extracted ore on the surface; the
remaining 23% is sandstone ore. In these ores, the most common are four basic copper sulphates:
chalcocite, bornite, chalcopyrite and covellite. The deposit belongs to the type of sediment-hosted
copper deposit occurring in sedimentary rocks of varied thickness reaching several meters. In the
deposit series, there are fault zones with discharges reaching several dozen meters. Copper ore is a
polymetallic ore. In addition to copper, the second important metal is silver, with a content ranging
from 44 to 78 g/Mg of ore. In 2018, the mine extracted over 196,000 Mg of copper, over 300,000 Mg of
Energies 2020, 13, 1868 4 of 20

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 19

rock salt and over 0.428 Mg of silver. The current production capacity of ZG Polkowice-Sieroszowice is
approximately 12 million Mg of ore per year [42]. A part of the copper ore deposit is characterized
Polkowice-Sieroszowice is approximately 12 million Mg of ore per year [42]. A part of the copper ore
by a small thickness, much smaller than the height of mining excavations. The ore with a thickness
deposit is characterized by a small thickness, much smaller than the height of mining excavations.
of up to 1.5 m is considered to be of low thickness in the conditions of the Polkowice-Sieroszowice
The ore with a thickness of up to 1.5 m is considered to be of low thickness in the conditions of the
mine. Rational exploitation of such a deposit forces the use of the method of separating mining in
Polkowice-Sieroszowice mine. Rational exploitation of such a deposit forces the use of the method of
mining faces, dividing the waste rock from the balance ore and locating it in the postmining voids.
separating mining in mining faces, dividing the waste rock from the balance ore and locating it in
The machinery is also adjusted to the parameters of the exploited deposit, mainly to its thickness.
the postmining voids. The machinery is also adjusted to the parameters of the exploited deposit,
Drilling, bolting, blasting, loading and hauling trucks range from 1.4 to 2 m high (Figure 2). Immediate
mainly to its thickness. Drilling, bolting, blasting, loading and hauling trucks range from 1.4 to 2 m
and main roofs are made of carbonate Zechstein rocks which reach the thickness of over 100 m in
high (Figure 2). Immediate and main roofs are made of carbonate Zechstein rocks which reach the
the Polkowice-Sieroszowice mine. The average thickness of the Zechstein carbonate series is about
thickness of over 100 m in the Polkowice-Sieroszowice mine. The average thickness of the Zechstein
20 m (from 7 to 40 m) in the area of deposits of low thickness. Porosity and caverning of gypsum
carbonate series is about 20 m (from 7 to 40 m) in the area of deposits of low thickness. Porosity and
and anhydrite mountings, as well as numerous dikes and fractures filled with these minerals, have a
caverning of gypsum and anhydrite mountings, as well as numerous dikes and fractures filled with
significant influence on strength, deformation and structural parameters.
these minerals, have a significant influence on strength, deformation and structural parameters.

Figure
Figure 2.
2. Deposit
Depositexploitation
exploitation below
below 22 m
m (visible
(visible stratification
stratification of
of the
the roof
roof rocks).
rocks).

In the interval
In the intervalofofabout
about5 to5 11
to m11above
m above the excavation
the excavation roofis there
roof there a layerisofalimestone
layer of limestone
dolomites,
dolomites, which are strongly porous and cavernous, weakly compact, brittle and
which are strongly porous and cavernous, weakly compact, brittle and easily loose, often waterlogged, easily loose, often
waterlogged, with reduced
with significantly significantly reduced
strength strength It
parameters. parameters.
lacks a clear It lacks
beddinga clear bedding At
separation. separation.
the depositAt
the
leveldeposit
(in thelevel (in thegate),
extraction extraction gate),copper-bearing
apart from apart from copper-bearing
shales, there shales,
are alsothere
clay, are also clay,
streaked and
streaked
limestoneand limestoneIndolomites.
dolomites. addition toInjointaddition to joint
fractures, fractures,
there are alsothere
numerousare also numerous
vertical vertical
fractures and
fractures andinclined
single, flatly single, flatly inclined
tectonic slides tectonic
with an slides with of
inclination an10
inclination
◦
to 30 . Greyof 10 to 30°. Grey
sandstones sandstones
of the Rotliegendof
the Rotliegend with a thickness of up to 24 m can be found in the immediate
with a thickness of up to 24 m can be found in the immediate floor. These are fine-grained, quartz, floor. These are
fine-grained,
compact and quartz, compact
semicompact and semicompact
sandstones sandstones
with a carbon, with a carbon,
clayey-carbon, clay, or,clayey-carbon, clay, or,
occasionally, siliceous
occasionally,
and sulfuroussiliceous
binder. and sulfurous binder.

2.2. Room
2.2. Room and
and Pillar
Pillar Method
Method with
with Mined
Mined Roof
Roof Bending
Bending
Currently,
Currently, for the extraction of thin deposits below 3 m, the room room and pillar
pillar method
method with
with mined
mined
roof
roof bending
bending is used. The The system
system can
can be
be used
used for
for the
the selection
selection of of deposits
deposits lying
lying under
under roofs
roofs of
of high
high
strength parameters (compression
strength parameters (compressionstrength
strengthabove
above 7070 MPa)
MPa) andandwhenwhenthe the
roofroof reinforced
reinforced by bolts
by rock rock
bolts
showsshows a tendency
a tendency to bend towithout
bend without the occurrence
the occurrence of collapsing
of collapsing in covered
in the strip the stripby covered by the
the extraction
extraction
works. Theworks. The inclination
inclination angle of the angle of the
deposit candeposit
be up to 8◦ .beThe
can upore
to 8°. The ore mineralization
mineralization varies bothvaries
in the
both in the
roof and roofparts.
floor and floor parts. Therefore,
Therefore, therediscretion
there is some is some discretion
over the over the adjustment
adjustment of thedeposit
of the mined mined
deposit
height. height. By choosing
By choosing a reduced a reduced
height ofheight of thedeposit,
the mined mined the deposit, the aore
ore with withmetal
higher a higher metal
content is
content
obtained is but
obtained but with
with higher higher
losses; losses;
with withmined
higher higherdeposit,
mined deposit,
the ore isthe ore is adequately
adequately depleted depleted
but the
but
metaltheloss
metal loss is The
is lower. lower.
ideaThe idearoom
of the of theand
room andmethod
pillar pillar method
with roof with roof bending
bending is tothe
is to divide divide the
deposit
deposit by introducing
by introducing rooms and rooms and retaining
retaining pillars
pillars placed placedthe
between between
roomsthe rooms
of such of such dimensions,
dimensions, which will
which
allow forwillthe
allow for the destruction
destruction of the pillarsof at
the pillars
the frontatofthe
thefront of the excavation
excavation in a postcritical
in a postcritical phase. The phase.
pillars
The
workpillars
on thework on the postdestructive
postdestructive (falling)characteristics
(falling) stress–strain stress–strain characteristics
and allow for room and allow for room
deflection. Roof
deflection. Roof collapse occurs further away from the front of the excavation, inside the goaf (Figure
3). As the mining front progresses, the technological pillars on the liquidation line are cut in the goaf,
where they act as supports to alleviate the curvature of the bending roof layers. Residual pillar
resistance is selected in such a way as to secure the stability of the roof in the liquidation area, at the
Energies 2020, 13, 1868 5 of 20

collapse occurs further away from the front of the excavation, inside the goaf (Figure 3). As the mining
front progresses, the technological pillars on the liquidation line are cut in the goaf, where they act as
supports to alleviate the curvature of the bending roof layers. Residual pillar resistance is selected in
such a way as to secure the stability of the roof in the liquidation area, at the same time enabling its
gentle deflection. The cross-section area of the residual pillars at the junction with the roof should not
be less than 12 m2 . The length of the front of the excavation works can vary from 100 to 600 m. The
opening width of the working space is the distance from the cutting line to the goaf line, calculated on
the basis of the stiffness indicator of the pillars, M, which takes into account the average resistance to
uniaxial compression of the rocks of the mined deposit, and the width and height of the technological
pillars. The length of the mining front and the excavation field are determined in relation to the
existing geological and mining situation, taking into account, among other things, faults, old goaf and
planned mining. In a deposit with a thickness of less than 3 m, the deposit is selected with rooms with
a width of up to 6 m, driven into the full thickness of the deposit, separating technological pillars with
a geometry of 6 m in width and 8 m in length. The pillars are situated on the long side perpendicularly
to the front line. A leakage of the mining front in the field and the order in which the pillars are
selected are shown in Figure 4. In the strip where excavation works are carried out, there are three
stages of work which can be distinguished. The first stage consists of mining excavations (rooms, strips
perpendicularly to rooms) at the exploitation front, in accordance with the geometry of the adopted
exploitation system. In practice, this means the separation of technological pillars, which enter the
state of postdestructive work. The rooms and strips are trapezoidal in shape and are generally 6 m
wide at the roof. The sidewalls of the rooms and strips are inclined towards the unmined coal by an
angle of 10◦ . In the first stage of the cutting works (Figure 4), there are generally no difficulties in
maintaining their stability. Instability, mainly of the sidewalls, may occur in the case of high-energy
rock mass tremors located at the front of the exploitation or near it. The second stage (Figure 4) is a
developed exploitation, which includes a strip of uncovered roof and floor with mined rooms and
strips between the line of the exploitation front and the last row of pillars on the goaf side. At the stage
of developed exploitation, as the front moves, the pillars are crushed, the sidewalls creep and the span
of the rooms is changed. The increasing susceptibility of the crushed pillars benefits the formation of
block structures in the bending roof, especially at crossroads. In order to maintain the proper width of
the rooms and the inclination of the sidewalls, cutting of the sidewalls is used. Spontaneously falling
sidewalls can cause local extensions to the excavation sites. Similar phenomena may occur during
the cutting of the sidewalls. Additional bolts are installed at the extension points; in case of observed
instability, additional roof reinforcement is used, such as long bolting, hydraulic props, wooden props
and wooden cribs. The third stage is implemented in the last row of technological pillars. At this stage,
the last row of technological pillars is cut and the residual pillars with minimum dimensions remain to
guarantee maximum utilization of the deposit and safe working conditions. At the stage of liquidation
works, the largest exposure of the roof is obtained, followed by an increased the risk of roof collapse.
Liquidation works must be carried out in the shortest possible time, because the rock mass is already
fractured and the rooms are widened. After the selection cycle is completed, the postexcavation space
is liquidated, which consists of fencing a selected part of the deposit with wooden cribs or props and
automatic transition to the state of collapse at a further distance from the goaf line. Residual pillars are
left on the goaf line with a cross-section area of 12 to 20 m2 at the roof, in order to reduce deflection
(collapse) of the roof and ensure the required load capacity of the goaf.
Energies 2020, 13, 1868 6 of 20

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Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 19

Figure 3. Scheme of roof bending on pillars.

Figure3.3.Scheme
Figure Schemeofofroof
roofbending
bendingononpillars.
pillars.

Figure 4. Leakage of the mining front in the field and the order in which the pillars are selected.
Figure4.4.Leakage
Figure Leakageofofthe
themining
miningfront
frontininthe
thefield
fieldand
andthe
theorder
orderininwhich
whichthe
thepillars
pillarsare
areselected.
selected.

2.3. Roof Reinforcement with Rock Bolt Support

2.3. Roof Reinforcement with Rock Bolt Support
The behavior of the rock mass as a result of mining is very diverse, because mining works in
The behavior of the rock mass as a result of mining is very diverse, because mining works in
most excavations are carried out in a stratified rock mass, consisting of a system of rock layers of
most excavations are carried out in a stratified rock mass, consisting of a system of rock layers of
different thicknesses and different strength and deformation properties. The choice of a specific
different thicknesses and different strength and deformation properties. The choice of a specific
theory describing the cooperation of the bolt support with the rock mass is a complex issue which
theory describing the cooperation of the bolt support with the rock mass is a complex issue which
Energies 2020, 13, 1868 7 of 20

2.3. Roof Reinforcement with Rock Bolt Support

The behavior of the rock mass as a result of mining is very diverse, because mining works in
most excavations are carried out in a stratified rock mass, consisting of a system of rock layers of
different thicknesses and different strength and deformation properties. The choice of a specific theory
describing the cooperation of the bolt support with the rock mass is a complex issue which takes
into account geological, mining, technical and technological factors that occur within the exploitation
excavation. In the case of a stratified roof, the combination of several rock layers contributes to an
increase in the resistance moment, which is a measure of resistance of a given layer to the pressure of
the rock mass. According to Panek [43], bolting causes the reinforcement of the roof, which results
from friction and suspension. Friction occurs as a result of rock bolts being subjected to preload.
By compressing the individual layers, the bolts create friction between the layers, which resist the
displacement of the layers against each other. The effect of suspension is to transfer a part of the weight
of the immediate roof layers to the thicker main roof layers deposited above. It occurs when rock layers
with different bending properties are forced to bend together. If all the layers of a bolted series of rock
layers have the same amount of deflection, only friction occurs within the layers, without the effect of
suspension. However, if not all the layers of the bolted series of rock layers have the same rigidity,
then both friction and suspension occur. Assuming the model of cooperation of the rock bolt support
with the rock mass, according to the theory of the rock beam building of roof layers (Figure 5a–c), it is
possible to calculate the factor of roof reinforcement according to the formula:

1
RF = (1)
1−D
where RF is reinforcement factor, and D is relative reduction of roof deflection [44], described as
follows: r
3 h
n·P· t−1
γ
D = 0.265· √ (2)
b·L
where n is number of bolts in a row, P is the bolt tension (N), h is the bolt length (m), t is the thickness
of layers (m) γ is the volume weight of rocks (N/m3 ), b is the distance between bolts (m), L is the roof
span (m) and E is modulus of elasticity of rocks (Pa).
 n·P· (2)
γ
D = 0.265·
√b·L
where n is number of bolts in a row, P is the bolt tension (N), h is the bolt length (m), t is the
thickness of layers (m) γ is the volume weight of rocks (N/m3), b is the distance between bolts (m), L
Energies 13, 1868
2020,span
is the roof (m) and E is modulus of elasticity of rocks (Pa). 8 of 20

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 5.
Figure Modelofofthe
5. Model therock
rockbeam
beambuilding
buildingofof roof
roof layers:
layers: (a)(a) rock
rock boltbolt pattern
pattern 1 m1×m × 1(b)
1 m; m;rock
(b) rock
bolt
bolt pattern 1.5 m × 1.5 m; (c) rock bolt pattern 2 m × 2 m; L—span of the roof; t—thickness
pattern 1.5 m × 1.5 m; (c) rock bolt pattern 2 m × 2 m; L—span of the roof; t—thickness of the layers; of the
layers; h—length of bolts; b—distance between bolts; b1 —spacing every 1 m; b 2
h—length of bolts; b—distance between bolts; b1—spacing every 1 m; b2—spacing every 1.5 m;—spacing every 1.5 m;
b —spacing every 2
b33—spacing every 2 m. m.

Assuming the range of the rock damage zone in the roof of the room is 1.55 m, the bulk density of
Assuming the range of the rock damage zone in the roof of the room is 1.55 m, the bulk density
rocks located in this zone and assuming the three different rock bolt patterns of 1 m × 1 m, 1.5 m ×
of rocks located in this zone and assuming the three different rock bolt patterns of 1 m × 1 m, 1.5 m ×
1.5 m and 2 m × 2 m, the loads per individual rock bolt were calculated (Table 1). Currently, in the
1.5 m and 2 m × 2 m, the loads per individual rock bolt were calculated (Table 1). Currently, in the
geological and mining conditions at Legnica-Głogów Copper District mines in Poland, most of the
geological and mining conditions at Legnica-Głogów Copper District mines in Poland, most of the
installed rock bolts are 1.6 and 1.8 m long. In addition, the required length of the rock bolt support has
installed rock bolts are 1.6 and 1.8 m long. In addition, the required length of the rock bolt support
been determined at 1.8 m, assuming that the support will be installed above the rock damage zone for
has been determined at 1.8 m, assuming that the support will be installed above the rock damage
as short a distance as possible. This length of the rock bolt support was accepted for further laboratory
zone for as short a distance as possible. This length of the rock bolt support was accepted for further
tests, in which the influence of the embedded length on the load–displacement characteristics of the
laboratory tests, in which the influence of the embedded length on the load–displacement
segmentally installed rock bolt support was determined.
characteristics of the segmentally installed rock bolt support was determined.

Table 1. Summary of results of roof reinforcement with rock bolt support.

Rock Bolt Pattern

Excavation without
Parameter 1m×1 1.5 m × 1.5 2m×2
Support
m m m
relative reduction of roof deflection (D) - 0.584 0.416 0.327
reinforcement factor (RF) 1 2.404 1.713 1.487
load per individual rock bolt support (in
- 43.12 97.65 174.70
kN)

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Segmentally Installed Resin Rock Bolt Support

Energies 2020, 13, 1868 9 of 20

Table 1. Summary of results of roof reinforcement with rock bolt support.

Excavation Rock Bolt Pattern

Parameter
without Support
1m×1m 1.5 m × 1.5 m 2m×2m
relative reduction of roof
- 0.584 0.416 0.327
deflection (D)
reinforcement factor (RF) 1 2.404 1.713 1.487
load per individual rock bolt
- 43.12 97.65 174.70
support (in kN)

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Segmentally Installed Resin Rock Bolt Support

Tensile laboratory tests of segmentally installed rock bolt support were carried out in the
Department of Mining Engineering and Work Safety at the Faculty of Mining and Geoengineering
of the AGH University of Science and Technology in Cracow. The rock bolt support consisted of a
1.8 m long ribbed bolt rod made of EPSTAL steel (grade B500SP), (Boltech Sp. z o.o., ZGH Bolesław
S.A., Bukowno, Poland). It is a steel with increased ductility. The steel is characterized by yield limit
Re in the range from 500 to 625 MPa and minimum A5 elongation of 16% [45]. The diameter of the
bolt rod together with the ribs amounted to 22 mm. The height of the rib of the bolt rod was 1.35 mm;
the width was 3.6 mm and the distances were 10, 18 and 20 mm. The bolt rod had an M20 thread on
one side and a cut at the angle of 30◦ on the other side for better penetration of the resin cartridge.
The bolt rod worked together with a steel, square, flat, profiled bearing plate with a sheet thickness
of 6 mm and a side length of 145 mm. In order to make the support more yieldable, a round, dome
bearing plate with a sheet thickness of 6 mm, a diameter of 150 mm and a height of 25.5 mm was used.
The bearing plates were made of St3SAL steel (Figure 6a,c). A 34.3 mm high M20 nut made of steel
grade St5 was screwed onto the threaded section of the bolt rod. The nut was equipped with a rod pin,
for which the breaking moment was 40 N m (Figure 6b,d).
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 19

bearing plate with a sheet thickness of 6 mm, a diameter of 150 mm and a height of 25.5 mm was
used. The bearing plates were made of St3SAL steel (Figure 6a,c). A 34.3 mm high M20 nut made of
Energies 2020, 13,
steel grade St51868
was screwed onto the threaded section of the bolt rod. The nut was equipped 10 of 20a
with
rod pin, for which the breaking moment was 40 N m (Figure 6b,d).

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure6.6. Rock
Figure Rockbolt
boltsupport:
support:(a)(a)general
general view
view with
with flatflat bearing
bearing plate;
plate; (b) bolt
(b) bolt withwith flat bearing
flat bearing plate plate
with
with elements;
elements; (c) general
(c) general viewdome
view with withbearing
dome bearing
plate; (d)plate; (d) bolt
bolt with dome with domeplate
bearing bearing
withplate with
elements;
elements; bolt
1—ribbed 1—ribbed bolt rod;
rod; 2—M20 2—M20
nut; 3—rodnut;pin;3—rod
4—dome, pin;round
4—dome, round
bearing bearing
plate; plate; 5—profiled,
5—profiled, flat, square
flat, square
bearing bearing
plate; L1 —M20plate; L1—M20
thread lengththread
of the length
bolt rod of(111
the mm);
bolt rod (111 mm);
L2 —height of L2—height
the of the dome
dome bearing plate
bearing
(25.5 plate
mm); (25.5 mm);
L3 —length L3—length
of the bolt rodof(1.8
them);boltd1rod (1.8 m); of
—diameter d1—diameter
the bold rodofinthe thebold rod inpart
threaded the
threaded
(19.2 mm);part (19.2 mm);ofdthe
d2 —diameter 2—diameter of the
bolt rod core bolt
(19.5 mm);roddcore
3 (19.5
—diameter mm);
of d
the 3—diameter
bolt rod withof the
ribs bolt
(22 rod
mm);
with ribs (22 mm);
a,b,c—distances a,b,c—distances
between between
ribs of 10, 18 and 20ribs
mm,ofrespectively.
10, 18 and 20 mm, respectively.

3.2.
3.2. The
The Model
Model of
of the
the Rock
Rock Mass
Mass
In
In the
the laboratory
laboratory tests,
tests, the
the rock
rock mass
mass was
was simulated
simulated with
with cylindrical
cylindrical concrete
concrete blocks
blocks made
made of of aa
concrete
concrete mix,
mix, which
which inin the
the required
requiredperiod
period reached
reachedaacompressive
compressivestrength
strengthof of5050MPa.
MPa. The
The cylinders
cylinders
had
had a diameter of 100 mm. Compressive strength tests of concrete were carried out on regular
a diameter of 100 mm. Compressive strength tests of concrete were carried out on regular cubic
cubic
samples
samples with
with aa side
side length
length of of 150
150 mm.
mm. After
After 2828 days
days from
from the
the completion
completion of of molding,
molding, nondestructive
nondestructive
testing
testingwith
witha Schmidt
a Schmidt hammer
hammer (Figure 7a–b)7a–b)
(Figure was applied. After 28
was applied. days28
After from filling
days fromthefilling
steel cylinders,
the steel
holes were made with a diameter of 28 mm (Figure 8) using a
cylinders, holes were made with a diameter of 28 mm (Figure 8) using a hand hammer hand hammer drill equipped with a
drill
trepan.
equipped Subsequently,
with a trepan. theSubsequently,
rock bolt support, which
the rock bolthas been installed
support, which has atbeen
the lengths
installedofat100,
the150 and
lengths
200
of 100, 150 and 200 mm, was inserted, in order to determine the minimum embedded lengthbolt
mm, was inserted, in order to determine the minimum embedded length for which the rock for
support
which the operates within
rock bolt its full
support load range
operates within(Figure 9). load
its full Multicomponent
range (Figureresin cartridges [46] with
9). Multicomponent resina
length of 450
cartridges mm
[46] andaalength
with diameter of 24mm
of 450 mmand (Figure 10) wereofused
a diameter 24 mmto clamp bolts
(Figure 10)inwere
the holes.
used The resin
to clamp
cartridges were characterized by a curing time of 10 min. In order to check the
bolts in the holes. The resin cartridges were characterized by a curing time of 10 min. In order to uniaxial compression
strength
check theofuniaxial
the resin,compression
50 cylindrical samples
strength ofwith a diameter
the resin, and height
50 cylindrical of 50 mm
samples were
with made in and
a diameter the
laboratory (Figure 11a). The samples were compressed on a testing machine
height of 50 mm were made in the laboratory (Figure 11a). The samples were compressed on a with a load rate of 0.1 kN/s
(Figure 11b). Thewith
testing machine average value
a load rateofofcompressive
0.1 kN/s (Figurestrength
11b).wasThe45.2 MPa.value of compressive strength
average
was 45.2 MPa.
Energies
Energies 2020,
2020, 13,
13, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 10
10 of
of 19
19
Energies 2020, 13, x1868
Energies FOR PEER REVIEW 1011of
of 19
20
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
(a) (a) (b) (b)
Figure
Figure 7.
7. Nondestructive
Nondestructive testing
testing of
of the
the compression
compression strength
strength of
of cubic
cubic concrete
concrete blocks
blocks with
with aa Schmidt
Schmidt
Figure 7.
Figure Nondestructive testing
7. Nondestructive testing of
of the
the compression
compression strength
strength of
of cubic
cubic concrete
concrete blocks
blocks with
with aa Schmidt
Schmidt
hammer:Figure
(a) 7.
test Nondestructive
material; (b) testing
view duringof the
the
hammer: (a) test material; (b) view during the test. compression
test. strength of cubic concrete blocks with a Schmidt
hammer: (a)
hammer: (a) test
test material;
material; (b)
(b) view
view during
during the
the test.
test.
hammer: (a) test material; (b) view during the test.

Figure
Figure 8.
8. Cylinders
Cylinders filled
filled with
with concrete
concrete mixture
mixture with
with holes
holes with
with aa diameter
diameter of
of 28
28 mm.
mm.
Figure 8. Cylinders filled with concrete mixturemixture
with holes with a diameter of 28 mm.
Figure Figure 8. Cylinders
8. Cylinders filled
filled with with concrete
concrete with
mixture with holes holes
with with a diameter
a diameter of 28 mm.
of 28 mm.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
(a) (b) (b)
(a)
Figure
Figure 9. Bolts installed
9. Bolts
Bolts installed on
installed on the
on the lengths
the lengths of
lengths of 100,
of 100, 150
100, 150 and
150 and 200
200 mm: (a) general
mm: (a)
(a) general view;
general view; (b)
view; (b) detailed
(b) detailed view.
detailed view.
view.
Figure 9. Bolts 9.
Figure installed on the lengths
Bolts installed of 100, 150
on the lengths and150
of 100, 200and
mm:200
(a)mm:
general view; (b)
(a) general detailed
view; view. view.
(b) detailed

Figure 10. Resin

Figure cartridge with a glass ampoule filled with the initiator of the polymerization process.
Figure 10.
10. Resin
Resin cartridge
cartridge with
with aa glass
glass ampoule
ampoule filled
filled with
with the
the initiator
initiator of
of the
the polymerization
polymerization
Figure 10. Resin cartridge with a glass ampoule filled with the initiator of the polymerization
process.Figure 10. Resin cartridge with a glass ampoule filled with the initiator of the polymerization
process.
process.process.
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 19
Energies 13, 1868
2020,2020,
Energies 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of
1120of 19

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 11. Cylindrical samples: (a) general view; (b) sample after compression test.
Figure 11. Cylindrical samples: (a) general view; (b) sample after compression test.
Figure 11. Cylindrical samples: (a) general view; (b) sample after compression test.
3.3. Load–Displacement Characteristics of a Segmentally Installed Rock Bolt Support
3.3. Load–Displacement Characteristics of a Segmentally Installed Rock Bolt Support
3.3.
TheLoad–Displacement
segmentally installed Characteristics
rock bolt of a support
Segmentally wasInstalled
subjected RocktoBolt Support
tensile testing on a testing
The segmentally installed rock bolt support was subjected
machine in the bolt laboratory of the Department of Mining Engineering and Work to tensile testing on a testing
Safetymachine
(Figure
in The segmentally installed rockofbolt support was subjected to Safety
tensile(Figure
testing12a,b).
on a testing
12a,b). The laboratory station is designed for strength testing of rock bolt support units in The
the bolt laboratory of the Department Mining Engineering and Work 1:1
machinestation
laboratory in the isbolt laboratory
designed for of the Department
strength testing of of Mining
rock bolt Engineering
support units and
in 1:1Work Safetyscale,
geometric (Figure
geometric scale, for bolt rods up to 6 m long under static and quasistatic load. The system is powered
for 12a,b). The
up laboratory station is designed for strengthload. testing of rock bolt support units in 1:1
by bolt rods
a hydraulic to 6 m long
power supply underunitstatic
based andonquasistatic
a piston pump The
with system
variable is powered
capacityby anda hydraulic
constant
geometric
power scale, for bolt rods up to 6 m long under static and quasistatic load. The system is powered
power supply unit based
and constant on a regulators.
pressure piston pump Thewith variablesupply
maximum capacity and constant
pressure power
is 31 MPa. Theand constant
maximum
by a hydraulic power
pressure supply unit based on aispiston pump maximumwith variable capacity and constant
value of regulators.
the tensile loadThe maximum
is 1600 kNsupply pressure
[47]. The diameter 31 ofMPa.
the Thebolt hole is 28 value mm. The of the tensile
choice ofload
this
is power
1600 kN and
[47]. constant
The pressure
diameter of regulators.
the bolt hole The
is 28 maximum
mm. The supply
choice pressure
of this is
diameter 31 MPa. The
corresponded maximum
to
diameter corresponded to the technology of bolting in industrial conditions. For this hole diameter,
the value of the tensile load is 1600 kN [47]. The diameter of the bolt hole is 28 mm. The choice of
forthis
fivetechnology of bolting
bolts were tested in lengths
for the industrial conditions.
of 100, 150 and For 200 this
mmhole withdiameter,
a bearing five plate.bolts were tested
In addition, for the
the diameter
lengths ofcorresponded
100, 150 to the technology of bolting inInindustrial conditions. For ofthis hole diameter,
length of 200 mm, fiveand
bolts200 mm
with a with a bearing
flat bearing plate.
plate were addition,
tested. Four forstress–strain
the length 200
gauge mm, five
sensors
five
bolts bolts
with a were
flat tested
bearing for
plate the
werelengths
tested. of 100,
Four 150 and 200
stress–strain mmgauge with a bearing
sensors were plate.
used In
to addition,
measure for
the the
were used to measure the load, while a wire-draw encoder was used to measure displacement. The
length
load, while of 200 mm, five bolts with wasausedflat bearing platedisplacement.
were tested. Four stress–strain gauge sensors
sensors werea connected
wire-draw encoder
to a universal to measure
measuring amplifier Quantum MX840A, The sensors (HBM,were connected
Spectris plc,
to were used
a universal to measure
measuring the load,
amplifier while a wire-draw encoder was used to measure displacement. The
Darmstadt, Germany) which in turnQuantum
was connectedMX840A, to a(HBM,
computer. Spectris
The plc,
loadDarmstadt,
rate amounted Germany)
to 0.5
sensors
which were
in turn connected
was of connected to a universal
to a computer. measuring
The amplifier
load rateasamounted Quantum MX840A,
to 0.5 using
kN/s. the (HBM,
results of theplc,
Spectris
The Catman-Easy
kN/s. The results the measurements were recorded they occurred
Darmstadt, were
measurements Germany)recordedwhich in turn
as they was connected
occurred using toCatman-Easy
a computer. software.
thesupport The load rate resultsamounted to 0.5
software. The results of the tensile tests of the rock bolt unit, fixed on the The 100, 150, and of 200
the
kN/s.
tensile
The results
tests of the
of the measurements were recorded as they occurred using the Catman-Easy
mm segments for rock
the 28boltmm support unit, fixedwith
hole diameter on the 100,bearing
a flat 150, andplate 200 mm and segments
dome arefor the 28 mm
presented in
hole
software.
diameter
The
with
results
a flat
of the
bearing
tensile
plate
tests
and
of
dome
the rock
are
bolt
presented
support
in
unit,
Figure
fixed
13a–h
on
and
the
in
100,
Table
150,
2.
and 200
Figure 13a–h and in Table 2.
mm segments for the 28 mm hole diameter with a flat bearing plate and dome are presented in
Figure 13a–h and in Table 2.

(a) (b)
Figure 12.
Figure 12. Diagram of (a)
Diagram of bolt
bolt fixing at the
fixing at the laboratory
laboratory test
test station:
station: (a)
(a) general (b)(b)
general view;
view; (b) block
block diagram.
diagram.
Figure 12. Diagram of bolt fixing at the laboratory test station: (a) general view; (b) block diagram.
Energies 2020, 13, 1868 13 of 20
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 19

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)

Figure
Figure 13. The
13. The load–displacement
load–displacement characteristics
characteristics of the
of the segmentally
segmentally installed
installed rock
rock bolt
bolt support
support forfor
the
diameter of 28 mm, with a dome bearing plate (a) at the length of 100 mm; (b) bolt extension forfor
the diameter of 28 mm, with a dome bearing plate (a) at the length of 100 mm; (b) bolt extension the
the grouted
grouted length length of 100(c)
of 100 mm; mm;
150(c) 150(d)
mm; mm; (d)extension
bolt bolt extension for grouted
for grouted lengthlength of mm;
of 150 150 mm; (e) 200
(e) 200 mm;
mm; (f) bolt breakage at the thread for the grouted length of 200 mm; (g) 200 mm with
(f) bolt breakage at the thread for the grouted length of 200 mm; (g) 200 mm with a flat bearing plate; a flat bearing
plate;
(h) bolt (h) bolt breakage
breakage at thefor
at the thread thread for the grouted
the grouted length oflength
200 mmof 200 mma with
with a flat bearing
flat bearing plate. plate.
Energies 2020, 13, 1868 14 of 20

Table 2. Summary of the results of the influence of the length of mounting on the load capacity of the
rock bolt support.

Average
Bolt Hole Average
Embedded Shape of the Load-Bearing
Diameter Displacement Comments
Length (mm) Bearing Plate Capacity of the Bolt
(mm) ∆l (mm)
F (kN)
extension from the
100 dome 66.45 9.0
hole
28 extension from the
150 dome 123.49 17.91
hole
200 dome 153.97 32.67 breakage at the thread
200 flat 153.29 10.30 breakage at the thread

4. Discussion of Results
The
Energies work
2020, 13, x(energy
FOR PEERused for deformation and displacement) performed by the rock bolt support
REVIEW 13 of 19
unit under laboratory conditions corresponds to the surface area under the curve y = f(x) in the force
Table 2. Summary
displacement diagram.ofThethevalue
resultsofofthe
themarked
influence of the length
integral can beofobtained
mountingby onreplacing
the load capacity y = f(x)
of the
the curve
with arock bolt support.
system of parabolic arches (Figure 14). This method leads to Simpson’s formula [48]. The results
of the amount of energy absorbedShape
Bolt Hole by theofrock bolt support
Average with a flat bearing
Load-Bearing plate and a dome bearing
Average
Embedded
plate are shown inDiameter
Figure 15a–h. theInBearing
addition,Capacity
Figure 16 ofshows
the Boltthe
F deformation
Displacement of the
Δl dome bearing
Comments
Length
plate (mm)after the tensile test of the rock bolt support.
(right) (mm) Plate (kN) (mm)
For example, let us consider a part of the curve in the range a ≤ x ≤ a + 2h and mark theextension ordinates
100 dome 66.45 9.0
corresponding to a, a + h and a + 2h by y0 , y1 and y2 . The equation of any parabola passing fromthrough
the hole
(a + h, y1 ) takes the following
point 150 form:
dome 123.49 17.91
extension
from the hole
28
200
η= y1 +α[x−(a + h)]+
dome
β[x−(a + h)]2
153.97 32.67
breakage (3)
at
the thread
Let us determine two constantsflat α and β in such 153.29
a way that the curve also breakage
passes through at
points
200 10.30
(a,y0 ) and (a + 2h, y2 ). The result is: the thread

4. Discussion of Results y −y y +y −2y

α = 2 0 , β = 2 02 1 (4)
2h 2h
The work (energy used for deformation and displacement) performed by the rock bolt support
unit The
under
arealaboratory conditions
between this corresponds
parabolic arch and thetox-axis
the surface
is: area under the curve y = f(x) in the
force displacement diagram. The value of the marked integral can be obtained by replacing the
a+2
curve yZ = f(x) withaZ+a2h +2h
aZ
system of parabolic +2h This method leads to Simpson’s formula
arches (FigureaZ14).
2 1 
ηdx =of theyamount
[48]. The results 1 dx + a of [ x −
energy ( a + h )] dx
absorbed + β
by the [ x
rock− ( a +
bolt h )]
supportdx =withy +
a 4y
flat + y2 h plate
bearing (5)
3 0 1
and a dome
a bearinga plate are shown
a in Figure 15a–h. In a addition, Figure 16 shows the deformation
of the dome bearing plate (right) after the tensile test of the rock bolt support.

b
Figure 14. Evaluation of the integral R f x dx using the Simpson formula.
Figure 14. Evaluation of the integral f(x)dx using the Simpson formula.
a
For example, let us consider a part of the curve in the range a ≤ x ≤ a + 2h and mark the ordinates
corresponding to a, a + h and a + 2h by y0, y1 and y2. The equation of any parabola passing through
point (a + h, y1) takes the following form:
2
η = y1 +α x - a+h +β x - a+h (3)
Let us determine two constants α and β in such a way that the curve also passes through
points (a,y0) and (a + 2h, y2). The result is:
 Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 19

1
S= ∙h∙ y0 +4y1 +y2 + y2 +4y3 +y4 +…+ yn-2 +4yn-1 +yn
3
Energies 2020, 13, 1868 15(6)
of 20
1
= ∙h∙ y0 +4y1 +2y2 +4y3 +…+2yn-2 +4yn-1 +yn
3

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Figure 15. Cont.

Energies 2020, 13, 1868 16 of 20
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 19
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 19

(g) (g) (h)

(h)
FigureFigure 15. Average
Average
15. Average amount
amount of energy
of energy
energy absorbed
absorbed bybythethe rockbolt
rock boltsupport:
support:(a)(a) grouted
grouted on on the length
lengthof
the length of
Figure 15. amount of absorbed by the rock bolt support: (a) grouted on the of
100 100 mm
mm with with
a a dome
dome bearing
bearing plate;
plate; (b)(b) absorbed
absorbed energyfor
energy for100
100mm;
mm;(c)(c)grouted
grouted on on the
the length
length of
of 150
150
100 mm with a dome bearing plate; (b) absorbed energy for 100 mm; (c) grouted on the length of 150
mm
withwith
mm with a dome bearing plate;
(d)(d) absorbed energy forfor 150mm;
mm;(e)(e)grouted
groutedon on the
the length
length of 200
200 mm
mm aa dome
dome bearing
bearing plate;
plate; (d) absorbed
absorbed energy
energy for 150
150 mm; (e) grouted on the length of 200
of mm
mm
with
with aa domea dome
dome bearingbearing
bearing plate;plate;
plate; (f) (f) absorbed
(f) absorbed
absorbed energy energy
energy for for
for 200200
200 mm; mm;
mm; (g) (g) grouted
(g) grouted
grouted on on
on thethe length
the length
length of of 200
of 200 mm
200 mm with
mm with
with
with
a flata bearing
flat bearing plate,
plate, (h) (h) absorbed
absorbed energy
energy forfor
200200
mm;mm; E 1—energy absorbed by the support without
E—energy absorbed by the support without
1
a flat bearing plate, (h) absorbed energy for 200 mm; E1—energy absorbed by the support without
plastic deformation of the bearing plate; E2—energy absorbed by a bolt; E3—energy absorbed by a
plastic deformation
plastic deformation of of the
thebearing
bearingplate;
plate;E2E—energy absorbed by a bolt; E3 —energy
2—energy absorbed by a bolt; E3—energy absorbed
absorbed by aby
bolt
a
bolt with a flat bearing plate.
with a flat bearing plate.
bolt with a flat bearing plate.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 16. The dome bearing plate: (a) before the test; (b) after the tensile test.
Figure 16. The dome bearing plate: (a) before the test; (b) after the tensile test.
Figure 16. The dome bearing plate: (a) before the test; (b) after the tensile test.
Comparing the curves of the load–displacement characteristics of the segmentally installed rock
Eachsupport
bolt parabolic at thearch covers
length a range
mm,ofit2h, canand if we divide thevalue
segment ab breaking
into an even forcenumber n
Comparing the curves of of
the200load–displacement be noticed that the
characteristics of theof segmentally
the installed without
rock
of equal
making ranges h, webolt
the rock canmore
approximate
yieldablethe waswhole
in thecurve
rangeyfrom = f(x)150 from
to 155a tokN.b byVerymeans of aresults
similar of 12 n
series were
bolt support at the length of 200 mm, it can be noticed that the value of the breaking force without
obtained for the yieldable rock bolt, for which the breaking Rb force ranged from 149 to 157 kN. The
making
parabolic the rock bolt
arches. Themore yieldable wasthe
area representing in integral
the range S= from f(x150
)dxtois155 then kN. Very similarby
approximated results
the sumwere of
course of plastic deformation of a yieldable rock bolt a
is fundamentally different from that of
obtained for the yieldable rock bolt, for which the breaking force ranged from 149 to 157 kN. The
nonyieldable
all the areas under rock bolt.
these Using a arches:
parabolic deforming, profiled bolt bearing plate makes the rock bolt support
course of plastic deformation of a yieldable rock bolt is fundamentally different from that of
more yieldable and results in a total displacement
  profiled (extension of the bolt rod andiplastic deformation
nonyieldable rock bolt.1 Using h a deforming, bolt  bearing plate makes the rock bolt support
of the profiled Sdome = 3 ·h· y0 +4y1 +y2 + y2 +4y3 +y4 + . . . + yn−2 +4yn−1
bolt bearing plate) of 32.67 mm. This represents a displacement
+yn increase of
more317%yieldable and
compared to rock results in a total
h displacement (extension of the bolt rod i and plastic deformation (6)
= bolt
1
3 ·h·support
y0 +4y1unit+2ywith2 +4ya3 flat
+ . .bearing
. + 2yn−2 plate.
+4yOn n−1 +the
ynbasis of Figure 15, it can be
of the profiled that
concluded dome thebolt bearing
amounts plate) of
of energy 32.67 mm.
absorbed by the This rock represents
bolt supports a displacement
with the dome increase
bearing of
317%plates
compared
Comparing to
fixed atthe rock
100, bolt
150 and
curves support unit with
200 load–displacement
of the a flat bearing
mm are 0.444, 1.296 characteristics plate. On
and 3.554 kJ, respectively. the basis of Figure 15,
However,installed
of the segmentally it can
for the rock be
rock
concluded
bolt that
support the
unit amounts
with a of
flat energy
bearing absorbed
plate, by
installed the
in rock
the 200
bolt support at the length of 200 mm, it can be noticed that the value of the breaking force withoutbolt
mm supports
segment, with
the the
amount domeof bearing
absorbed
plates
making fixed
energy theisat 100,bolt
1.362
rock 150more
kJ. andload–displacement
The 200 mm are
yieldable was0.444, 1.296 andfrom
in characteristics
the range 3.554 were kJ,obtained
150 respectively.
to 155 kN. theHowever,
forVery grouted for theofwere
similarlength
results rock
200
bolt support
mm, for unit
which with
the a flat
breakage bearing
of the plate,
materialinstalled
occurred in the
on 200
the mm
bolt
obtained for the yieldable rock bolt, for which the breaking force ranged from 149 to 157 kN. The course segment,
rod. The the
amount amount
of energy of absorbed
absorbed
energyby is
of plastic the1.362
rockkJ. bolt
deformation The load–displacement
equipped with a dome
of a yieldable rockcharacteristics
bearing
bolt plate were
is fundamentallyis by obtained
260% forfrom
higher
different the
thangrouted
that of
that length
the rockofbolt
of nonyieldable 200
mm, for which
equipped the
with breakage
a flat bearing of the material
plate. The totaloccurred
energyon the
absorbed bolt
rock bolt. Using a deforming, profiled bolt bearing plate makes the rock bolt support more yieldable byrod.theThe
rockamount
bolt supportof energy
with theabsorbed
dome
by bearing plateequipped
consists ofwith the plastic deformation of both the260%bolt bearing plate
than andthat the bolt rock
rod. The
andthe rock in
results bolta total displacement a dome bearing
(extension plate
of the bolt is rod
by and plastichigherdeformation ofofthe bolt
the profiled
amount
equipped withof aenergy
flat absorbed
bearing plate.byThe
suchtotal
a bolt
energyis very small, which
absorbed by the limits
rock its use
bolt in dynamic
support with thehazard
dome
dome bolt bearing plate) of 32.67 mm. This represents a displacement increase of 317% compared to
conditions.
bearing plate The bolt
consists bearing plates, both flat and dome, were not damaged under maximum
bolt rod.load.
rock bolt support unitofwith the plastic deformation
a flat bearing plate. of Onboth
the thebasis boltof bearing
Figure 15, plate andbe
it can theconcluded The
that
amountFor the
of rock
energy bolt support,
absorbed the
by weakest
such a structural
bolt is very point
small, is the
which thread,limitsfor which
its use the
in continuity
dynamic of the
hazard
the amounts of energy absorbed by the rock bolt supports with the dome bearing plates fixed at 100,
material
conditions. was interrupted.
150 and 200The mmbolt are bearing
0.444, 1.296plates,andboth
3.554 flatkJ,and dome, were
respectively. not damaged
However, for theunderrock boltmaximum
supportload. unit
For
with a flat bearing plate, installed in the 200 mm segment, the amount of absorbed energy is 1.362the
the rock bolt support, the weakest structural point is the thread, for which the continuity of kJ.
material was interrupted.
Energies 2020, 13, 1868 17 of 20

The load–displacement characteristics were obtained for the grouted length of 200 mm, for which the
breakage of the material occurred on the bolt rod. The amount of energy absorbed by the rock bolt
equipped with a dome bearing plate is by 260% higher than that of the rock bolt equipped with a
flat bearing plate. The total energy absorbed by the rock bolt support with the dome bearing plate
consists of the plastic deformation of both the bolt bearing plate and the bolt rod. The amount of energy
absorbed by such a bolt is very small, which limits its use in dynamic hazard conditions. The bolt
bearing plates, both flat and dome, were not damaged under maximum load. For the rock bolt support,
the weakest structural point is the thread, for which the continuity of the material was interrupted.

5. Conclusions
One of the conditions for safe exploitation of ore deposits by the room and pillar method with roof
deflection is the possibility of maintaining certain geometric parameters of the room excavation over a
certain period of time. In this case, the stability of room excavation can be significantly improved by
using a yieldable rock bolt support. In conditions of significant deformation of roof beds, a yieldable
element of rock bolt should be used, which makes the rock bolt more yieldable.
For the 2 m high and 6 m wide room, in which six bolts with 1 m × 1 m spacing is used, the roof
reinforcement coefficient is the best and amounts to 2.404, whereas the weakest result was obtained for
three bolts with 2 m × 2 m spacing, where the reinforcement coefficient was 1.487.
In laboratory conditions, it was experimentally determined that the minimum embedded length
for a 22 mm diameter ribbed bolt rod was 200 mm. The maximum values of load taken over by the
rock bolts grouted in the 100, 150, and 200 mm segments of concrete are 66.45, 123.49 and 153.97 kN,
respectively. However, the support worked in the full range of load and displacement characteristics
only for an installation length of 200 mm. For shorter grouted lengths, the bolt rod was extended from
the bolt hole. Comparing the results of numerical tests with laboratory tests, it should be stated that
the maximum spacing of the rock bolt support is 1.5 m × 1.5 m. For spacing of 2 m × 2 m, the load per
bolt is 20 kN higher than the maximum load capacity of the single rock bolt.
On the basis of laboratory tests, it was found that the use of profiled dome bearing plates may be a
form of making the segmentally installed rock bolt more yieldable by means of its plastic deformation.
A 1.8 m long bolt grouted at the length of 200 mm with a dome bearing plate allows to absorb 3.554 kJ
of energy, thanks to the possibility of performing additional work. This is 2.6 times the energy absorbed
by the bolt with the flat bearing plate, which absorbs only 1.362 kJ. In order to reduce the effects of the
impact of the rock mass on the deformation of rock bolts, they should be equipped with appropriately
selected elements designed to make them more yieldable and limit the effects of the load. The applied
profiled dome bearing plate was characterized by a reduction in height by 22 mm. It can be concluded
that the higher the height of the dome bearing plate, the higher the amount of energy absorbed.
However, in case of low mining excavations below 2 m, where blasting, bolting and loading jumbos are
used, it is recommended that the bearing plates should be flat, so that they do not hinder the movement
of the vehicles. Further laboratory tests should be focused on the use of construction materials that
will allow for the thinning of the rock bolt support in industrial conditions while maintaining as much
of the absorbed energy as possible.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.S., W.K., and K.Z.; methodology, K.S., W.K., and K.Z.; software,
K.S.; validation, K.S., W.K.; formal analysis, K.S., W.K., K.Z., and A.Z.; investigation, K.S., W.K., K.Z., and A.Z.;
resources, K.S., W.K., and K.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, K.S., W.K., and K.Z.; writing—review and
editing, K.S., W.K., and K.Z.; visualization, K.S. and A.Z.; supervision, K.S., W.K. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This paper was written under grant entitled “The Self-Excited Acoustic System (SAS) for Monitoring
Safety Levels in Mine Workings”. Agreement No. TANGO2/340166/NCBR/2017. This article was also prepared as
part of AGH’s scientific subsidy, under No. 16.16.100.215.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors wish to confirm that there are no known conflicts of interest associated with
this publication and there has been no significant financial support for this work that could have influenced
its outcome.
Energies 2020, 13, 1868 18 of 20

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