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Lg600 - Module 2 - Unit 1
Lg600 - Module 2 - Unit 1
1 Conventions Across
Academic Disciplines
Overview
• Distinguish between writing conventions used within the fields of the Social Science,
Natural Science and Business
• Identify major research practices used within the fields of the Social Science, Natural
Science and Business
Introduction
Have you ever wondered what it is that distinguishes the writing in one academic
discipline from the types of writing in other academic disciplines? Do you attribute it
to levels of difficulty? Do you think it relates to the types of terminology required? Or
do you ascribe it to the varying levels of technicality? Well, if you do, your assumptions
are not entirely unfounded. These inferences, however, do not reflect fully the nature
of the differences that exist in the approaches to writing across academic programmes
and disciplines. Disciplines differ from each other in their writing practices in terms of
vocabularies, writing conventions, styles, genres, criteria for judgment, uses for texts and
rhetorical purpose. This is so because each discipline has methods and procedures that
have been established by that specific academic community. If you were to do a simple
investigation for example, into the types of writing and research assignments being done
by MA students across three major faculties in your university, and different programmes
within those faculties, you would find significant differences in the research methods used,
the requirements for discussing results and the purpose of the studies conducted. This is
because they are required to follow conventions that have been established to reflect the
specific peculiarities of research and writing within that specific discipline.
The social sciences have as their goal the systematic study of human behaviour and human
societies (Hult 2006). Work in the social sciences therefore revolves around making sense
of the human elements of our world. In the fields within the social sciences, researchers
focus on the ways that people behave. Social scientists follow the principles used in
general scientific study, which means that they engage in the systematic and objective
study of phenomena in which they have an interest.
It would of course be problematic to try to completely isolate the social sciences from
other academic disciplines in terms of the approaches taken. Some of the research
methodologies developed in the social sciences are also employed in other disciplines.
For example, Linguists and Historians often talk about conducting “field research” which
is one of the pillars of social science research. In spite of these similarities, however, there
are some distinct differences between the disciplines in their approaches to writing.
The Layout
Social Scientists are never in a quandary as to the format for structuring and presenting
their findings. While reports of findings are expressed using varying formats (summaries,
critiques, articles and theses) and students may have to also write proposals before they
can go into the field to investigate, there are set guidelines. A detailed outline of a research
paper follows:
4. After the methods have been clearly and thoroughly described, the writer declares
the results.
5. After the results are declared, the writer must then discuss the results.
In this section, the results are interpreted. Relevant connections or distinctions
between the findings and the findings of others are made. In short, an argument is
presented to the reader concerning what these results can and cannot tell about the
problem at hand.
6. Conclusion
The writer summarises briefly the results and their implication.
7. Reference Page(s)
The reference page(s) and its/their citations must conform to one suitable style
appropriate for the social sciences. Two of these include American Psychological
Association (APA), or the American Sociological Association (ASA). Usually, the
lecturer, journal or university stipulates the style required.
8. Appendices
Appendices appear at the end of the paper. They help answer questions raised in
Style of Writing
As outlined in module one of this course, academic writing, regardless of the discipline,
should be clear, concise and coherent. This by no means infers that any measure of good
writing will suffice for papers within a particular discipline. In the social sciences, for
example, short paragraphs are preferred to longer ones; passive voice is favoured over
active voice and language use must be well crafted but not ‘flowery’. Students are strictly
advised that their readers should never feel that they are relying more on rhetoric than
on evidence. Paragraphs, though well crafted and coherent, must never belabour the
point; digressing to interesting but not immediately relevant observations is strongly
discouraged.
This style of writing is preferred to others because social scientists strive to achieve a level
of objectivity when reporting their findings. Let us consider an example juxtaposing the
use of an active versus passive construction in the reporting of a particular finding.
I observed no significant decrease in the number of persons who preferred peaceful solutions…
No significant decrease in the number of persons who preferred peaceful solutions… was
observed.
In the second example, the passive construction appears more objective and impersonal.
Achieving this objective and impersonal stance is extremely important for social scientists
who, because of the very nature of their discipline, need to distance themselves from the
very subjective “I”.
For a detailed discussion on writing within the Social Sciences see: Hansen, Kristine
(2006). Writing in the Social Sciences: A Rhetoric with Readings London: Pearson; 2nd
edition
Writing in the Natural Sciences means writing about the natural aspects of our world.
Theories are tested in an attempt to solve problems, inform the reader of new discoveries
and assist him/her in clarifying the truth using new facts or perspectives. Most scientific
writing can be divided into four categories namely: scientific papers, grant proposals,
review articles, and posters. Each of these types of writing serves a different purpose.
The general aim of a scientific paper is to provide the community (either scientific or public)
with a detailed understanding of the various steps involved in the particular research.
These ‘steps’ do not only include the specific steps that were taken while the research was
being conducted but also the background information, hypotheses and results. Similar
to the discipline of the social sciences, natural sciences have very clear guidelines that
outline what should and should not be included in each of the four categories of scientific
writing.
Once consideration is given to these, the outer elements are then added to complete the
layout.
The Layout
1. Title
The title of the Natural Sciences paper is very important. It should be concise and
clearly describe what the paper is about. A choice may be made to introduce what was
tested so, from the onset, readers will know if this is the paper they want to read.
2. Abstract
This is a brief description of the paper. The main ideas are summarized in 250 words
or less. Anything useful contained in the paper must be mentioned in these 250
words. Abstracts help research scientists to ‘weed’ through papers to find information
pertinent to their specific interest.
3. Introduction
The paper should begin by introducing and forming a question. The introduction
should include relevant theories and equations used in the experiment. If other
scientists have conducted similar experiments, recognition should be given to these
predecessors of the work. Any hypotheses formed should be stated here. A brief
4. Thesis Statement
The thesis statement of a scientific paper is a clear and concise statement of the topic
of study. It is sometimes included in the introduction.
5. Body
The body of the paper includes the following:
Experimental
This section contains all of the reagents used in the experiment, most likely accompanied
by any hazard warnings they might carry. If the experiment is to be reproduced, then
others need to know exactly what is involved. Also described here, should be all of the
equipment used in the data collection process, including specific equipment names
and numbers.
Procedure
This section contains the steps taken during the experiment. If a procedure was
previously used and recorded elsewhere, it can be referenced here freely to save time
and space for data. If a self-written procedure is being used, every step should be
meticulously written down so that the experiment could be repeated in exactly the
same way by a different team of scientists.
Results
All of the numerical data generated during the experiment is recorded here including
tables, graphs, and numbers that are pertinent to the conclusions. No conclusions
should be drawn here.
6. Conclusion
The conclusion should focus on the data presented and analysed. The results should
also be shared and discussed here. The writer has the choice of expressing an opinion
on what the results mean, but should be careful to avoid linking the findings with
other, unexplored subject matter. If a topic or issue is not covered in the introduction
or experiment, then it must be left out of the conclusion.
7. Acknowledgments
Sometimes, but often not, this section is included. It is needed in cases where a
service was employed to run spectra or analysis for the experiment, or when someone
offered help by lending some part of their apparatus made for a different experiment.
Acknowledgment sections are very appropriate and recommended for academic
writing, as all equipment utilized usually belong to the university. Some scientific
service providers require a specific form of words in the acknowledgment as part of
their regulations. These will be provided along with the results of your submitted
sample.
9. Appendix
This section is reserved for calculations and notes that were made during the actual
experimentation process. Hand written notes and other jottings are placed here
because it is required to present them to prove that you did observe what was claimed
in the paper. This section usually contains a photocopy of the laboratory notebook
page, or pages, that contain data and comments relevant to the paper.
Style of Writing
Since the goal of the scientific paper is to present facts supported by evidence, there are
general rules to follow in the paper. The nature and subject matter of the ideas in the
paper must be presented in a factual style, omitting figurative or emotional language.
Adjectives and adverbs (being descriptive) should be avoided focusing instead on the
nouns (the focus of the paper) and the verbs (how it acted). Sentences should be structured
so that they are clear and easy to understand and the paper should be written in the past
tense. The intended audience should always be considered when using technical jargon,
acronyms and abbreviations so that their usage should be limited to familiar items. The
overuse of unfamiliar jargon should be avoided and outdated sources should only be
used for comparisons.
There are basic tips to keep in mind while writing your scientific paper.
For a detailed discussion on writing within the natural sciences see: Robert A. Day, How
to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper 5 ed. Phoenix: Oryx Press; 1998.
http://fauxpress.com/kimball/w/6.html
http://www.writing.engr.psu.edu/exercises/
Effective writing for business is carefully planned, thoroughly researched and clearly
presented. Its purpose is always to accomplish a specific goal and be as persuasive as
possible when you either convey information to someone or request information from
someone. Effective writing for business must therefore be complete, concise, and accurate.
Your text should be written in such a way that the reader will be able to easily understand
what you are telling or asking them.
As a writer, knowing who makes up your audience is one of your most important
responsibilities. This is so because members of specific audiences may differ in
backgrounds, experiences, needs and opinions. Knowing these things will therefore help
you the writer to determine what you can say to your audience. Additionally, once you
identify your audience it is useful to adopt their perspective on the matter as this will help
you to focus and select the most relevant details for that audience.
1. You may want to ask yourself even before you begin the writing process:
2. What individual(s) will most likely be reading my work?
3. How many people will make up my audience?
4. How well does my audience understand the language/variety of language that I am
writing?
5. How much does my audience already know about my writing topic?
6. What is my audience’s reason for reading my work?
1. Details are those key points you think readers need to know to perform their jobs
2. Scope refers to how much information you give readers about those key details.
As the writer, you will need to adapt your style as is necessary to take into account
• different messages
• different purposes
• different audiences
Tone
In that same session (2.2 Module 1) you also learned that tone expresses your attitude
toward a topic and toward your audience. You observed that tone could range from formal
The tone of your writing is especially important in business writing because it reflects
the image you project to your readers and thus determines how they will respond to
you, your work and your company. Depending on your tone you can appear sincere and
intelligent or angry and uninformed. Of course, in all your written work you are required
to sound professional and knowledgeable about the topic and genuinely interested in
your reader’s opinions or problems.
These six functions tell you what kind of writing you will produce after you successfully
answer the who? why? what? and how? as outlined above under keys to effective writing.
1. There is a wide range of standard phrases that are expected in business English that
are generally not used in everyday English. Some of these phrases include
• DO NOT WRITE: The College has parking zones for different areas for people
living on campus as well as for those who do not live on campus and who commute
to school.
WRITE: The College has different parking zones for resident and commuter
students.
3. In Business writing every effort should be made to avoid the use of jargon. At times
the use of jargon is unavoidable, for example, in a business requirement document or
technical specification, but care should always be taken to use plain language.
4. Pay special attention to names, titles and genders. If you are not positive about the
spelling of someone’s name, his/her job title (and what it means), or the gender, either
a) check with someone who does know (like their assistant), or b) in the case of gender,
use gender-neutral language.
ACTIVITY 1.1 •
A necessary element in business writing is being concise. The passage below consists of
70 words. Try reducing it to 35 words or less. Share your version with your classmates and
compare your responses. Post your versions to the relevant discussion forum.
This document is for the purpose of giving the reader a detailed explanation of
the inventory process. It describes the activities we currently do in the majority of
instances on a daily and weekly basis. In order to provide an introduction to the
process for employees who work on a temporary basis, we also have prepared an
overview, which describes the highlights of the inventory process in just two pages.
Now that the characteristics of business writing have been explored, let us look at an
example of business writing.
Memos
Memos, the clipped form of the Latin word memorandum, are brief in-house correspondence
sent up and down the corporate ladder. It is the type of writing you can expect to prepare
most frequently on the job. This form of business correspondence is quick, easy and an
effective way for individuals to communicate with others. It is streamlined for the busy
world of work and it provides busy readers with information quickly. Memos differ from
the business letter in that they are less formal and are often sent to individuals within the
company. As such, memos do not need the formalities necessary in business letters, such
as an inside address, salutation, complimentary close, or signature line.
TO:
FROM:
DATE:
SUBJECT:
It is important to organize your memos so that readers can find information quickly and
act on it promptly. For longer memos you might want to divide the body of your memo
into three parts namely: introduction, discussion and conclusion.
Introduction
The introduction of your memo should do the following:
• Tell readers clearly about the problem, procedure, question or policy that prompted
you to write;
• Explain briefly any background information the reader needs to know;
• Be specific about what you are going to accomplish in your memo.
Discussion
In the body of your memo, help readers in these ways:
• State why a problem or procedure is important, who will be affected by it and what
caused it and why;
• Indicate why and what changes are necessary;
• Give precise dates, times, locations and costs.
Conclusion
In your conclusion, state specifically how you want the reader to respond to your memo.
To get readers to act appropriately, you can do one or more of the following:
Throughout your memo, organizational markers should also be used, where appropriate,
as a way of emphasis. Organizational markers include headings, numbered or bulleted
lists and underlining and/or boldfacing. You should be careful not to overuse any of
these since this will detract from the purpose of the memo.
Unit Summary
This unit introduced you to the writing conventions and approaches used with the
disciplines of Natural Sciences, Social Sciences and Business. It detailed strategies for
developing and writing papers in each of the fields and provided sufficient examples to
allow for comparison between and among the disciplines.