Running Head: HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 1

Human physiology

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HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 2

Question 1

The idea of flow-down gradients plays a role in the glucose movement into and out of the

nephron. Flow down gradients includes the stuff movement from one system point to another

area (Michael et al., 2017). The substances consist of molecules and ions in solution, fluids such

as gases, chime, and blood. A nephron is the tiny practical and operational kidney unit, which

regulates soluble substances and water. The nephron enables glucose reabsorption in the

proximal tube. However, the nephron reabsorbs glucose and other ions to maintain the

homeostatic plasma levels. In the nephron, roughly 180g per day of glucose is strained by the

renal glomerulus. Glucose is the primary basis of energy and fuel, offering power for humans'

regular metabolic activity. However, glucose transport ensures euglycemia maintenance. The

glucose transporters determine the glucose update and release glucose from the liver. The

movement of glucose into and out of the nephron provides absorption of glucose for other body

activities such as energy.

Question 2

Homeostasis ensures a balance of the internal environment in response to surrounding

changes, and the kidney enables control of fluid Osmolarity. Homeostasis includes the

maintenance of a comparatively steady internal condition that persists despite the world changes.

It allows maintenance and stability and constancy regulation to ensure adequate function

services. However, homeostasis provides maintenance of continuous interior surrounding in

response to environmental alterations. Examples of homeostatic strategies include PH balance,

blood pressure, respiration, and temperature control. Fluid Osmolarity provides for the

measurement of particle quantity per liter of the solute. The measure is given in millimoles per
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liter. The kidneys control fluid Osmolarity by reabsorbing sodium. Likewise, it reduces

Osmolarity by increase water reabsorption in the kidneys and diluting the bodily fluids. The

kidney maintains the body fluids at a continual Osmolarity. It controls the fluid Osmolarity by

regulating the blood pressure and fluid body volume. The kidney increases the excretion process

and ensures the regulation of the fluid Osmolarity.

Question 3

The significant parts of a nephron include a nephron, glomerulus, the loop of Henle,

proximal convoluted tubule, and distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct differ in terms of

functions and structure. A nephron is the tiny functional and operational kidney unit regulating

soluble substances and water (Cargill & Sims-Lucas, 2020). It forms filtration, reabsorption,

secretion, and excretion of blood into urine transformation. However, glomerulus does blood

filtration purposes. The loop of Henle ensures water and sodium chloride reabsorption from the

filtrate. Proximal convoluted tubule provides reabsorption of glucose and amino acids while

distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct ensures ions absorption and water reabsorption. The

glomerulus is a ball of capillaries enclosed by the Bowman's capsule where urine is filtered while

the nephron comprises the renal tubule and renal corpuscle. Henle's loop includes the U-shaped

loop that conveys filtered fluid into the medulla and back into the cortex. The proximal

convoluted tubule has simple cuboidal epithelial cells with a border brush to increase the apical

side surface area. The distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct consists of typical absorptive

epithelial cells with no brush border.

Question 4
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Cortical nephrons and juxtamedullary nephrons differ in terms of structure and function.

Cortical nephrons are high in the cortex and have a short Henle loop that does not infiltrate

intensely into the medulla. This nephron is a microscopic functional and structural kidney unit

with a short Henle loop. On the other hand, the juxtamedullary nephron is a tiny functional and

structural kidney unit with a long Henle loop. Cortical nephron has a glomerulus located near the

outer cortex sections, while the juxtamedullary nephron has a glomerulus found near the cortex

junction and medulla. However, the juxtamedullary nephron has a large glomeruli size, while the

cortical nephron has a small glomeruli size. The cortical nephron has a short Henle loop, while

the juxtamedullary nephron Henle loops can penetrate intensively in the medulla. Juxtamedullary

nephrons develop the osmotic gradients crucial for urine concentration. On the other hand, the

cortical nephron performs excretion of waste products in urine. However, both cortical nephrons

and juxtamedullary nephrons control blood solutes and water concentrations.

Question 5

Renin, Angiotensin, and Aldosterone cause diverse effects on blood pressure. Blood

pressure includes the force of blood circulation against the blood vessels' walls. However, Renin

causes an upsurge in blood pressure resulting in perfusion pressure renewal in the kidneys. Renin

does not seriously affect the blood pressure but transforms inactive angiotensin forms into

Angiotensin I. However, Angiotensin can increase blood pressure by blood vessel constriction. It

triggers the salt desire and causes the pituitary glands antidiuretic hormone release. Angiotensin

II increases arterial blood pressure, sodium content, and body water. It is identified as a peptide

hormone that causes vasoconstriction, and as a renin-angiotensin system sector, it regulates the

blood pressures. Aldosterone causes salt and water reabsorption to increase into the bloodstream

from the kidney. It increases the reabsorption by raising the blood volume, reinstating the salt
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levels and blood pressure. However, Aldosterone causes low potassium levels that lead to muscle

spasms and weakness.

Question 6

The vertical concentration gradient in the medulla and vasopressin concentration play a

crucial role in regulating the urine produced volume and Osmolarity. The medullary

concentration gradient is maintenance by reabsorption of solutes into the bloodstream and

diffuses into the interstitial fluid. Urine is the end product once the manipulation of fluid has

occurred in the nephrons. The urine osmolality differs widely in response to water intake

changes. The vertical concentration gradient in the medullary ensures regulation of the volume

and Osmolarity of produced urine. The medulla steep concentration gradient plays a role in the

osmotic gradient. However, vasopressin is a small peptide hormone that regulations the body's

water retention. Vasopressin regulates the osmolality of the urine generated. The concentration

gradient ensures the principle of the urine produced. However, the antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

decreases the urine volume by increasing the kidney's water reabsorption. It provides the urine

volume does not exceed the level the bladder can hold the urine.

Question 7

Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs), loop diuretics, thiazide diuretics, and ACE

inhibitors differ in mechanism and effects. Loop diuretics mechanism includes binding reversibly

to a chloride channel receptor site in the Henle loop's ascending limb. However, the thiazide

diuretics mechanism has hypertension control by inhibiting reabsorption of sodium and chloride

ions from the kidneys distal convoluted tubules. It does this aspect by blocking the thiazide-

sensitive sodium and chloride ions symporter. On the other hand, ACE inhibitors generate
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vasodilation by inhibiting the angiotensin II formation while Angiotensin II receptor blockers

block the angiotensin II action. Loop diuretics have adverse effects such as dizziness,

dehydration, hypokalemia, headache, and hypernatremia. On the other hand, thiazide diuretics

have side effects such as sodium losses and urination increase, blurred vision, itching. However,

thiazide diuretics interfere with the blood potassium levels causing it to drop low, affecting one's

heartbeat. Similarly, thiazide and ARB's diuretics cause dizziness and headache like loop

diuretics. Lastly, ACE inhibitors cause dry cough, dizziness, fatigue, and headaches.

Question 8

External respiration occurs through four crucial phases: breathing, exhale, oxygen and

carbon dioxide transport, and internal respiration. External respiration includes the gas exchange,

which entails the huge flow of air into and out of the lungs. Likewise, this process provides

oxygen and carbon dioxide transfer into the bloodstream through diffusion. The breathing

process involves an inhaling process where the diaphragm moves down, the chest volume

increases, and allows air to enter the lungs (Kuryata et al. 2018). The driving force in breathing is

the movement of the diagram and changes in the chest. The resistance involves the diagram

movement. The second phase includes exhaling, where the diving forces involve diaphragm

movement upwards, chest volume decrease that permits the air to exit the lungs. Later, the

oxygen and carbon dioxide transportation occurs where the oxygen enters the lungs, and the

carbon dioxide leaves. Lastly, internal respiration occurs and involves the oxygen and carbon

dioxide exchange between the capillaries and body cells.

Question 9
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Boyle's law is essential and it describes the thoracic volume alterations. Boyle's law states

that the absolute pressure exerted by a specific mass of an ideal gas is inversely comparative to

the volume it occupies if the temperature and amount of gas remain constant. For instance, when

the volume increases, it causes the gas's pressure to decrease and vice versa. This law's

mathematical expression entails P α 1/V, where force is inversely proportionate to the volume

(Kenny & Ponichtera, 2019). However, this formula can be related to the constant (K), where PV

= K. The pressure and volume product is equal to the constant at the given conditions. The

thoracic volume change is related to Boyle's law. During the inhalation process, the lung volume

expands due to the diaphragm and intercostal muscle contraction, causing the thoracic activity to

develop. The increase in thoracic volume causes the pressure to decrease as applied in Boyle's

law.

Question 10

The lung volumes differ in terms of definition and average values. The tidal volume

includes the lung volume representing the average volume of displaced air between normal

inhalation and exhalation without any external force. Its average weight is 0.5Liters. Expiratory

reserve volume includes the extra air quantity that can be exhaled after a normal exhalation. Its

volume is roughly 800 to 1000ml.On the other hand, inspiratory reserve volume includes the

extra air quantity inhaled after a regular inhalation. Its value is roughly 1900 to 3300ml for an

adult. The residual volume consists of the amount of air left one's lungs after powerful

exhalation. Its capacity is about 1800 to 2200ml. However, vital capacity contains the extreme

amount of air one can expel from the lungs after an intense inhalation, and its capacity is roughly

60 to 70ml/kg. Total lung capacity includes the lungs' air volume upon revolutionary inspiration

process, and its average volume is 6 liters. Inspiratory capacity consists of the maximum air
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volume that can inhale after a normal quiet expiration, and its average volume is 2.5 liters.

Lastly, functional residual capacity includes the present air quantity in the lungs after a passive

end with an average volume of 1.7 to 3.5 liters.

Question 11

The local mechanism plays a role in matching ventilation and perfusion. Ventilation

includes the air exchange between the lungs and atmosphere caused by the pressure gradients.

However, perfusion involves fluid passage through the circulatory stem to an organ or tissue. It

allows blood delivery to a capillary bed in tissue. Ventilation and perfusion are interrelated due

to gas exchange. However, his sale occurs in the lungs between the pulmonary capillaries' blood

and the alveolar air. The alveoli must be ventilated and perfused for an adequate gas exchange

strategy. This local mechanism enables effective gas exchange in the alveoli and blood flow to

alveolar capillaries. This matching strategy enables the effective delivery of oxygen and carbon

dioxide removal from the body. Likewise, it allows easy efficiency and adequacy assessment of

the variables; ventilation and perfusion.

Question 12

Oxygen dissociation curve is linked to hemoglobin properties and function in unique

strategies. The oxygen dissociation curve includes a graph that displays the hemoglobin

proportion in its oxygen-laden saturated plan on the perpendicular axis against the oxygen partial

pressure on the level axis (Scrim et al., 2019). At high oxygen partial pressure, hemoglobin binds

to oxygen to form oxy-hemoglobin. Hemoglobin includes a protein in the red blood cells that

transports oxygen tone's body organs and tissues. However, it conveys carbon dioxide from one's

organs and tissues to the lungs. The oxygen dissociation curve plays a role in hemoglobin
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functions, displaying how the blood moves and releases oxygen. Likewise, it shows

hemoglobin's position in the transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the lungs.

The curve outlines the relationship between the fractional pressure of oxygen and the oxygen

saturation.

Question 13

The changes in temperature, PCO2, PH, and 2, 3 DPG concentrations alter the oxygen

dissociation curve. The oxygen dissociation curve includes a graph that displays the hemoglobin

proportion in its oxygen-laden saturated strategy on the perpendicular axis against the oxygen

fractional pressure on the level axis. Any change in these concentrations causes a shift in the

curve. The high levels of 2, 3 DPG shifts the oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve to the right,

while low levels cause the curve to move to the left (Scrim et al., 2019). However, the PH affects

the angle where a decrease in the PH causes the curve to move to the right, while an increase in

PH moves the turn to the left. The increase in PCO2 tissue causes an increase in hydrogen ion

(H+) concentration. Likewise, temperature increase shifts the curve to the right, while a decrease

in temperature moves the curve to the left. The increase in these concentrations causes the

hemoglobin to quickly give up oxygen, causing the curve to shift to the right.

Question 14

The oxygen dissociation curve shift affects the oxygen loading in the lungs and unloading

at the tissues. However, the Oxygen dissociation curve includes a graph that displays the

hemoglobin proportion in its oxygen-laden saturated strategy on the perpendicular axis against

the oxygen partial pressure on the level axis (Scrim et al., 2019). Any alteration in this curve

affects the oxygen flow into the lungs and out of the tissues. The increase in peripheral tissue
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metabolisms such as temperature and carbon dioxide increases, PH decreases, and the curve shift

to the right causes an increase in oxygen loading to the tissues. Likewise, reduction in oxygen

hemoglobin affinity causes the oxygen unloading aspect. High carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions

levels cause oxygen unloading at the tissues. However, when the oxygen levels are higher,

hemoglobin causes greater unloading of carbon dioxide at the lungs. A decrease in temperature

and PH levels causes oxygen loading in the lungs.

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References

Cargill, K., & Sims-Lucas, S. (2020). Metabolic requirements of the nephron. Pediatric

Nephrology, 35(1), 1-8.

Kenny, B. J., & Ponichtera, K. (2019). Physiology, Boyle's Law. In StatPearls [Internet].

StatPearls Publishing.

Kuryata, O. V., Shtepa, O. O., & Halushchak, O. V. (2018). Function of external respiration in

patients after kidney transplantation under conditions of immunosuppressive

therapy. Medicni perspektivi (Medical perspectives), 23(1 (part1)), 95-101.

Michael, J., Cliff, W., McFarland, J., Modell, H., & Wright, A. (2017). The “Unpacked” Core

Concept of Flow Down Gradients. In The Core Concepts of Physiology (pp. 55-61).

Springer, New York, NY.

Scrima, R., Fugetto, S., Capitanio, N., & Gatti, D. L. (2019). Hemoglobin Non-equilibrium

Oxygen Dissociation Curve. arXiv preprint arXiv:2001.00091.