Appendix A

Units and Dimensions

It is essential to distinguish between units and dimensions. Broadly speaking,

physical parameters have the separate properties of size and dimension. A
unit is a, more or less arbitrarily defined, amount or quantity in terms of
which a parameter is defined. A dimension represents the definition of an
inherent property, independent of the system of units in which it is expressed.
For example, the dimension mass expresses the amount of material of which
a body is constructed, the distance between the wing tips (wingspan) of an
aeroplane has the dimension length. The mass of a body can be expressed in
kilograms or in pounds, the wingspan can be expressed in metres or in feet.
Many systems of units exist, each of which with their own advantages
and drawbacks. Throughout this book the internationally accepted dynamical
system SI is used, except in a few places as specially noted. The Imperial set
of units still plays an important roll in aviation, in particular in the United
States.

Fundamental dimensions and units

Dimensions can be written in symbolic form by placing them between square

brackets. There are four fundamental units in terms of which the dimensions
of all other physical quantities may be expressed. Purely mechanical rela-
tionships are derived in terms of mass [M], length [L], and time [T]; thermo-
dynamical relationships contain the temperature [θ] as well.
A fundamental equation governing dynamical systems is derived from
Newton’s second law of motion. This states that an external force F acting
on a body is proportional to the product of its mass m and the acceleration a
produced by the force: F = kF ma. The constant of proportionality kF is de-

511
512 A Units and Dimensions

Table A.1 Dimensions and SI units used for dynamical systems.

Quantity Dimension Unit name Symbol Explanation

length [L] metre m fundamental unit
mass [M] kilogram kg fundamental unit
time [T] second s fundamental unit
area [L2 ] – m2 length×length
volume [L3 ] – m3 area×length
velocity [LT−1 ] – m s−1 length/time
acceleration [LT−2 ] – m s−2 velocity/time
moment of inertia [ML2] – kg m2 mass×area
density [ML−3 ] – kg m−3 mass/volume
mass flow rate [MT−1 ] – kg s−1 mass/time
force [MLT−2 ] Newton N, kg m s−2 mass×acceleration
moment [ML2T−2 ] – Nm force×length
pressure, stress [ML−1 T−2 ] Pascal Pa, N m−2 force/area
momentum [MLT−1 ] – N s, kg m s−1 mass×velocity
momentum flow [MLT−2 ] – N, kg m s−2 mass×velocity/time
work or energy [ML2T−2 ] Joule J, N m force×length
power [ML2T−3 ] Watt W, N m s−1 work or energy/time
angle 1 radian rad length/length
angular velocity [T−1 ] – rad s−1 angle/time
angular acceleration [T−2 ] – rad s−2 angular velocity/time
frequency [T−1 ] Hertz Hz 1/time

termined by the definition of the units of force, mass and acceleration used
in the equation. In general, if the system of units is changed, so also is the
constant kF . It is useful, of course, to select the units so that the equation
becomes F = ma. In a consistent system of units, the force, mass, and time
are defined so that kF = 1. For this to be true, the unit of force has to be that
force which, when acting upon a unit mass, produces a unit acceleration.

International System of Units

In most parts of the world the Système International d’Unités, commonly

abbreviated to SI units, is accepted for most branches of science and engi-
neering. The SI system uses the following fundamental units:
Flight Physics 513

• Mass: the kilogram (symbol kg) is equivalent to the international stan-

dard held in Sèvres near Paris.
• Length: the metre (symbol m), preserved in the past as a prototype, is
presently defined as the distance (m) travelled by light in a vacuum in
299,792,458−1 seconds.
• Time: the second (symbol s) is the fundamental unit of time, defined in
terms of the natural periodicity of the radiation of a cesium-133 atom.
• Temperature: the unit Kelvin (symbol K) is identical in size with the
degree Celsius (symbol ◦ C), but it denotes the absolute (or thermody-
namical) temperature, measured from the absolute zero. The degree Cel-
sius is one hundredth part of the temperature rise involved when pure
water is heated from the triple point (273.15 K) to boiling temperature
at standard pressure. The temperature in degrees Celsius is therefore
T (C) = T (K) − 273.15.
Having defined the four fundamental dimensions and their units, all other
physical quantities can be established, as in Table A.1. Velocity, for exam-
ple, is defined as the distance travelled in unit time. It has the dimension
[LT−1 ] and is measured in metres per second (m s−1 , or m/s). The following
additional remarks are made in relation to Table A.1:
• The SI system defines the Newton (symbol N) as the fundamental unit
for force, imparting an acceleration of 1 m s−2 to one kilogram of mass.
From Newton’s equation, its dimension is derived as [MLT−2 ]. By con-
trast to some other systems of units, the definition of a newton is com-
pletely unrelated to the acceleration due to gravity. Clearly, the SI system
forms a consistent system.
• The fundamental unit of (gas) pressure or (material) stress is denoted
pascal (symbol Pa). The bar is defined as 105 Pa, the millibar1 (mb)
amounts to 102 Pa. A frequently used alternative unit of gas pressure is
the physical atmosphere (symbol atm), which is equal to the pressure un-
der a 760 mm high column of mercury: 1.01325 × 105 Pa. The standard
atmosphere is set at an air pressure of 1 atm at sea level. The techni-
cal atmosphere (symbol at) is equal to the pressure under a 10 m high
column of water, g × 104 Pa. This requires a definition of the accelera-
tion due to gravity, which is taken as the value at 45◦ northern latitude:
g = 9.80665 m s−2 .
• The (dimensionless) radian is defined as the angle subtended at the centre
of a circle by an arc equal in length to the radius. One radian is equal to
180/π = 57.296◦ .
1 The preferred symbol is the hectopascal, hPa.
514 A Units and Dimensions

Fractions and multiples

Sometimes, the fundamental units defined above are inconveniently large or

small for a particular case. In such cases, the quantity can be expressed in
terms of some fraction or multiple of the fundamental unit. A prefix attached
to a unit makes a new unit. The following prefixes may be used to indicate
decimal fractions or multiples of SI units.

Fraction Prefix Symbol Multiple Prefix Symbol

10−1 deci d 10 deca da
10−2 centi c 102 hecto h
10−3 milli m 103 kilo k
10−6 micro µ 106 mega M

Imperial units

Until about 1968, the Imperial (or British Engineering) set of units was in
use in some parts of the world, the United Kingdom in particular. It uses the
fundamental units foot (symbol ft) for length and pound (symbol lbm) for
mass, the unit for time is the second. The corresponding unit for force, the
poundal, produces an acceleration of 1 ft s−2 to 1 lbm. The Imperial System
is therefore a consistent one. Since the poundal is considered as an unpracti-
cally small force, it is often replaced by the pound force (symbol lbf), which
is defined as the weight of one pound mass. The pound force is therefore g
times as large as the poundal. However, used with 1 pound mass and 1 ft s−2 ,
it does not constitute a consistent set of units. Therefore, the slug has been
defined as a mass equal to g times the pound mass, dictating that a standard
value is used for the acceleration due to gravity (32.174 ft s−2 ). The Imperial
system uses the Kelvin or the degree Celsius (“centigrade”) as the standard
unit of temperature.
Although the SI system constitutes the generally accepted international
standard, many Imperial units are still in use, especially in the practice of
aircraft operation and in the US engineering world. For example, use is still
made of the temperature scales Fahrenheit (F) and Rankine (R). The Rankine
is an absolute temperature coupled to the Fahrenheit scale and is not to be
confused with the former Réaumur temperature unit. The conversion from
degrees Fahrenheit to Kelvin is as follows: T (K) = 273.15 + 5/9{T (F) −
32}. The system of units based on the foot, pound, second and rankine is
Flight Physics 515

Table A.2 Table for converting British FPSR units into SI units.
Quantity Symbol Multiply by to obtain SI units
length inch (in) 2.54 × 10−2 m
foot (ft = 12 in) 3.048 × 10−1 m
mile 1.6093 km
nautical mile (nm) 1.8532 km
volume cubic ft 2.8317 × 10−2 m3
UK gallon 4.5461 × 10−3 m3
US gallon 3.7854 × 10−3 m3
velocity ft/s 3.048 × 10−1 m/s
mile/h 1.609 km/h
UK knot = nm/h 1.853 km/h
mass slug 1.4594 × 10 kg
pound mass (lbm) 4.5359 × 10−1 kg
UK ton 1.0165 × 103 kg
US short ton 9.0718 × 102 kg
force pound force (lbf) 4.4482 N
poundal 1.3826 × 10−1 N
pressure lbf/in2 (psi) 6.8948 × 103 Pa
lbf/ft2 (psf) 4.7880 × 10 Pa
temperature Rankine (R) 5/9 K
work ft lbf 1.355 Nm
energy BTU 1.055 × 103 J
specific energy BTU/slug 7.2290 × 10 Nm/kg
power slug ft2 /s3 1.356 Nm/s
horsepower∗ (hp) 7.457 × 102 W
viscosity coefficient slug/ft/s 4.788 × 10 kg/m/s
kinematic viscosity ft2 /s 9.290 × 10−2 m2 /s

∗ The unit of power in the (former) Technical System of Units is also known as the
(metric) horsepower. It was derived from the kilogram as a fundamental unit for
force (kgf). Its value of 735.5 W is marginally smaller than the horsepower of the
Imperial system.

sometimes called the FPSR system. If their units are used in engineering
computations, it is recommendable to convert them into SI units with the
help of Table A.2.
Appendix B
Principles of Aerostatics

Ballooning originates from the early 18th century, and it is the oldest – and
for more than a century the only – form of aviation; see Sections 1.2 and 2.2.
Despite recent competition from (more expensive) satellites, scientific and
meteorological balloons have preserved their place, while the popularity of
recreational ballooning continues to grow. Because the physical principles
of ballooning form a clarifying illustration of the equation of state, some
attention will be paid in this appendix to aerostatics.

Gross and net lift

From the equilibrium of a volume element of air in a static atmosphere, we

derived in Section 2.6 that the pressure on the upper side of the element is
lower than on the lower side. This pressure difference is compensated by the
weight of the air contained by the element and it is still present if the element
is replaced by an arbitrary body with the same geometry. The atmosphere
will therefore exert a force on the body equal to the weight of the removed
air. Using the aerostatic equation, we have thus given an explanation of the
famous law of Archimedes (287–212 BC). Applying this law to a balloon
with a volume Q, it says that the gross lift LG exerted on the balloon is equal
to its volume multiplied by the specific weight of atmospheric air

LG = wat Q = ρat g Q, (B.1)

with w and ρ denoting the specific weight and the density, respectively, of
the atmosphere (index at). The weight of the internal lifting gas (index gas),
forming the contents of the balloon, has to be subtracted from the gross lift
to obtain the net lift LN ,

517
518 B Principles of Aerostatics

LN = LB − Wgas = g Q(ρat − ρgas). (B.2)

The net lift is positive if ρgas < ρat . To comply with this condition the fol-
lowing methods can be distinguished:
1. The balloon is filled with hot air. Because the air pressure in the balloon
exceeds the ambient pressure only marginally, the difference between
the densities of the atmosphere and the hot air follows directly from the
equation of state.
2. The balloon is filled with a gas which is “lighter than air”, in other words,
the lifting gas – such as helium (He) – has a smaller molecular mass than
air. Hydrogen (H2 ) is the lightest gas but, in view of its high flammability,
it is no longer used in manned balloons.

Hot-air balloons

A hot-air balloon has an inlet opening at the bottom so that the internal air
pressure is equal to the ambient air pressure: pgas = pat . Lift results from the
difference in density between the hot internal air and the atmospheric air. The
inlet air is heated by means of a (LPG) gas burner flame below the opening.
The gas is burnt intermittingly to control the average internal temperature.
The temperature difference between the hot air and the atmosphere T =
Tgas − Tat , is used to rewrite Equation (B.2) as follows:
   
ρgas Tat T
LN = ρat g Q 1 − = ρat g Q 1 − = ρat g Q .
ρat Tgas Tat + T
(B.3)
By varying the gas burner heat added the value of T is adjusted, making the
balloon to ascend or descend. Equation (B.3) shows that the net lift largely
depends on the atmospheric air temperature. For example, we assume a bal-
loon to be launched at an outside air temperature of 17◦ C, and the inside air
to be heated by T = 80◦ C. For an atmospheric density ρat = 1.25 kg/m3 it
is found that LN = 2.65Q. At sea level the balloon will lift 2.65 N per cubic
metre of hot gas. However, if this balloon were to be launched on a hot day
with an ambient temperature of 37◦ C and the same ambient pressure, we then
find T = 60◦ C for the same hot air temperature, and ρat = 1.17 kg/m3 for
the ambient density, Equation (B.3) now indicates that the net lift per cubic
metre is merely 1.86 N or 30% less than for the earlier case. If the balloon’s
empty weight is assumed to be the same in both cases, then the available
useful load is reduced by the same 30%. Such a significant temperature de-
Flight Physics 519

pendence must be thoroughly taken into consideration when preparing for a

hot-air ballooning flight.

Gas balloon

As for a hot-air balloon, the pressure of the lifting gas in a gas balloon is
approximately equal to the ambient pressure.1 By contrast, the lifting gas
temperature is not much different from the outside air temperature, though
it may be heated up appreciably by the sun, or cooled down when the bal-
loon drifts below clouds. The equation of state dictates that the lifting gas
density ρgas and the atmospheric air density ρat have a ratio similar to the
molecular masses,
ρgas Rat M̂gas
= = . (B.4)
ρat Rgas M̂at
The net lift can be expressed according to Equation (B.2) either proportional
to the gas volume
   
ρgas M̂gas
LN = ρat g Q 1 − = ρat g Q 1 − (B.5)
ρat M̂at

or to the gas weight,

   
ρat M̂at
LN = ρgas g Q − 1 = Wgas −1 . (B.6)
ρgas M̂gas

According to Equation (B.5), the net lift at sea level for a balloon filled with
helium gas (M̂ = 4) amounts to about 10 N per cubic metre. For an arbitrary
gas volume, the lift is proportional to the ambient density and therefore de-
creases at higher altitudes. Conversely, the net lift for a constant gas weight
according to Equation (B.6) is also constant. By using the previous relation-
ships, the altitude control of a gas balloon will be explained hereafter.

Open gas balloon

The gas in an open balloon is in contact with the surrounding atmosphere

via a nozzle at its bottom, which is permanently open during flight. In level
1 Some gas balloons can accommodate a significant overpressure which allows them to attain
an altitude up to 40 km without tearing. Their skin is manufactured from an extremely light
material reinforced with high-strength fibres.
520 B Principles of Aerostatics

flight the net lift and the balloon’s weight Wb , including the useful load, are in
equilibrium: LN = Wb . When a balloon ascends, ρat decreases and, because
the (fully inflated) volume remains the same, gas escapes from the balloon so
that ρgas also decreases. According to Equations (B.5) and (B.6), the net lift
decreases so that LN < Wb . This counteracts the ascending motion and helps
the balloon to maintain a steady rate of ascent. Conversely, in a descending
motion, the gas weight is kept constant and the balloon is allowed to take on
atmospheric air which does not contribute to the lift. For a constant amount
of gas, the lift stays constant and – apart from the air drag on the balloon –
the descending motion is not counteracted. An open gas balloon is therefore
indifferent to the rate of descent, which can only be reduced by off-loading
ballast (sand). A fast descent – for example, while landing – can be executed
by opening a gas valve at the top of the balloon.

Closed gas balloon

During its launch, a closed balloon will only be partially filled with gas, so
that the net lift is marginally greater than the weight: LN > Wb . Initially the
balloon will ascend with constant acceleration, though the increasing speed
will magnify the air drag and cause the acceleration to reduce. After a while,
the balloon will ascend at a steady rate. Due to the decreasing air pressure,
the balloon will begin to expand until it becomes fully inflated. To prevent
the balloon from tearing open, the gas valve is opened and the ascending
flight is continued as an open balloon, until the altitude limit is reached, as
explained below.

Ceiling of a gas balloon

Open balloons are used in ballooning sport at relatively low altitudes. By

contrast, the purpose of closed balloons is to reach high altitudes, often pen-
etrating the stratosphere. The ceiling of a closed balloon is reached when
the net lift equals the balloon’s all-up weight. Expressed as the minimum
atmospheric density achievable, this is determined by Equation (B.5)
Wb
ρat = . (B.7)
g Qmax (1 − M̂gas /M̂at )

For example, let us assume that we have a balloon with a volume

Qmax = 576,000 m3 and a mass of Wb /g = 2,000 kg. Using M̂gas = 4 and
Flight Physics 521

M̂at = 28.96, we derive the density altitude at the ceiling from Equa-
tion (B.7): ρat = 0.0040 kg/m3 . According to the data for the standard at-
mosphere (Section 2.6), the corresponding altitude is approximately 40 km.
Index

accelerate-stop distance, 310 high-speed, 475

Ackeret, J., 476 spoiler, 475
active controls, 79 aileron reversal, 392
actuator disc, 197, 207, 237, 238, 240, air, 62, 65
408 intake, 409
Ader, C., 14 air brake, 59, 287
adiabatic flow, 438 air breathing engine, 61, 182, 196
adiabatic process, 438 air density, 49, 89, 112, 185, 212, 233,
advance angle, 236, 242 259, 268, 284, 309, 313, 317,
advance ratio, 242, 245, 418, 421 370, 460, 499, 508, 519
adverse yaw, 19, 392 air intake, 61, 80, 92, 185, 193, 198,
aero-elasticity, 332, 475 215, 217, 231, 440, 475, 488–490,
aerobatics, 329 494
aerodynamic balance, 379 air traffic control, 77
aerodynamic centre, 351–353, 356, 360, air-cooled engine, 185
381, 435, 463, 478, 483 airborne distance, 308, 313
aerodynamic efficiency, 176, 268, 276, airborne phase, 308
300, 317, 343, 369, 435, 497 aircraft
aerodynamics, 8, 15, 19, 57, 90, 103, canard, 19, 343, 346, 367, 370, 376
127, 160, 267, 438 fixed-wing, 8, 52
aerofoil, 13, 52, 79, 126, 130 high-wing, 28
aerofoil section, 56, 91, 100, 117, 126, hypersonic, 88
128, 131, 133, 142, 145, 155, jet, 38
158, 236, 434, 459 low-wing, 30
aeroplane, 52 propeller, 33, 40
aerostatic equation, 70, 96, 517 subsonic, 88
aerostatics, 49, 517 supersonic, 88
afterburning, 39, 89, 194, 221, 488, 493 tail-first, 343
aileron, 23, 305, 346 tailless, 133, 343, 360, 371, 486
differential, 392 tilt-rotor, 406, 422
Frise, 392 tilt-wing, 54

523
524 Index

transsonic, 88 physical, 513

aircraft configuration, 257, 323, 330, standard, 69, 73, 75, 258, 259, 461,
332, 343 513
airship, 5, 6, 11, 36, 49–51, 183 technical, 513
airspeed, 52, 258 autogiro, 34, 416
calibrated, 461 autorotation, 397, 416, 420
equivalent, 258, 460 autothrottle, 287
indicated, 258, 461 aviation
maximum, 53, 266, 273, 275–277, dynamic, 48, 52
281, 420, 501 static, 5, 48
minimum, 151, 266, 276, 280, 303, axis system, 333, 334
312, 394 aerodynamic, 262, 335
true, 258, 278, 460 body, 260, 335
airspeed indicator, 258, 461 earth, 335
Alembert, J. le Rond d’, 102 flight path, 262
all-flying tail, 346, 347, 382 section, 133, 145
altimeter, 76, 259 wind, 145, 166
altitude, 68, 69 wing, 166
critical, 212, 235
density, 76, 508 backside of the drag curve, 287
energy, 286 balanced field length (BFL), 311
geopotential, 73 balloon, 49
pressure, 76, 259 gas, 49, 519
scale, 72 hot-air, 5, 49, 518
altitude sickness, 81 hydrogen, 6
angle of attack, 8, 33, 58, 135, 136, 237, bank angle, 314, 315, 336, 386
260, 336 Baumhauer, A.G. Von, 35
absolute, 136 Bennett, J.A.J., 418
critical, 151, 152, 171, 267, 304, 320, Bernoulli’s equation, 97, 101, 109, 139,
395 239, 259, 436, 438, 447, 461
angle of sweep, 466 Bernoulli, Daniel, 97
anhedral, 157 Betz, A., 167
apparent mass, 167 biplane, 18, 22, 25
approach, 80, 287, 302, 312, 391 Blériot, L., 23
Archimedes’ law, 5, 517 blade pitch, 236, 243, 247, 288, 312,
area 414, 423
reference, 113 blade twist, 236, 237
wetted, 56, 59 blade-element theory, 241
area rule, 474, 484 Blasius, H., 120
artificial feel, 330 blind flying, 79
aspect ratio, 19, 156, 164, 165, 170, boundary layer, 24, 91, 108, 111, 120,
176, 270, 365, 385, 468, 479, 483 140, 151, 160, 257, 306, 352,
atmosphere 435, 458, 503
exponential, 72 laminar, 108, 111, 118, 120, 471, 504
isothermal, 72 turbulent, 108, 118–120, 472, 504
Flight Physics 525

Bréguet’s equation, 296, 298 circulating flow, 24, 92, 104, 138, 141,
Bréguet, L., 296 160, 169, 408
brake power, 273 circulation, 137, 139, 141, 146, 160,
Brayton cycle, 215 165, 303, 367, 462, 464
Bryan, G.H., 24, 368 clear air turbulence, 79
buffet boundary, 500 climb
buffet margin, 500 dynamic, 286
buffeting, 432, 470 rate of, 83, 262, 281, 283, 310, 318,
Busemann, A., 466 419, 420, 486
by-pass engine, 193, 222 time to, 281, 284, 286
by-pass ratio, 42, 193, 223, 224, 226, climb angle, 262, 279, 286, 308
250 climb gradient, 280, 310, 311
climb ratio, 273, 275, 282, 291, 295
Coanda effect, 408
calibrated airspeed, 258
cockpit, 12, 347
camber, 21, 132, 133, 152, 303
cockpit controls, 330, 346
negative, 133
coffin corner, 500
positive, 133
collective pitch, 422, 423
camber line
combustion chamber, 219
mean, 132, 146, 352 compound helicopter, 54
S-shaped, 133, 352, 360 compressibility, 88, 89, 208, 332, 421,
cambered aerofoil, 12, 13, 129, 147, 431, 432, 434
352 compressible flow, 460, 462
CAS, 258, 461 compression ratio, 186, 207, 210, 230
Cayley, George, 7, 8, 48, 58, 129 compressor, 217
ceiling, 50, 188, 284, 520 axial-flow, 191, 218
absolute, 278, 284 centrifugal, 191, 217
aerodynamic, 500 compressor spool, 219, 220, 228
service, 285, 499 computational fluid dynamics, 57, 109,
centre of gravity, 8, 15, 55, 328, 333, 131
382, 425 consistent system of units, 512
centre of pressure, 57, 350, 351, 379, continuity equation, 93, 94, 99, 115,
463, 470, 478 436, 449
centripetal acceleration, 262 control, 328, 329
Certificate of Airworthiness, 255 directional, 423
Chanute, O., 16 lateral, 15, 18, 23, 339, 422
Charles, J.A.C., 6, 64 longitudinal, 23, 339, 371, 422
chord, 106, 121, 128, 156, 236 pitch, 15
mean aerodynamic, 156, 356, 357 control area, 99, 167, 198, 238
mean geometric, 156 control column, 12, 347, 349, 395, 397
root, 156, 357, 483 control force, 347, 368, 378, 431
tip, 156, 357 control reversal, 432
chord length, 132, 147, 148, 165 control stick, 23, 347, 366, 390, 424
chord line, 132, 145, 158, 357 control surface, 80, 310, 330, 343, 345,
Cierva, J. de la, 34, 416 348, 376, 379, 432, 475, 488
526 Index

control system, 330, 346, 347, 370, 424, Dornier, C., 28

476 down-burst, 79, 257
control variable, 264, 290 downwash, 52, 157, 159–161, 163, 307,
control wheel, 267, 308, 320, 347, 476 365, 366
cooling rotor, 409
air, 30, 212 drag, 8, 58, 89, 102, 145
liquid, 26, 212 form, 59, 111, 121, 173
core engine, 193, 216, 223 friction, 59, 64, 100, 108, 110,
corner velocity, 321 118–120, 143, 151, 172, 177,
cross-flow, 159 300, 458
crosswind, 60, 80, 257 induced, 59, 119, 121, 157, 162, 163,
cruise number, 297 165, 166, 173, 175, 275, 297,
cruise speed, 40 389, 501
cruise technique, 293 intake momentum, 221, 234
cruise-climb, 298 interference, 173, 473
Curtiss, G., 23 parasite, 173, 417
cyclic pitch, 36, 423 pressure, 59, 111, 117, 119, 151, 172,
435, 459, 478
damping, 341 profile, 121, 122, 150, 164–166, 173,
dead air region, 110 417, 463
dead man’s region, 416 thickness, 460
decision height, 80 trim, 59, 174, 256, 377, 435, 487
decision speed, 310 wave, 435, 450, 459
deep stall, 396 zero-lift, 175, 177
density, 52, 64, 88, 90, 436, 517 drag area, 113
relative, 74, 258 drag coefficient, 113, 116, 117, 121,
total, 440 145, 166, 174, 268, 410, 470, 496
descent drag divergence, 470
angle of, 262, 287, 289, 312, 321, drag due to lift, 459, 478, 482
416 drag polar, 128, 152, 174, 257, 266,
rate of, 77, 83, 262, 287, 289, 291, 282, 291, 496, 501
312, 520 ducted fan, 37, 250
design cruising speed, 321 Dutch roll, 389, 390, 428
design diving speed, 321
diesel engine, 186 EAS, 258, 460
dihedral, 9, 12, 27, 157, 331, 363, 386, efficiency
387 Froude, 201
longitudinal, 363, 367 intake, 490
dihedral effect, 387, 390 jet, 239
dimension, 511 propeller, 20, 186, 203, 207, 229,
dimensional analysis, 112 239, 244, 245, 247, 274, 295
direct-lift control, 376 propulsive, 201–203, 207, 224, 240,
disc loading, 240, 409 489
dive, 55, 58, 189, 247, 287, 319, 321, thermal, 206, 209, 224, 235
329, 371, 390, 400, 431, 476 total, 205, 225, 249, 298, 489, 497
Flight Physics 527

elevator, 9, 12, 18, 21, 59, 256, 342, 346 steady level, 48, 59, 60, 267, 278,
empennage, 9, 329, 342–344, 389, 401 497
endurance, 21, 291–294 straight and level, 52, 277, 299, 316,
specific, 293 371, 419
energy equation, 97, 436, 438, 447, 452 symmetric, 59, 60, 260, 286, 315,
engine control, 231 336, 497
engine failure, 215, 245, 280, 307, 310, turning, 19, 55, 314, 329, 390
339, 393, 394, 416 flight control computer, 349
engine nacelle, 61 flight control system, 348
engine noise, 44, 227 flight corridor, 508
engine operation, 59, 66, 232, 332, 346 flight dynamics, 257, 328, 333
engine rating, 209, 232, 297, 321 flight envelope, 278, 321
enthalpy, 438 flight level, 77
entropy, 439 flight manual, 255
equation of motion, 262, 307, 369 flight mechanics, x, 15, 55, 257, 260
equation of state, 64, 70, 77, 115, 259, flight planning, 255
436, 462, 517 flight-path angle, 260, 262, 263, 336
Euler angle, 335 flow
Euler’s equation, 96, 109, 436, 476 compressible, 97
Euler, Leonhard, 96, 97 hypersonic, 440
expansion flow, 457 ideal, 90, 107, 384, 436
incompressible, 89, 94, 97, 101, 259,
436, 446, 447, 460, 462
fan, 194, 197, 216, 223 inviscid, 90, 96, 102, 107, 109, 138,
feathering hinge, 414 139
feathering position, 245, 310 isentropic, 439, 444, 446
fenestron, 408 laminar, 104, 107
figure of merit, 410 steady, 90, 92, 95, 98, 142, 198
fin, 22, 23, 342 subcritical, 464
flap subsonic, 447
double-slotted, 304 supercritical, 464
plain, 345 supersonic, 447
single-slotted, 303 turbulent, 105
slotted, 33, 303 unsteady, 90
split, 21, 33, 303 flow separation, 110, 111, 117, 118,
flap angle, 175, 303, 309 121, 143, 151, 152, 166, 171,
flapping hinge, 34, 36, 414 217, 267, 304, 458, 469, 486, 499
flat plate, 107, 119 flutter, 321
flight fly-by-wire, 330, 349
cruising, 169, 232, 260, 264, 292, flying qualities, 153, 328, 333
293, 298, 369, 489, 496, 497 Fokker, A.H.G., 27, 30, 131
gliding, 288 force
hovering, 53, 408 aerodynamic, 56–59
quasi-steady, 60, 264, 284 field, 55
steady, 60, 264 ground, 56
528 Index

inertial, 55 hinged nose, 304

pressure, 57 Hooke, Robert, 4
shear, 57 horizontal tail, 361
surface, 55 hydroplane, 26
water, 56 hypersonic speed, 88
foreplane, 343, 367, 376, 486
Fowler flap, 304 IAS, 258, 461
Franklin, Benjamin, 4 ice protection, 80
friction, 57, 103 in-line engine, 183, 185, 188
frictionless flow, 90, 141 incidence
Froude, W., 197, 201 angle of, 12, 157, 158, 363, 365, 367
fuel indicator diagram, 211
reserve, 301 instrument landing system, 80, 287, 312
trip, 301 interference, 173
fuel consumption, 205 internal combustion, 9, 183, 215
specific, 208, 225, 230, 294, 296, International System of Units, 512
420, 495 ISA, 74–76

jet engine, 37, 193, 216, 235, 489

Garnerin, Jacques, 6
jet stream, 78
gas, 62
Jones, R.T., 171
gas constant, 64
Joukowski, N.E., 24, 139
gas generator, 193, 216, 225
Junkers, H., 28
gas turbine engine, 61, 190
Gibbs-Smith, C.H., 2, 14 Kármán, Th. von, 29, 110
Giffard, H., 11 Kelvin, 513
Glauert, H., 146, 167, 418, 462 kilogram, 513
glide ratio, 289 Krueger flap, 304
glider, 9 Kutta condition, 142, 147, 480
hang, 15, 372 Kutta, W.M., 24, 139
ground effect, 307, 311, 332, 412 Kutta–Joukowski relation, 139, 142,
ground speed, 258 147, 160
gust, 79, 322
gust load, 319, 322 lagging hinge, 414
Lana-Terzi, Francesco, 5, 50
Handley Page, F., 33 Lanchester, F.W., 24, 141, 160, 368,
handling qualities, 328 370
Hargrave, L., 17, 25, 184 landing, 12, 77, 80, 127, 175, 186, 302,
heating 312, 332, 416
aerodynamic, 503, 509 landing distance, 54, 312, 486
heating value, 205, 299, 497 landing flare, 256, 312
Heinkel, E.H., 192 landing run, 313
helicopter, 7, 34, 35, 52, 195, 257, 406 Langley, S.P., 17, 183
compound, 422 lateral motion, 338, 369
Henson, W.S., 10 lateral stability, 339
high-lift device, 127, 303, 329, 332, 382 dynamic, 388, 427
Flight Physics 529

static, 427 Mach angle, 445, 455

Laurent, F., 6 Mach cone, 445, 479
leading edge, 33, 88, 98, 128, 153, 155, Mach meter, 462
166 Mach number, 88, 209, 249, 257, 442,
sonic, 480 476
subsonic, 480, 481 critical, 297, 464, 465, 468
supersonic, 479, 480 Mach trimmer, 476
leading-edge suction, 166, 175, 482 Mach wave, 445
Leduc, R., 38 Mach, Ernst, 88, 442
Lenoir, J.E., 11 Magnus effect, 140
Leonardo da Vinci, 4, 7, 93 Magnus, H.G., 140
lift, 8, 50–52, 58, 137, 145 Manly, C.M., 17, 183
gross , 517 manoeuvrability, 28, 50, 51, 286, 314,
net, 517 318, 371
lift coefficient, 52, 140, 146, 161, 172, manoeuvre margin, 378
266, 354, 410, 467, 470, 509 manoeuvre point, 321, 378
lift curve, 150, 152, 165, 171, 172, 257, manual control, 79, 330, 347, 368, 379
268, 305, 359 mass, 55
lift divergence, 470 mass flow, 93
lift dumper, 312, 347 Maxim, H., 14
lift gradient, 147, 150, 164, 323, 359, metre, 513
463, 468, 477, 481 minimum control speed, 394
lift-off speed, 308 minimum drag speed, 268, 280, 287,
lifting line, 24, 161 297
lifting surface, 52, 58, 128, 159, 330, minimum power speed, 273, 295
363 mission analysis, 255
Lilienthal, Otto, 15, 129, 372 molecular mass, 64, 519
Lindbergh, C.A., 31, 187 moment curve, 354, 359, 373, 396
liquid, 62 momentum equation, 100, 122, 167,
liquid-cooled engine, 185 198, 221, 238, 409, 418, 436
load momentum flow, 99, 198, 202, 241
limit, 321 monoplane, 10, 25
manoeuvre, 319 Montgolfier, Jacques, 5
ultimate, 321 Montgolfier, Joseph, 5
load factor, 189, 315, 319, 371, 376, Moss, S.A., 190
500 motion
loading condition, 319, 329, 332, 400 aperiodic, 340
longitudinal axis, 260 directional, 338
longitudinal motion, 338, 369 periodic, 340
longitudinal stability, 21, 339, 349, 487 MTOW, 268, 302
dynamic, 369, 426 Munk, M.M., 146
static, 358, 359, 426
Lord Rayleigh, 87 NACA cowling, 185
NACA/NASA, 29
MAC, 156, 356, 357 Navier–Stokes equations, 109
530 Index

negative camber, 352 point, 264, 420

neutral point, 364, 366, 377 performance analysis, 253
stick-fixed, 364, 374 performance diagram, 273, 275, 281,
neutral stability, 340 419, 502
Newton, 513 period, 341, 427
Newton, Isaac, 4, 65, 103, 112, 182 petrol engine, 13, 17
Newtonian fluid, 65 phase of flight, 254, 329
no-slip condition, 103, 108, 139, 503 Phillips, Horatio, 13
normally aspirated engine, 212 phugoid, 370
Northrop, J.K., 33 Pilcher, P.S., 16
nose circle, 132, 134 piston engine, 33, 37, 61, 182, 189, 196,
nose point, 132, 141, 154, 355, 456 209, 273, 294, 406
nose radius, 134, 169, 304, 472 pitch angle, 243, 260, 279, 336, 396
NOTAR, 408 pitch axis, 59, 335
nozzle, 197, 216, 449 pitch control, 347
convergent-divergent, 492 pitch rate, 337, 426
de Laval, 446 pitch-up, 396
exhaust, 61, 193, 220, 229, 492, 494 pitching moment, 61, 133, 338
pitching moment coefficient, 351, 356,
Ohain, H.J. Pabst von, 38, 190 362, 463
one-dimensional flow, 93, 99, 441, 451 pitot intake, 490
operational conditions, 233 pitot tube, 259, 460
orbital velocity, 508 pitot-static tube, 259
ornithopter, 4, 8, 15 plain flap, 303
oscillation, 328, 340, 367, 369, 391, Platz, R., 27
427 Plesman, A., 29
long-period, 369, 428 Poisson’s equation, 440
short-period, 370, 382, 428 positive camber, 352
Oswald factor, 175, 177, 270 potential flow theory, 102, 109
Otto cycle, 210 power
Otto engine, 13, 26, 183 available, 201, 229, 239, 273, 275,
Otto, N.A., 13, 183 282, 419
overpressure, 101, 122 equivalent, 208, 229, 273, 296
oxygen deficiency, 81 induced, 239, 409, 418
oxygen limit, 82 jet, 239
required, 272, 273, 408, 411, 417,
Pénaud, Alphonse, 12, 273 419
parachute, 4, 26 shaft, 214
paradox of d’Alembert, 102 power coefficient, 243
pascal, 513 power loading, 302
payload, 255, 300, 332 powered controls, 330, 382
payload-range diagram, 301 Prandtl, L., 24, 29, 91, 109, 142, 160,
perfect gas, 64 462
performance Prandtl–Glauert correction, 462
path, 264, 293, 420 pressure, 63, 90, 436
Flight Physics 531

dynamic, 97, 113, 231, 258, 409, reaction principle, 6, 181

460, 475 reaction torque, 34, 411
impact, 460 reheat, 194, 205, 492, 493
relative, 74 resonance
stagnation, 98, 231, 509 air, 429
static, 63, 259 ground, 429
total, 97, 98, 100, 109, 207, 217, 228, reverse flow, 110, 414
259, 440, 450, 453, 460, 490, 495 reverse thrust, 221, 231, 307, 312, 492
pressure cabin, 33, 42, 82, 185, 212 reversible process, 439
pressure coefficient, 101, 148, 351, 463, Reynolds number, 106, 119
476 critical, 119
pressure gradient, 107 Reynolds, O., 91, 105
propellant, 61, 182, 200 Robins, Benjamin, 8, 112
propeller, 3, 11, 12, 26, 54, 61, 101, rocket engine, 61, 200, 432
197, 236, 406 roll angle, 336, 376, 392
adjustable-pitch, 186, 247 roll axis, 335
constant-speed, 33, 186, 247, 248 roll damping, 389
fixed-pitch, 186, 247 roll rate, 337, 388, 391
propeller blade, 61, 80, 186, 197, 236, rolling mode
242 aperiodic, 389, 428
propeller diagram, 246 rolling moment, 34, 338, 386, 414
propeller plane, 236 root section, 154
propeller torque, 197, 242, 245, 247 rotary engine, 26, 184
propfan, 249 rotor, 4, 7, 34, 406
propulsion, 6 coaxial, 407
jet, 37, 61, 197 hingeless, 415
propeller, 61, 197 main, 52, 406
reaction, 61, 196, 221 tail, 35, 36, 52, 406, 411
rocket, 39, 61 tamdem, 407
propulsion system, 59 teetering, 425
propulsive jet, 197 rotor blade, 53, 80
rotor control, 423
quarter-chord line, 157, 387, 468 rotor tilt angle, 414
quarter-chord point, 356, 383 rotorcraft, 34, 406
Rozier, P. de, 6
radial engine, 17, 30, 185, 187 rudder, 9, 12, 19, 342, 346
radius of action, 302
ram compression, 235, 493 sailplane, 177, 288
ramjet engine, 37, 61, 196, 494 scale effect, 118
range, 293, 294, 296, 297 schlieren optical system, 451
harmonic, 301 scramjet engine, 495
specific, 293, 295, 497 seaplane, 33
range parameter, 300, 498 Sears–Haack body, 474
Rankine, W.J.M., 197 second, 513
Rayleigh, Lord, 112 section code, 134
532 Index

section thickness, 132 static, 340

SEP, 285, 371 stability margin, 366
shear stress, 64, 103, 111 stagnation point, 91, 98, 101, 109, 139,
shell structure, 26, 31 141, 258, 439
shock stall, 470, 499 stall, 18, 170, 245, 267, 268, 276, 320,
shock wave, 88, 434, 450, 490, 505 332, 352, 395
λ, 456, 469 stalling, 15, 33, 128, 151, 329, 395,
bow, 434, 451, 456, 469 397, 421
normal, 451, 490 stalling speed, 268, 280, 302, 312, 360,
oblique, 451, 454 395, 486
shock wave angle, 454 state variable, 62, 436, 443
side-force, 384, 386, 388, 389 stator blade, 223
side-slip, 60, 336, 384 stealth technology, 487
Sikorsky, I.I., 26, 36 stick force, 330, 375
slat, 33, 304 stick pusher, 397
slender body, 456 stick-fixed stability, 358, 361
slipstream, 54, 61, 197, 237, 274, 306, stick-force stability, 375, 378
332, 366, 393, 410 stick-free stability, 368
slug, 514 stick-position stability, 375, 378
sonic boom, 44, 434, 505 Stokes, G.G., 91, 112
sonic flow, 447 STOL, 53, 54, 127, 306
sonic line, 456, 468 stratosphere, 40, 69, 72, 297, 489, 498,
sonic speed, 88, 431, 441 520
sound stream filament, 93, 436
velocity of, 37, 39, 44, 65, 411, 435 stream tube, 92–94, 98, 198, 238, 436,
sound barrier, 432 437, 446
specific excess power, 285, 318, 371 streamline, 91, 92, 94–96, 105, 138,
specific heat, 65, 437, 438 159, 434, 439, 462, 463
specific impulse, 209 dividing, 92, 109
specific volume, 64, 88 streamlining, 6, 8, 9, 31, 59, 111, 236
spin, 267, 339, 392, 397 stressed skin, 28, 31, 33
flat, 400 Stringfellow, J., 11
inverted, 401 subsidence, 340, 389
steep, 400 subsonic speed, 44, 88, 148, 203, 345,
spiral mode, 389 434
spoiler suction, 101, 122
flow, 59, 117, 312, 392 suction force, 143, 166, 222, 399, 459,
stability, 328 481
directional, 22, 384, 390, 488 supercharger, 185, 209, 212, 213
dynamic, 24, 340 turbo-, 190, 213
hovering, 425 supercritical section, 131, 472, 501
inherent, 329, 361, 488 supersonic speed, 39, 44, 88, 195, 203,
lateral-directional, 386 432, 434
speed, 287, 358, 426 Sutherland’s equation, 74
spiral, 390 swash plate, 423
Flight Physics 533

sweep angle, 126, 128, 157, 161, 169, thrust, 39, 51, 52, 59, 89, 182, 197, 199,
360, 365, 387, 479, 501 238
variable, 486 available, 273
symmetric section, 133, 146, 151, 351, gross, 221, 234, 492
355 ideal, 200, 225, 234
net, 221
T-tail, 344 propeller, 197
tab required, 268
geared, 381 specific, 201, 225
servo, 381 thrust angle, 59, 263, 265, 279, 315
spring, 381 thrust coefficient, 240, 242
trim, 368, 381 thrust loading, 277, 302, 309
tail angle, 134, 135 tilt-rotor aircraft, 54
tail load, 172, 174, 256, 365, 376, 383 time to double, 340, 427
tail moment arm, 361, 384 time to halve, 340, 370, 389
tail point, 132, 141, 151, 456, 469 time to turn, 318, 371
tail volume tip speed, 410
horizontal, 362 tip-path plane, 414
vertical, 384 touch-down, 312
tailplane, 342, 348 trailing edge, 33, 122, 127, 128, 142,
adjustable, 256, 381 153, 155, 159, 330, 342, 380,
controllable, 256 414, 458, 484
take-off, 12, 52, 77, 80, 127, 175, 257, supersonic, 480
302, 305, 307, 332, 382, 383, trailing-edge flap, 303
406, 416 transition point, 105
take-off distance, 54, 308, 486 transonic speed, 88
take-off rotation, 256, 308 trim curve, 374
take-off run, 302, 308 trimmed equilibrium, 328, 340, 358,
take-off safety speed, 308 368, 374
take-off weight, 268, 301, 302, 321 trimming, 372
taper ratio, 156, 170, 356, 484 triplane, 25
TAS, 258, 460 tropopause, 68, 72, 78, 235, 297, 502
temperature, 63, 90, 436 troposphere, 68, 71, 235, 443, 502
absolute, 513 tuck-under, 431
relative, 74 turbine, 220
thermodynamic, 63 free power, 228, 248
total, 438, 442, 443, 462, 503 turbo-ramjet engine, 433, 495
temperature lapse, 71 turbofan engine, 42, 61, 193, 196, 199,
thermal, 257, 290, 292 216, 222, 227, 250, 280, 296,
thermodynamics, 436 435, 488
thickness, 25, 132, 133, 146, 236, 459 turbojet engine, 38, 61, 190, 196, 216,
thickness ratio, 133, 150, 169, 466, 471, 221, 296, 432, 488
478, 486 turboprop engine, 40, 61, 190, 194, 196,
throat, 446 216, 227, 296
534 Index

turboshaft engine, 195, 196, 217, 229, wetted area, 111, 177
406 Whitcomb, R.T., 131
turbulence, 78 Whittle, F., 39, 190
turn wind, 78, 257, 290
coordinated, 315, 316, 390, 392 wind shear, 79, 257
horizontal, 314, 318, 392 wind tunnel, 8, 12, 56, 57, 92, 114, 129,
turn radius, 315, 390 386, 449
turn rate, 318, 371 wing, 52, 163
turning arrow, 483, 484
instantaneous, 315 cantilevered, 26, 131
sustained, 314 delta, 11, 126, 128, 170, 343, 479,
two-dimensional flow, 91, 99, 102, 116, 483, 484
117, 137, 454 diamond, 487
flying, 343, 360, 361
undisturbed flow, 99, 101, 108, 113,
plank, 127, 156, 166
201, 239, 259, 439, 460
slender, 157, 169, 171, 482
unit, 511
upwash, 160 straight, 126, 127, 157, 160, 163,
useful load, 50, 55, 300, 301, 319, 343, 333, 356, 386, 466
383, 518 straight-tapered, 155, 165, 356, 357
swept, 128, 466
V-n diagram, 319 swept-back, 126, 157, 171, 387, 467
V/STOL, 53, 59, 265 tandem, 17, 343
velocity, 90, 436 tapered, 127
velocity profile, 103, 104, 108, 111, 448 wing area, 33, 52, 58, 121, 156, 172,
viscosity, 64, 65, 90, 95, 102, 103 304, 338
dynamic, 65, 74, 104 wing loading, 268, 275, 291, 292, 302,
kinematic, 65, 104 309, 313, 360, 409, 472, 509
vortex, 98, 138, 143, 146 wing planform, 126, 127, 154, 356
bound, 143, 159, 160, 367 wing section, 29
delta, 170, 171 wing twist, 18, 153, 158, 357, 360, 473
free, 159 wing vertex, 154
horseshoe, 160 wing warping, 18
tip, 159, 163 winglet, 169, 178
trailing, 159, 161, 169, 243 wingspan, 126, 154, 156, 159, 167, 168,
vortex field, 243 176, 177, 270, 400
vortex theory, 146 Wright, Orville, 1, 18, 33, 129
VTOL, 53, 54 Wright, Wilbur, 1, 18, 129
wake, 90, 98, 100, 103, 105, 109, 111,
118, 122, 151, 365, 395, 396, yaw angle, 78, 336
401, 469, 475, 499, 500 yaw axis, 335, 406
weight, 52, 55 yaw damper, 391
empty, 55, 126, 300, 301, 518 yaw rate, 337, 388, 399
take-off, 268 yawing moment, 338
Wenham, F.H., 11, 12 Yeager, C., 431, 432
Flight Physics 535

Zahm, A.F., 363 zero-lift line, 136

Zeppelin, Count von, 36 zero-lift moment, 352, 359, 363
zero-lift angle, 136, 150, 158 zone of silence, 446, 458, 480
 Sources of figures

The following publishers/organizations have graciously granted permission

for the reproduction of figures:
• Airlife Publishing Ltd.: Figures 5.17a and 5.22a.
• Blackwell Science Ltd.: Figure 9.1a.
• Edward Arnold Publishing Co.: Figures 8.8a and 8.9.
• Flight International: Figures 1.27, 2.2, 2.4b, 5.24, 9.31d, 9.31e and
9.31f.
• Granada Publishing: Figures 4.29 and 9.10.
• G.T. Foulis & Co.Ltd.: Figures 2.9 and 9.44.
• Ian Allan Ltd.: Figures 9.31b.
• John Wiley & Sons. Inc.: Figures 3.21 and 5.36.
• Longman Scientific & Technical: Figures 5.19 and 9.32.
• Mc Graw Hill Book Company: Figure 5.1.
• Midland Publishing Ltd.: Figures 4.39, 9.1b and 9.31a.
• Nationaal Lucht- en Ruimtevaart Laboratorium: Figure 3.16.
• Phoebus Publishing Co.: Figures 8.1a and 8.1b.
• Pitman Publishing Ltd.: Figure 9.16.
• PJS Publications Inc.: Figure 8.14.
• Planes of Fame Publishers: Figure 7.21.
• Prentice Hall Inc.: Figures 5.2, 5.3b and 5.4.
• Rolls-Royce plc.: Figures 5.18, 5.20, 5.21, 5.22b, 5.26, 5.38b and 5.39.
• Science Museum, London: Figures 1.1, 1.3–1.9a, 1.10, 1.16, 1.21, 1.23
and 4.26.
• Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC: Figures 1.9b, 1.12 and 1.24.
• VDI-Verlag: Figures 1.2, 1.22, 2.4a, 4.27, 5.3a, 5.5–5.7, 5.33a, 7.8 and
7.10.
• Verlag Werner Dausien: Figures 1.13, 1.14, 1.18b, 1.19 and 1.20.

Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures
which have been reproduced from other sources. Anyone who has not been
properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that due acknowl-
edgement may be made in subsequent editions.