International Journal of Pavement Engineering

ISSN: 1029-8436 (Print) 1477-268X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gpav20

Evaluation of rutting potential for asphalt concrete

mixes containing copper slag

Hossam F. H. Abdelfattah, Khalid Al-Shamsi & Khalifa Al-Jabri

To cite this article: Hossam F. H. Abdelfattah, Khalid Al-Shamsi & Khalifa Al-Jabri (2016):
Evaluation of rutting potential for asphalt concrete mixes containing copper slag, International
Journal of Pavement Engineering, DOI: 10.1080/10298436.2016.1199875

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2016.1199875

Published online: 20 Jun 2016.

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 International Journal of Pavement Engineering, 2016
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2016.1199875

Evaluation of rutting potential for asphalt concrete mixes containing copper slag
Hossam F. H. Abdelfattah, Khalid Al-Shamsi and Khalifa Al-Jabri
Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Copper slag (CS) is a by-product of the copper extraction process, which can be used as coarse and/or fine Received 14 January 2016
aggregate in hot mix asphalt (HMA) pavements. This study used CS as a replacement of the fine aggregate Accepted 4 May 2016
with a percentage of up to 40% by total aggregate weight. The objective of this study was to evaluate the KEYWORDS
effect of CS on the rutting potential of the asphalt concrete mix using two methods. One method is based Asphalt concrete; copper
on the Dynamic modulus |E*| testing result. Actual pavement temperature data from a test section were slag; rut depth; dynamic
used with the developed |E*| master curves. EverStressFE finite element program was used to perform a modulus; M-E PDG; flow
linear elastic load-deformation analysis for a pavement section and to determine the vertical resilient strain number
in a 40-mm HMA surface layer. The M-E PDG permanent deformation model was used with and Excel Visual
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 22:58 23 June 2016

Basic for Applications code to predict the accumulated rutting for different CS mixes for 10 million ESALs.
The other method used the data from the flow number (FN) test. Based on the |E*| approach, the results
indicated that adding 5% CS in the mix increased the predicted rutting from 0.59 to 0.98 mm at 10 million
ESALs (increase by 68%). When 40% CS was used, rutting increased by more than 700% compared with the
control mix. After analysing the FN results with the Francken model, the results indicated a decrease in FN
as CS content is increased, indicating higher rutting potential. The decrease in FN ranged from 9% for 5%
CS to 95% for 40% CS. The mixes containing up to 10% CS satisfied the minimum FN criteria for rutting. A
calibration process for the M-E PDG distress prediction models that allows the use of waste and by-product
materials such as CS should be considered in the future.

1. Introduction reverberatory CS as conventional coarse and fine aggregate for HMA

Waste and by-product material generation is increasing world-
wide. Due to the disposal cost of these materials, there has been
an increased demand for recycling some of these materials in
applications such as highway pavements (FHWA 2012). However,
the use of these materials in pavements should not compromise
the expected performance of the pavement.
Slags are molten by-products of high-temperature ­processes,
and are primarily used to separate the metal and non-metal con-
stituents contained in the bulk ore. Copper slag (CS) c­ ontains
materials such as iron, aluminium, calcium oxide, silica and oth-
ers. Slag is discharged from the furnace at more than 1000 °C.
When it is cooled slowly, it forms a dense, hard crystalline prod-
uct, while quick solidification, by pouring the molten slag into
water, forms a granulated amorphous slag. Approximately 2.2
to 3 t are generated for every ton of production. As an asphalt
concrete material, there has been limited use of CS as fine or
coarse aggregate in the United States (RMRC 2012). In Oman,
approximately 60,000 t of granulated CS is produced every year.
Researchers have reported the use of CS in hot mix asphalt
(HMA) concrete. Fine CS has been used in HMA pavements in
California and granulated CS has been incorporated into asphalt
mixes in Georgia to improve stability. Although it is rarely used,
Michigan Department of Transportation Specifications consider
concrete (Gorai et al. 2003). Shahu et al. (2013) investigated the
use of CS, fly ash and dolime mix as a base course for flexible pave-
ments. The study evaluated the mixes using unconfined compressive
strength, triaxial and durability tests. The study recommended a
mix of 20% fly ash and 80% CS to be stabilised with 15% dolime
as the optimum mix in terms of unconfined compressive strength.
Huang et al. (2007) reviewed different waste materials for
use in asphalt pavements. Steel slag was recommended for
replacement of coarse aggregate, with one drawback. The high
specific gravity of the slag could lead to mix density, implying an
increase in transport cost. Ahmedzade and Sengoz (2009) used
steel slag as a coarse aggregate in HMA with AC-5 and AC-10
binders. Mechanical characteristics of all mixtures were evalu-
ated by Marshall stability, indirect tensile stiffness modulus, creep
stiffness and indirect tensile strength tests. The results indicated
improvement of the mechanical properties of asphalt mixtures.
The asphalt mixture performance tester performs three tests
for evaluation of rut resistance of the mix: the dynamic mod-
ulus (|E*|), the flow number (FN) and the flow time tests. The
dynamic modulus |E*| of HMA is one of the fundamental
inputs in the Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design Guide
(M-E PDG), developed under NCHRP Project 1-37A (NCHRP
2004) and published by AASHTO (AASHTO 2015). The M-E

CONTACT  Hossam F. H. Abdelfattah  hossam@squ.edu.om

© 2016 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
 2    H. F. H. Abdelfattah et al.

PDG (AASHTO 2015) uses a laboratory-derived relationship
to estimate the rate or accumulation of plastic deformation
using a repeated load permanent deformation triaxial test. The
relationship is adjusted to match rut depth measured on the
roadway through field calibration. |E*| expressed as complex
modulus master curve is used to estimate the vertical resil-
ient strain in the HMA layer. M-E PDG rut model estimates
the plastic axial strain based on the elastic strain (AASHTO 2015).
FN test is a variation of the repeated-load permanent defor-
mation test used by researchers in 1970s. It uses a haversine load
application of 600 kPa peak load for 0.1 s followed by 0.9 s rest
period. The permanent axial deformation is measured at the end
of the rest period and converted to strain by dividing it by the
original gauge length. The FN is defined as the load repetition
value when shear deformation in the asphalt layer, under con-
stant volume, starts. It is equivalent to the start of the tertiary flow
with the mix. This stage is preceded by primary and secondary
stages of the permanent deformation versus number of loading
cycles (Rodenzo 2010, Bonaquist 2013, FHWA 2013).
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 22:58 23 June 2016
results from both approaches were used to evaluate the rutting
potential for the CS mixes.
3.  Material properties and mix design
A 12.5-mm nominal maximum aggregate size (NMAS) blend
gradation was composed of four crushed limestone aggregate
sizes: 20, 10, 3–5, 0–3 mm, in addition to mineral filler. A pen-
etration grade 60/70 binder was used. Aggregate bulk specific
gravity was 2.812, 2.805, 2.795, 2.790 and 3.388 for the 20, 10,
3–5, 0–3 mm and CS, respectively. The filler apparent specific
gravity was 2.750. The chemical composition of aggregates and
CS is shown in Table 1. The main compounds in all aggregates are
Calcium and Magnesium Oxides in addition to Silicone Dioxide
in the mineral filler, while the main compounds in CS were Ferric
and Silicone Oxides.
CS was used as a replacement of the 0–3-mm size aggre-
gate with a percentage of 5, 10, 15, 20, 30 and 40%, by total
aggregate weight. The blend gradations for all six mixes in

The FN has been correlated with rutting resistance of mixtures
from various full-scale pavement tests. Recently, a tentative crite-
rion for FN has been developed under NCHRP Project 9-33 for an
average rut depth of 7 mm, corresponding to 95% reliability that
the rut depth will be less than 12 mm. The recommended mini-
mum FN requirement is presented as a function of the expected
ESALs, as part of the evaluation of the performance of asphalt
concrete mixes (NCHRP 2011, Bonaquist 2013, FHWA 2013, ).
2.  Objectives and scope
The objective of this study was to evaluate the rutting resist-
ance of asphalt mixes containing CS as a fine aggregate with
up to 40%, by total aggregate weight. The evaluation is based
on the results of two tests: the dynamic modulus and FN. The
|E*| approach uses the developed master curves together with
a linear elastic load-deformation analysis of a pavement section
to determine the vertical elastic strain in the asphalt concrete
layer. Actual pavement temperature records were used. An Excel
Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) code was written to per-
form the analysis using the M-E PDG performant deformation
model. In the other approach, daily air temperatures for Muscat
International Airport were analysed for 20  years, and the FN
tests were conducted at the resulting high Performance Grade
(PG) temperature according to AASHTO TP79. The analysed
addition to the control (0% CS) are shown in Figure 1 together
with the upper and lower limits of the gradation band for
Omani specification for dense wearing course class B (DGRLT
2010). Few sieves fell marginally outside the lower limits for
the 30 and 40% CS mixes. The mixes were designed accord-
ing to Marshall Mix design procedure (AASHTO T245).
Table 2 presents the mix design results and the standard lim-
its for Omani specification for dense wearing course class
B (DGRLT 2010), as well as the Asphalt Institute (AI 1995)
specifications for heavy traffic surface or base mix.
For all mixes, the optimum binder content was selected to
satisfy the maximum stability, and flow and air voids spec-
ification ranges. In case the air voids were higher than the
limits for different binder contents for a certain mix, then the
binder content producing the lowest air voids was selected.
The binder content ranged from 3.7 to 5.5%, by total mix
weight. Some criteria were not satisfied according to Oman
or AI specifications. Stability, for example, was not satisfied
for some mixes according to Oman specification for wearing
course. One the other hand, it was satisfied according to AI
criteria. AV% were slightly higher than AI limits for all mixes
except 30% CS. VMA was also lower than the AI minimum
value. However, it should be realised that the rutting predic-
tive capabilities of the Marshall criteria for mix performance
is questionable (FHWA 2013). Therefore, the objective of the

Table 1. Chemical composition of aggregate and CS.

Aggregate
Chemical compound 20 mm 10 mm 3–5 mm 0–3 mm Mineral filler CS
LOIa 44.19 43.41 44.58 44.12 23.64 –
CuO – – – – – 0.34
SiO2 4.06 6.47 2.51 3.31 27.79 33.93
Fe2O3 0.76 0.61 0.53 0.67 5.19 53.4
Al2O3 0.41 0.62 0.34 0.49 3.14 1.61
CaO 22.92 23.39 28.94 29.44 20.55 2.32
MgO 19.7 19.0 14.62 14.52 7.56 1.54
Na2O 6.39 5.89 7.18 6.87 5.81 3.29
K2O 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.47
Analysis (%) 98.46 99.43 98.72 99.44 93.65 96.56
a
Loss on ignition.
 International Journal of Pavement Engineering   3

100
90
80

Percentage passing
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.0 0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0
Sieve size, mm

Control 5% 10% 15% 20%

30% 40% UL LL

Figure 1. Aggregate blend gradation.

Table 2. Optimum asphalt content for different mixes and specifications.

Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 22:58 23 June 2016

Mix (CS%) Binder (%) Stability (kN) Flow (mm) BSGa AVb (%) VMAc (%) VFAd (%)
0% (control) 3.7 22.5 3.6 2.506 4.0 13.4 62
5% 3.8 16.9 3.2 2.512 5.5 14.3 63.2
10% 5.0 13.3 3.2 2.550 5.5 14.9 64.0
15% 5.5 10.6 3.6 2.538 5.6 16.4 65.5
20% 5.5 10.4 3.4 2.543 5.8 16.4 66.0
30% 5.5 8.5 2.7 2.567 6.8 17.8 62
40% 5.4 8.5 2.8 2.650 5.5 16.7 67.4
Spec.e 3.5 – 5.5 14, min 2 – 4 – 3.5 – 5.5 15, min 63 – 75
Spec.f – 8, min 2 – 3.5 – 3–5 Variableg 65 – 75
a
BSG = bulk specific gravity;
b
AV = air voids %;
c
VMA = voids in mineral aggregate %;
d
VFA = voids filled with bitumen %;
e
Oman wearing course class B;
f
Asphalt Institute wearing and base course, for heavy traffic;
g
(from 13 to 15% for AV% from 3 to 5%).

paper was to investigate and quantify the expected mix per-
formance in terms of rutting.
4.  Sample preparation
Samples were prepared to a target height of 160 mm according
to AASHTO T312 using the Superpave Gyratory Compactor.
Samples were prepared at the optimum binder contents shown in
Table 2 for different mixes. Mixing and compaction temperatures
were determined from the mid-value of the mixing and com-
paction viscosity range for the binder, and were found to be 157
and 144 °C, respectively. Samples were conditioned according to
AASHTO R30. After mixing, the loose mix was placed for 4 h of
conditioning at 135 °C. Afterwards, it was placed for 30 min at
the compaction temperature, then compacted.
To prepare a sample for testing, two small vertical cuts were
induced on two opposite sides on the outer perimeter of a
compacted sample. This allowed the sample to be inserted in a
three-sided wooden mould fabricated to hold the sample in place
during coring (Figure 2(a)). The mould is composed of three
parts joined together with four bolts. One part has a 150-mm
inner diameter. The other two opposite parts are straight with
adjustable distance between them to allow for small variations
in the thickness of the vertical cuts. The 101.6-mm samples were
extracted from the middle of the compacted samples using a
coring machine (Figure 2(a) and (b)). The ends of samples were
then trimmed using a concrete saw. The end smoothness and per-
pendicularity were verified in accordance with AASHTO TP62.
Two compaction trials were needed to reach the required air
voids (AV%) for the cored samples. The resulting air voids of the
101.6 mm (4 in) test samples were in the range of 7.1 to 7.5%.
Samples were placed inside an in-house fabricated environmen-
tal chamber to reach the testing temperature. A dummy sample
with a temperature probe placed vertically in the middle of the
sample was monitored with a data acquisition system. The test-
ing was initiated when the dummy sample reached the testing
temperature.
5.  Dynamic modulus
5.1. Testing
The dynamic modulus testing was conducted according to
AASHTO TP62 using an MTS 810 testing machine. Two sam-
ples were tested at 25, 30, 40, 50 and 60 °C. At each temperature,
the sample was tested at 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5, 10 and 16 Hz frequency. A
fixture different from the axial deformation system proposed in
AASHTO TP62 was manufactured and utilised (Figure 3). Two
2.0-mm range extensometers, with a maximum error of 0.29%
 4    H. F. H. Abdelfattah et al.

Figure 2. Test sample preparation: (a) coring the compacted sample inside the wooden mould; (b) cored sample and extra material.
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 22:58 23 June 2016

0 -1.142

Axial deformation (mm)

-1.144
-200
-1.146
Load (N) -400 -1.148
-1.15
-600
-1.152
-800 -1.154
-1.156
-1000
-1.158
-1200 -1.16
19 19.2 19.4 19.6 19.8 20 20.2
Time (s)
Load Axial Deformation

Figure 4. Load deformation for 20% CS mix at 60°C and 10 Hz frequency.

0.1 Hz to maintain a uniform number of sampling points. |E*|

Figure 3. Axial deformation fixture and extensometers mounted on the sample.
of the displacement reading, were used for vertical displacement
measurement. The extensometers were mounted between two
aluminium rings with 130-mm inner diameter and 20-mm thick-
ness. On each ring, two fixed strips, with 10-mm height, extend
from the rings to the surface of the sample. A third strip moves
with a tightening screw to be in contact with the sample surface.
The three strips are equidistant on the ring perimeter and are
manufactured with an inner surface diameter of 101.6 mm (4 in).
Three removable guiding rods connect the upper and lower rings
together at a gauge length of 101.6 mm (from the centre of the
strips), and provide alignment of the extensometer fixtures
parallel to the sample vertical axis. Once the rings are fixed on
the sample, the guiding rods are removed and the extensometers
are attached to the fixture on opposite sides of the sample.
master curves were developed from the average results for each
mix. Recorded pavement temperature data at 20-mm depth from
an instrumented test section were analysed. Reduced frequencies
were estimated for the mid-value for different groups of pave-
ment temperature range. A linear elastic finite element (FE) anal-
ysis was performed on a pavement section to estimate the vertical
elastic strain in the HMA layer. The M-E PDG permanent defor-
mation equation (AASHTO 2015) was used to predict the rut
depth in the HMA layer. It is to be noted that this equation was
developed and calibrated for conventional mixes. However, in the
absence of calibration for waste or by-product material such as
CS, the equation was used for comparative analysis between the
mixes containing different percentages of CS. The next sections
describe the process in more details.
5.2.1.  Dynamic modulus master curves
The average |E*| testing results were fitted to the M-E PDG mas-
ter curve equations (FHWA 2013):

log(Max) − log(Min)
5.2.  Results, analysis and discussion log|E ∗ | = log (Min) + (1)
1 + e𝛽+𝛾 log (𝜔r )
Figure 4 shows the testing result for load and average axial defor- ( )
mation for 20% CS mix at 60  °C and 10  Hz frequency. Data ΔEa 1 1
log(𝜔r ) = log (𝜔) + −
collection interval varied from 0.00048 s for 16 Hz to 0.1 s for 19.14714 T Tr (2)
 International Journal of Pavement Engineering   5

Table 3. |E*| Master curve fitting parameters for different CS mixes.

CS (%) 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 30% 40%
Max, ksi 3,390.95 3,348.80 3,321.24 3,251.61 3,254.07 3,163.08 3,245.76
Min, ksi 42.27 23.17 20.45 20.360 33.47 28.57 16.80
β –1.3298 –1.1996 –0.9799 –0.9589 –0.6579 –0.6204 –0.4714
γ –0.9438 –0.8808 –0.811 –0.7912 –0.8834 –0.8322 –0.7782
ΔEa 167,623.5 166,313.7 147,659.6 160,103.5 158,263.2 154,835.4 110,173.2
Adj. R2 0.950 0.961 0.957 0.951 0.962 0.955 0.955
Se/Sy 0.23 0.20 0.21 0.22 0.20 0.22 0.21

25,000

20,000
Fit |E*| (MPa)

15,000

10,000

5,000
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 22:58 23 June 2016

0
1.E-06 1.E-04 1.E-02 1.E+00 1.E+0 2 1.E+0 4 1.E+06
Reduced frequency (Hz.)
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 30% 40%

Figure 5. Dynamic modulus |E*| master curves at 25 °C reference temperature.

Table 4. Yearly average for the daily air temperature at Muscat Int’l Airport (20 years analysis period).

Yearly Average, °C
Statistic computed over 20-year period Daily high Daily mean Daily low
Max 34.1 29.1 25.0
Min 32.1 27.5 23.2
Avg 33.1 28.3 23.9
St. Dev 0.6 0.4 0.5
CV% 1.7 1.6 2.1

where, |E*| = dynamic modulus; ωr = reduced frequency in Hz;
Max = limiting maximum modulus in ksi; Min = limiting minimum
modulus in ksi; and β and γ = fitting parameters; ω = loading fre-
quency at test temperature; T and Tr are test and reference tempera-
tures in °K, respectively; ΔEa = activation energy (fitting parameter).
The maximum limiting |E*| was estimated from the mix
properties (VMA and VFA) using the Hirsh model (FHWA
2013). Sigmaplot statistical software (SigmaPlot 2006) was used
to perform the non-linear regression on |E*| results to produce
the master curves at a reference temperature of 25 °C. Table 3
shows the model fitting parameters for different mixes. The min-
imum value for adjusted R2 was 0.95, and that for the standard
error ratio (Se/Sy), i.e. ratio of standard error of estimate to the
standard deviation of logarithm of |E*| values, was 0.23. These
statistics are considered excellent goodness of fit (Rodenzo 2010).
Figure 5 shows the resulting master curves for different mixes.
The figure shows the increase in |E*| as the reduced frequency
increases. It also shows the gradual decrease in modulus with
the increase in CS content.
5.2.2.  Pavement temperature and reduced frequency
Pavement temperature data at a depth of 20 mm was available for
15-min intervals from a pavement monitoring station for a period
of approximately 2 years (75, 267 data points). However, the anal-
ysis period for rutting accumulation was 20 years. To indicate the
variability in temperature throughout a 20-year period of time,
the daily air temperature from Muscat International Airport was
analysed. The results of the yearly average for the daily high,
mean and low air temperatures estimated for a period of 20 years
are shown in Table 4. The results indicate a small variation in
the yearly averages for either of the high, mean, or low daily
air temperatures over the 20-year period, as indicated by the
small coefficient of variation (CV%). This analysis justified the
use of the available pavement data by repeating it every 75,267
15-­minute periods until the end of the analysis period.
The recorded data from the pavement monitoring station
(for approximately 2  years) indicated that the maximum and
minimum recorded HMA pavement temperature data at 20-mm
depth were 61.56 and 15.33 °C, respectively. To reduce the com-
putation effort, the pavement temperatures were grouped into
4 °C intervals starting with 12 to 16 °C interval and ending with
60 to 64  °C interval, resulting in 13 temperature groups. The
middle value of the group was used to represent each group. For
every mix with a different CS percentage, the mid-range value
for each of the 13 temperature groups was used to compute the
reduced frequency (ωr) using Equation (2), knowing the load
 6    H. F. H. Abdelfattah et al.

frequency (explained in next section). The reduced frequency

was then used to compute the modulus values from the master
curve for this particular mix for all temperature groups.

5.2.3.  FE modelling and analysis

An actual pavement cross section built on a road in Oman
consisting of 40-mm asphalt surface, 120 bituminous base,
350 mm of subbase, on top of subgrade was used for the ­analysis.
EverStressFE finite element (FE) software (2009), developed
for the Washington State DOT, was used to perform a load-­
deformation elastic analysis and estimate the vertical elastic
strain (εr) in the HMA surface layer at a depth of 20 mm. The
modulus of the 40-mm surface layer was kept variable as per |E*|
values. For the other layers, the material properties were assigned
to each layer as per the laboratory testing data from the road
project, and were kept constant in the analysis. The average CBR
for subgrade and subbase was 30 and 70%, respectively. Using
the AASHTO correlation charts (AASHTO 1993), these values
were converted to modulus values of 103, 131 MPa, respectively.
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 22:58 23 June 2016

The Marshall stability for the bituminous base was 7.1 kN, and
was converted to a modulus value of 2413 MPa.
The load was taken to be an 80 kN single axle with dual wheels,
with a wheel load of 20 kN, and a tire pressure of 827.4  kPa.
The tire spacing was taken to be 318 mm centre to centre with
a tire width of 280 mm. The wheel spacing, tire pressure, and
tire width were obtained from Part 2 of NCHRP 1-37A report
(NCHRP 2004).
Al-Qadi et al. 2008 recommended, based on a study of full-
size FE section (3 × 3 × 5 m), infinite boundary to be used at
least 900  mm from the center of the load and to a depth of
1100 mm to reduce the compressive stress in the subgrade to
less than 1%. They also cited the suggested infinite boundary
by Applied Research Associates Inc. (ARA 2004) to be between
760 to 1200 mm, which is considered close enough to the load
to maximise the benefit from using them without altering the
solution results.
Figure 6 shows the FE model with one half of one wheel
(shaded area). The section width was selected to represent one-
half of a 1.8-m axle, and as recommended by Al-Qadi et al. (2008)
and ARA (2004), the boundary conditions were modelled as
infinite using infinite elements on the two edges of the roadway
away from the two wheel loads comprising half the axle, i.e. at
Y = 0 and X = 900 mm, as well as the bottom of the subgrade.
The boundary at X = 0 and Y = 900 mm are lines of symmetry
for the model: halfway through the loading axle, and halfway
between the two tires on one side of the axle, respectively. The
total section depth was taken as 1010 mm with infinite elements
at the bottom of the subgrade. The model uses the symmetry to
reduce the computation time. In the X–Y plane, the model uses
6 elements in X and Y directions in the coarse mesh area (load-
ing area) and 12 elements in the fine mesh area. In the vertical
direction, six elements were used for the top two layers, and eight
for the subbase and subgrade. The interface condition between
layers was assumed as fully bonded.
For verification of the model results, the model was compared
with results from the well-known BISAR multilayer linear-elastic
program. A single circular load was used the verification purpose
in both programs, as it is the only tire imprint that BISAR can
handle. Thirteen runs were made for each program by varying the
Figure 6. Finite element model for the pavement section.
modulus of the HMA surface layer to the values ­corresponding
to the mid temperature values described in the previous section.
The runs were made for the 0% CS mix, and the vertical elastic
strain (εzz) under the wheel load at 20-mm depth in the HMA
layer was compared for both.
At 14 °C, the HMA layer modulus was 22,376 MPa, resulting
in low strain and a difference of 0.9 μstrain. On the other hand, at
62 °C, the HMA layer modulus was 4320 MPa, resulting in higher
strains with a difference of 3.3 μstrain between the two programs.
The coefficient of variation (COV) ranged from 12% down to 4%,
from the low strain end to the high strain end, respectively. These
values agree with the reported variability among using different
pavement analysis programs (ARA 2004), which reported 12%
COV for subgrade compressive strains and 15% for AC tensile
strains.
For the analysis, a speed of travel was assumed to be 96.6 km/h.
The travel speed was converted to time of load at a depth of
20 mm into the pavement using the formula used by NCHRP
1-37A (Al-Qadi and Elseifi 2008):
Leff
t= (3)
17.6 V
Where, Leff is the effective length over which the load is spread
(in), and V is the vehicle speed (mph). Leff was computed to be
126.3 mm (4.97 in) based on a tire length of 86.3 mm (3.4 in),
as computed from a rectangular tire imprint area and tire width.
The frequency (ω) was estimated as the inverse of time of loading
as used in the M-E PDG (Al-Qadi and Elseifi 2008).
A total of 13 runs of the program, based on the temperature
groups, were performed for each of the 7 mixes. The elastic strain
at 20-mm depth in the HMA surface layer was obtained from the
FE analysis under the centre of one of the wheel loads on either
side the 80 kN axle, as shown in Figure 7. The results indicate

400
Vertical Elastic Strain in HMA layer
350
300
250
(ε r, microstrain)
200
150
100
50
0
10
0%
Figure 7. Vertical elastic strain for the HMA layer at the mid-group temperature value for different mixes.
an increase in vertical resilient strain in the HMA surface layer
as the temperature increases. At 62 °C, the strain increased by
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 22:58 23 June 2016
68, 151, 158%, as CS content increased to 5, 10, and 15%, as
compared with the control mix, respectively. With the increase
in CS to 20, 30 and 40%, the strain increased by 261, 311 and
624%, compared with the control mix, respectively. A noticeable
increase occurs between 15 and 20% slag. The strain at 40% CS
is approximately 1.8 times that at 30%.
5.2.4.  Rut depth results
A total repetition of 10 million ESALs was assumed to be uni-
formly distributed over a 20-year analysis period resulting in
14.27 ESALs for every 15 min. An Excel VBA code was written
to estimate the accumulated plastic strain at 20-mm depth in the
HMA surface layer based on the 15-min pavement temperature
data. The code would allocate each pavement temperature in one
of the thirteen 4 °C groups, and calculate the accumulated plastic
strain for this temperature value from the field-calibrated model
in M-E PDG, Equations (4) to (7) (AASHTO 2015):
𝜀p(HMA)
= 𝛽1r kz ∗ 10−3.35412 ∗ n0.4791𝛽2r ∗ T 1.5606𝛽3r
𝜀r(HMA)
( )
kz = C1 + C2 ∗ D ∗ 0.328196D
C1 = −0.1039 ∗ (HHMA )2 + 2.4868 ∗ HHMA − 17.342 (6)
2
C2 = 0.0172 ∗ (HHMA ) − 1.7331 ∗ HHMA + 27.428
Where εp(HMA)  =  accumulated permanent plastic strain in the
HMA layer, in.; εr(HMA) = resilient elastic strain calculated from
the linear elastic load-deformation analysis in this study, in.;
n = number of axle-load repetitions; T = pavement temperature,
°F; kz = depth confinement factor; D = depth below the surface,
in.; and HHMA = total HMA thickness, in; β1r, β2r and β3r are local
calibration parameters, set to 1.0 for global calibration.
The M-E PDG rut model computes the accumulated plastic
strain in the HMA layer based on the resilient strain, temper-
ature and number of load repetitions at that temperature. The
calibration parameters β1r, β2r and β3r were set to 1.0, as for global
International Journal of Pavement Engineering   7
14 18 22 26 30 34 38 42 46 50 54 58 62 66
HMA layer temperature (oC)
5% 10% 15% 20% 30% 40%
(national) calibration. These parameters allow for local (state)
calibration for different local conditions.
The program iterates one iteration for every 15-min temper-
ature and 14.27 ESALs, and continues for a total of 700,800 iter-
ations (20 years). The concept of strain hardening implemented
in M-E PDG (AASHTO 2015) was applied to estimate the equiv-
alent number of repetitions each time the temperature shifted
from one of the temperature groups to another in successive iter-
ations. This was done because the model shown in Equations (4)
to (7) estimates the accumulated permanent strain for a number
of repetitions at a given temperature.
After each iteration, the rut depth in the HMA surface layer
was calculated as the accumulated permanent strain multiplied
by the layer thickness of 40 mm. The resulting rut depth for the
HMA surface layer for different CS mixes is shown in Figure 8.
Table 5 shows the rut depth values at 3 and 10 million ESALs
for different CS mixes. The percentage increase in rut depth, as
compared with the control mix, is also shown. It is to be noted
that, based on the permanent deformation model, this percent-
age is the same at both ESALs. Rut depth increased, compared
with the control mix, by 68% for the 5% CS mix and by more
(4) than 700% for the 40% CS mix. The results agree with the rel-
ative values of resilient axial strain; a significant increase in rut
depth was noticed between 15 and 20%. Similarly to the elastic
strain results, the rut depth at 40% was approximately 1.8 times
(5)
that at 30%.
6.  Flow number
(7)
6.1. Testing
The FN test was performed on two samples according to
AASHTO TP79 using the MTS 810 system. The load was applied
for 0.1 s every 1.0 s. A seating load of 235.6 N producing 30 kPa
was applied and the repeated axial load was applied producing
4712.4  N load (600  kPa axial stress). The test was conducted
at the high adjusted PG temperature, which is based on rut-
ting damage. The transfer function developed by Mohseni and
Carpenter (2005) for 50% reliability was used to determine the
high adjusted PG temperature (LTPPBind 2005):
PGd = 48.2 + 14DD − 0.96DD2 −2RD (8)
 8    H. F. H. Abdelfattah et al.

5
4.5
4
3.5

Rut depth (mm)

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000
ESALs (x 1000)
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 30% 40%

Figure 8. Rut depth accumulation for different CS mixes.

Table 5. Rut depth development for different CS mixes.

Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 22:58 23 June 2016

Rut depth (mm)

CS % in the mix (by total aggregate weight) 3 million ESALs 10 million ESALs Increasea in %
0 0.33 0.59 0
5 0.55 0.98 68
10 0.87 1.56 166
15 0.92 1.64 180
20 1.27 2.26 286
30 1.51 2.69 358
40 2.72 4.83 724
a
compared with the control mix.

0 -5.2
-500 -5.3

Axial deformation, mm
-1000
-5.4
-1500
Axial load, N

-2000 -5.5
-2500 -5.6
-3000 -5.7
-3500
-5.8
-4000
-4500 -5.9
-5000 -6
37 38 39 40 41 42
Load time, s
Load Deformation

Figure 9. Sample axial load and deformation for 0% CS.

where, PGd = PG Damage at a Rut Depth; DD = 20-Year Degree-
Days >10 °C (×1000 °C); and RD = Rut Depth (5–13 mm).
The mean daily air temperature for a period of 20  years
was obtained from the weather station at Muscat International
Airport. The data were used to compute the degree days above
10 °C. The average 20-year degree days was found to be 6669 °C
with a standard deviation of 161 °C. AASHTO TP79 requires a
target rut depth of 12.5 mm, and a reliability of 50%. This resulted
in a damage-based PG at 50% reliability (PGd) of 73.9 °C. LTPP
pavement temperature algorithms (LTPPBind 2005) was used
to adjust the selected PG for a 20-mm depth into the pavement,
resulting in a testing temperature of 71.5 °C.
Figure 9 shows a sample testing result of the vertical
c­ ompressive load and axial deformation for one of the sam-
ples containing 0% CS. The data sampling period was 0.01 s.
The zero deformation was considered as the start of the first
load pulse. The permanent strain (εp) is computed as the dif-
ference between the end deformation in the 0.9 s unload-
ing period and the zero deformation, divided by the sample
height. Figure 10 shows the resulting permanent axial stain
versus the number of loading cycles for one of the 10% CS
samples. The figure clearly shows the three stages of cumu-
lative permanent strain versus loading cycles, i.e. primary,
secondary and tertiary zones.
 International Journal of Pavement Engineering   9

0.06 1.50E-03

1.30E-03
0.05

Permanent strain rate, per cycle

1.10E-03

Permanent strain (εp)

0.04
9.00E-04

0.03 7.00E-04

5.00E-04
0.02
3.00E-04
0.01
1.00E-04
FN = 117
0 -1.00E-04
0 50 100 150 200 250
Cycle
Permanent strain Permanent strain rate

Figure 10. Permanent axial strain and strain rate versus number of cycles for 10% CS.
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 22:58 23 June 2016

Table 6 Francken model fitting and nonlinear regression parameters.

CS %, and sample number A B C D Adj. R2 Se/Sy
0%-1 8.84E-04 0.6838 1.33E-06 0.0514 0.997 0.04
5%-1 1.56E-03 0.5235 3.89E-06 0.0228 0.993 0.09
10%-1 1.15E-03 0.5914 1.25E-05 0.0336 0.997 0.06
15%-1 5.46E-03 0.4837 2.43E-05 0.1172 0.997 0.05
20%-2 4.69E-03 0.5157 4.61E-05 0.1095 0.997 0.04
30%-2 3.63E-03 0.6975 8.81E-05 0.2390 0.999 0.02
40%-2 2.19E-03 0.7425 2.07E-05 0.2427 0.999 0.02

200
180 10 to <30million ESAL FN = 181.91e-0.086 (CS%)
160 R² = 0.886
Flow number (FN)

140
120
100
80
3 to <10 million ESAL
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Copper slag, %

Figure 11. FN for different percentage of CS at 71.5 °C.

6.2.  Analysis and discussion of results
For computing the FN value, the Francken model was fit to the
permanent strain data versus number of cycles (AASHTO TP79):
( )
𝜀p = AnB + C eDn − 1 (9)
where, A, B, C and D are the fitting parameters of the model
which is a composite model combining a power model to char-
acterise the primary and secondary stages, and an exponential
model fitting the tertiary stage (Rodenzo 2010).
Table 6 shows the non-linear regression parameters, the
adjusted R2, and the standard error ratio (Se/Sy) for one sam-
ple from each mix, for conciseness. The minimum value for
adjusted R2 was 0.992, and the maximum value for the stand-
ard error ratio was 0.09. The obtained results for all samples
indicated excellent goodness of fit, in addition to satisfying
the precision statement in AASHTO TP79 for the range of
values for a 12.5 NMAS.
The first derivative or permanent strain rate per cycle
(dεp/dn) for a 10% CS sample is also shown in Figure 10. FN
 10    H. F. H. Abdelfattah et al.
was determined at the point where the first derivative is mini-
mum or the second derivative changes from negative to positive.
FN was found to be 117 for the sample in Figure 10. Similarly,
FN was computed for all other samples. Figure 11 shows the
average FN for different percentages of CS. The figure shows a
decreasing trend for FN with the increase in CS content. A trend
equation for the relation between the percentage of copper slag
(CS%) and FN is shown in the figure with an adjusted R2 of
0.886. FN is an indicator of the rut resistance of the mix. Lower
FN indicates a lower resistance to rutting. With the increase in
CS content, the FN decreasing trend agrees with the increase
in rut depth, as predicted by the M-E PDG rut model. At 10%
copper slag, FN decreased by 40% compared with the control
mix. A significant drop in FN occurred from 10 to 15% CS by
another 47%, compared with the control mix. The decrease, as
compared with the control mix, ranged from 85 to 95% for 20,
30 and 40% CS mixes. The minimum recommended FN criteria
for different ESALs (AASHTO TP79) are shown as solid lines in
Figure 11. Based on these results, mixes containing up to 10%
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 22:58 23 June 2016
CS satisfy the minimum requirement criteria to resist rutting for
3 to 10 million ESALs.
7. Conclusions
The main objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of
CS aggregate on the rutting potential of HMA surface layer. CS
was used to replace the fine aggregate with a percentage of up
to 40%, by total aggregate weight. The evaluation of the mix
performance was based on the results of the dynamic modulus
and the FN tests.
The use of CS reduced the dynamic modulus |E*| values. The
linear elastic load deformation analysis indicated progressive
increase in vertical resilient strain in the HMA surface layer. In
the analysed pavement section, the HMA surface layer vertical
strain increased by 68% when 5% CS was used in the mix. The
strain increased by more than 600% when 40% CS was used. A
noticeable increase in strain occurred when CS increased from
15 to 20%. The strain at 40% CS was approximately 1.8 times
that at 30%.
The results of the rutting analysis predicted by the M-E PDG
permanent deformation model agreed with the relative values of
resilient axial strain. Rutting increased progressively as CS con-
tent was increased. A noticeable increase in rut depth was noticed
between 15 and 20% CS content. The predicted rut increased
from 0.59 to 0.98 mm over 10 million ESALs (increase by 68%)
for 5% CS and by more than 700% for 40% CS. Similarly, to the
resilient strain results, the rut depth at 40% was approximately
1.8 times that at 30%.
The average 20-year degree-days above 10  °C for Muscat
Airport was found to be 6669  °C. For a target rut depth of
12.5 mm, and a reliability of 50%, this resulted in a damage-based
high PG temperature of 73.9 °C. The FN results were fit to the
Francken model with excellent goodness of fit. The FN results
were shown to decrease as CS content was increased in the mix.
The decrease in FN ranged from 9% for 5% CS to 95% for 40% CS
content. A significant decrease in FN occurred when CS content
was increased from 10 to 15%. The mixes containing up to 10%
CS satisfied the rutting criteria for 3 to 10 million ESALs.
Field studies in the form of test sections for CS mixes are
recommended to provide field validation of the findings. In the
absence of calibration parameters in the M-E PDG permanent
deformation model for waste and by-product material such as CS,
and despite its general agreement with experimental results of this
study, predicted rut depth may be refined if a calibration process,
that incorporates test data of waste and by-product materials sim-
ilar to those developed in this research, is considered in the future.
Funding
This work was supported by Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) through the
Internal Grant Program, project [IG/ENG/CAED/11/04].
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