International Journal of Pavement Engineering

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Laboratory investigation of RAP for various layers

of flexible and concrete pavement

Surender Singh, Kumari Monu & G. D. Ransinchung R. N.

To cite this article: Surender Singh, Kumari Monu & G. D. Ransinchung R. N. (2020) Laboratory
investigation of RAP for various layers of flexible and concrete pavement, International Journal
of Pavement Engineering, 21:14, 1780-1793, DOI: 10.1080/10298436.2019.1567920

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PAVEMENT ENGINEERING
2020, VOL. 21, NO. 14, 1780–1793
https://doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2019.1567920

Laboratory investigation of RAP for various layers of flexible and concrete pavement
Surender Singh , Kumari Monu and G. D. Ransinchung R. N.
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The present study investigates the potential of RAP for various layers of flexible and concrete pavements. Received 30 April 2018
Natural aggregates were replaced in different proportions by the coarse RAP and fine RAP, for Accepted 7 January 2019
preparations of granular subbase, wet mix Macadam, dry lean concrete, dense bituminous Macadam
KEYWORDS
and Plain concrete mixes. Utilisation of both fractions of RAP resulted in reductions in the optimum RAP; subbase; base; wearing
moisture content (OMC) and maximum dry density of granular subbase and wet mix Macadam mixes, course; concrete; bituminous
whereas, incorporation of the same was found to increase the OMC of dry lean concrete mixes.
Incorporation of coarse RAP doesn’t affect much the engineering properties of base and subbase layers
in comparison to fine RAP. Improving the gradation of fine RAP was found to increase its suitability in
all the considered mixes. Similarly, utilisation of coarse RAP was found to improve the workability of
concrete mixes, however, significant reductions in strength properties were noted. It was observed that
as the strength requirement of layer increases, the negative impact of RAP on strength properties also
increases linearly, suggesting incorporating a higher fraction of RAP in lower layers and a lower usage
of the same for wearing course of the pavement.

1. Introduction
Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) is the waste obtained
during the rehabilitation and reconstruction of an existing
flexible pavement (Ransinchung et al. 2016). Millions of tons
of RAP are reported to be generated each year which needs
to be managed effectively (Yu et al. 2017). Re-use of this
waste in asphalt mixtures can be a good alternative to the virgin
aggregates, as this would not only lowers the total cost but
would be environmentally friendly too (Tran et al. 2016, Shi
et al. 2018a, 2018b, Kumari et al. 2018). The main advantage
of recycling of asphalt is the reduction in energy consumption.
Thenoux et al. (2007) reported that recycling using foamed
bitumen may reduce the total energy consumption by more
than 20% and 200% as compared to that of overlay and recon-
struction project, respectively. Moreover, if the nearest borrow
pit is more than 200 km away, the total energy consumption for
an overlay project and reconstruction project would be 300%
and 60% higher than that of recycling of existing asphalt pave-
ment. Similarly, Liu et al. (2017) reported that recycling of
asphalt may provide with energy savings, economic payoff,
and conservation of natural resources. On the spot utilisation
of RAP in cement concrete pavements would not only curtail
the transportation cost but also reduces the burden on the exist-
ing landfill facilities (Singh et al. 2018a). The main problem
related to usage of RAP in unbound granular and cement con-
crete mixes is the presence of asphalt coating around its surface
(Singh et al. 2018b), however, the presence of the same is con-
sidered to be favourable for bound courses of the flexible pave-
ment (Fakhri and Ahmadi 2017). Several studies have been
conducted affirming the asphalt coating as the main factor low-
ering the mechanical properties of aggregates and thus
degrades the properties of different layers of pavement (Som-
mer 1994, Wojakowski 1998, Brand et al. 2014, Singh et al.
2017a, 2017b).
Taha et al. (1999) evaluated the potential of RAP in base and
subbase course of the flexible pavement. It was observed that as
the proportion of RAP increases from 20% to 100%, the maxi-
mum dry density (MDD) decreases linearly. A similar effect
was noted on the California bearing ratio (CBR) values. It
was observed that none of the mixes could achieve the mini-
mum recommended CBR (80%) to be used as a base course
of the pavement. Based on the CBR values, it was suggested
to utilise RAP in a proportion of less than 60% in constructions
of subbase layer of the pavement, whereas, this proportion was
limited to 10% for base courses. In another study, Taha (2003)
made an attempt to increase the proportion of RAP for the base
course of the pavement by using cement kiln dust as an addi-
tive. Improvement in terms of MDD value was observed
when the cement kiln dust was added into the RAP mixtures.
100% incorporation of RAP in base course of the pavement is
possible if used in conjunction with Portland cement (Taha
et al. 2002). This would not only increase the potential of
RAP but would also be economical in comparison to the con-
ventional base course mixes without cement (Taha et al. 2002).
Adresi et al. (2017) observed that the optimum content of Port-
land cement for RAP mixes could be between 3–5%. A higher
fraction of cement, beyond 5%, could also be used, however,
would have a lesser beneficial effect on the properties of RAP
mixes than by utilising cement content in a proportion of less
than 5% (Adresi et al. 2017). Trzebiatowski and Benson
(2005) found that the utilisation of RAP in base course of the

CONTACT G. D. Ransinchung R. N. gdranfce@iitr.ac.in; gdranjan@gmail.com

© 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

pavement would not only conserve the conventional aggregates
but would also facilitate better-drainage properties. Sayed et al.
(1993) found that the MDD values of RAP inclusive GSB mixes
were comparable to the conventional mixes; however,
reductions in OMC value were noted.
Numerous studies have already been conducted on the part
replacement of natural aggregates by RAP in the construction
of bituminous mixtures (Daniel and Lachance 2005, Zhao
et al. 2012, Zaumanis et al. 2013, Cong et al. 2016). From
the studies conducted, it was observed that as the proportion
of RAP increases, the properties of bituminous mixtures
decreases. This was attributed to the presence of stiffened
asphalt film around the RAP aggregates (Cong et al. 2016).
Moreover, gap graded nature of fine RAP is also held respon-
sible for lowering the properties of bituminous mixtures
(Singh et al. 2018b). Utilisation of RAP with stiffened asphalt
film was found to enhance the Marshall Stability of the bitu-
minous mixtures; however, other performance-related prop-
erties were found to be compromised (Cong et al. 2016). A
similar trend in the air voids was observed with the increase
in RAP content in bituminous mixtures. It was found that
as the proportion of RAP increases, voids filled with asphalt
(VFA) and voids in mineral aggregates (VMA) tends to
increase linearly (Daniel and Lachance 2005). Fine RAP was
found coarser and of gap-graded in nature and as a result of
which air void was found to be on the higher side of the rec-
ommended limits (Singh et al. 2018b). This analysis indicates
the possibility to compromise with the performance-related
properties of the mixtures. The aforesaid issue can be rectified
by modifying the gradations of fine RAP aggregates, as has
been noted in the present study. However, the main problem
lies with the brittleness of the asphalt film. Rejuvenation of the
asphalt film is considered to be the only solution to increase
the percentage of RAP for bound courses of the pavement.
Rejuvenation of the RAP can be done either by using certain
rejuvenators such as vegetable oils, waste engine oils or by
using softer grade binder (Silva et al. 2012, Zaumanis et al.
2013). Asphalt Institute MS-2 guidelines (2014) recommends
inclusion of one grade softer binder for the bituminous mix-
tures containing RAP up to 25% whereas, for the mixtures
containing RAP more than 25%, two grade softer binder is
recommended.
Many studies have been conducted on the utilisation of RAP
for wearing course of rigid pavements (Huang et al. 2005, 2006,
Al-Oraimi et al. 2009, Mathias et al. 2009, Berry et al. 2015,
Brand and Roesler 2015a, 2015b, Mohti et al. 2016, Shi et al.
2017, Singh et al. 2017a, 2017b, 2017c, Singh et al. 2018a). In
all these studies, the main emphasis was given on part replace-
ment of coarse natural aggregates by coarse RAP. Whereas,
studies pertaining to the effect of fine RAP on properties of
Plain cement concrete (PCC) remains scanty owing to its coar-
seness and gap-graded nature (Huang et al. 2005, 2006, Singh
et al. 2018a, 2018b, 2018c). In all of the above studies, it was
found that as the proportion of RAP increases, the mechanical
as well as durability properties of PCC decreases. This was
owing to the presence of asphalt film around the RAP aggre-
gates which provided hindrance in the formation of bonding
between aggregates surface and cement mortar matrix. On
the basis of the mechanical properties of cement concrete
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PAVEMENT ENGINEERING 1781
mixes, it was recommended to utilise RAP in other highway
application (Hassan et al. 2000). However, few studies support
the utilisation of coarse RAP up to 50% in the surface course of
concrete pavements (Brand and Roesler 2015b, Shi et al. 2018a,
Singh et al. 2018c).
1.1. Research significance
Several studies have been conducted on the utilisation of coarse
and fine RAP in various layers of pavement. However, the effect
of single-sourced RAP on the fresh and hardened properties of
different layers has not been investigated in detail. An effort has
been made to investigate the worst effect of RAP on properties
of different layers by utilising RAP milled from 2.5 years old
pavement. The present study investigates the feasibility of
coarse and fine fraction of RAP in granular subbase (upper/
lower subbase course), wet mix Macadam (base course for
flexible pavement), dry lean concrete (subbase for concrete
pavement), and Plain cement concrete (wearing course for
rigid) layers of a typical highway. Moreover, an effort has
been made to utilise 100% RAP for dense bituminous Maca-
dam, which is generally used as a bound base course of flexible
pavement. Basic requirements as stipulated by Ministry of Road
Transport and Highways (MORTH 2013) specifications such as
aggregates properties, CBR (both soaked and un-soaked), com-
pressive strength, modulus of rupture, permeability coefficient
and volumetric properties of different layers were evaluated
in the present study.
2. Materials and mix design
In the present study, an attempt has been made to evaluate the
potential of different fractions of RAP for partially/fully repla-
cing the natural conventional coarse & fine aggregates for con-
structions of various highway layers via laboratory
experiments. The type & the proportion of RAP that satisfied
the minimum stipulated limits of MORTH (2013) specifica-
tions has been reported as the optimum RAP fraction &
proportion.
RAP was collected from a section of National Highway 58
situated in the state of Uttarakhand, India. The stated section
was reconstructed 2.5 years back and recently milled-off up to
the base course for the widening purpose (construction of
median strip). The RAP material after reclamation was
directly brought to the laboratory to avoid the effect of oxi-
dation on the asphalt coating around the aggregates (no stock-
piling). Oxidation of RAP during service and stockpiling
results in stiffening of the asphalt coating (Widyatmoko
2008, De Lira et al. 2015). The stiffening of asphalt film
around the RAP may be considered as beneficial for the
unbound granular mixes and cement concrete mixes (Brand
et al. 2017a, 2017b, Singh et al. 2018b). However, to evaluate
the worst effect of RAP on the properties of Granular subbase
(GSB), Wet Mix Macadam (WMM), Dry Lean Concrete
(DLC), and Plain Cement Concrete (PCC) mixes, relatively
lesser oxidised RAP were considered in the present study.
Contrary, utilisation of this RAP may be considered as a
favourable condition for Dense Bituminous Macadam
(DBM) owing to the presence of less stiffened asphalt coating
1782 S. SINGH ET AL.
and therefore an attempt was made to utilise the RAP aggre-
gates completely for preparation of DBM mixtures. The RAP
aggregates were fractionated into coarse RAP (CR) and fine
RAP (FR) by screening through 4.75 mm Indian Standard
(IS) sieve. In the case of DBM mixtures, the RAP was used
in the as-received state. Two different maximum sized
(26.5 mm & 16 mm) natural coarse aggregates (NAC) and
natural fine aggregates (NAF) were procured from local vicin-
ity. The considered natural coarse aggregates were crushed
sandstone, whereas, natural fine aggregates were obtained
from River Ganges. The particle size distribution of the con-
sidered aggregates in the as-received state is being depicted
in Figure 1. The gradation of coarse fractions of aggregates
Figure 1. Particle size distribution of considered aggregates.
Figure 2. Blending of considered aggregates for GSB mixes.
(NAC-16 mm and CR) was found to be similar in nature,
whereas, completely distinct gradation was observed for the
finer fractions. It is also worth noting that FR aggregates
were found deficient in finer fractions (<0.425 mm) and this
may be attributed to the conglomeration effect (small sized
fraction adhering to coarser fraction).
2.1. Granular subbase (GSB)
The job mix formulation for GSB was carried out in accord-
ance with MORTH cl. 400 (2013) specifications. The ratio of
coarse aggregates to fine aggregates (0.6:0.4) was selected
based on the grading zone II of MORTH (2013). The

considered ratio of natural coarse aggregates (26.5 mm:
16 mm) to satisfy the gradation curve of zone II was 0.22:
0.78. The combined gradation (Job Mix Formula) envelope
for GSB mixes is being depicted in Figure 2. It can be seen
in Figure 2, that except 50FR’ and 100FR’ (fine RAP in as
received state), rest of the combinations are satisfying the
maximum and minimum limits as specified in MORTH
(2013). The reason for not conforming to the specified limits
of the grading is the coarser and gap-graded nature of fine
RAP. Therefore, to satisfy the gradation (zone II) curve for
GSB mixes, mechanical stabilisation of FR’ mixes was carried
out by introducing natural fines (NAF) in a proportion of
around 39%. As a result of the introduction of natural aggre-
gates, viz. 26.5 mm & NAF in RAP mixes, the percentage of
RAP in 100R (mix containing 100% CR & FR) mix reduced
to around 72% only. Similarly, the proportion of RAP aggre-
gates in 50CR, 100CR, 50FR, 100FR & 50R was 23.5%, 47%,
12.2%, 24.4% & 35.7%, respectively.
2.2. Wet mix Macadam (WMM)
The job mix formulation of WMM mixes was carried out in
accordance with MORTH cl. 406 (2013) specification (Figure
3). As in the case of GSB mixes, natural coarse aggregates of
maximum size 26.5 mm were included in all considered
mixes in a proportion of ∼35% to satisfy the MORTH (2013)
gradation limits for WMM mixes. Similarly, fine RAP inclusive
WMM mixes (FR’ mixes) were also found to violate the
specified limits due to its coarseness and gap-graded nature
and hence, mechanical stabilisation technique was employed
by adding NAF passing 0.425 mm IS sieve into the fine RAP
mixes to improve its gradation. The resultant proportion for
the control mix (NAC 26.5: NAC 16: NAF) was observed to
around 0.35: 0.35: 0.30, whereas for 100R mix, the resultant
proportion was 0.35: 0.35: 0.10: 0.20 (NAC 26.5: CR: NAF:
Figure 3. Blending of considered aggregates for WMM mixes.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PAVEMENT ENGINEERING 1783
FR), i.e. the proportion of RAP in 100R mix is around 55%
only. Similarly, 50CR, 100CR, 50FR, 100FR & 50R mixes con-
stitutes only 17.5%, 35%, 10%, 20% & 27.5%, RAP aggregates,
respectively.
2.3. Dense bituminous Macadam (DBM)
Unlike other considered mixes, wherein RAP was fractioned
into coarse and fine, RAP was utilised in the as-received
state for DBM mixtures. The particles size distribution of
RAP before (black curve) and after asphalt extraction (white
curve) is being depicted in Figure 4. Based on the white
curve of the grading (after asphalt extraction), extra amount
of natural aggregates (41%) was introduced into the mixture
so as to make the resultant gradation to fall within the stipu-
lated limits of MORTH (2013) (Figure 4). The asphalt
demand of resultant mixture was ascertained in accordance
with Asphalt Institute MS-2 guidelines (2014) and perform-
ance grade PG 64-16 (Viscosity grade VG-10) binder was
introduced into the mixture.
2.4. Dry lean concrete (DLC) and plain cement concrete
(PCC)
Unlike GSB and WMM mixes, wherein the coarse RAP used
was in the as-received state, the aggregates used for DLC and
PCC mixes were screened through 16 mm IS sieve to eliminate
the large concentration of agglomerated particles (Singh et al.
2017a). Ordinary Portland cement grade 43 confirming to IS:
8112 (1989) was employed for the DLC and PCC mixes. The
specific gravity of considered cement was 3.15. The initial
and final setting time of cement was found to be 54 and
311 min, respectively.
The mix design for DLC mixes was carried out in accord-
ance with IRC: SP: 49 (2014). Based on the literature (Huang
1784 S. SINGH ET AL.

Figure 4. Blending of considered aggregates for DBM mixes.

Table 1. Mix proportion of the considered DLC mixes. 3. Laboratory tests

Natural Natural
Coarse 26.5 Coarse Natural Coarse 3.1. Granular subbase and wet mix Macadam
Mix mm 16mm Fine RAP Cement Water
Control 270 846 684 0 150 118.9
The optimum moisture content (OMC) and maximum dry
50CR 270 423 684 423 150 138.5 density (MDD) of the granular subbase (GSB) and wet mix
100CR 270 0 684 846 150 154.1 Macadam (WMM) mixes were ascertained by adopting the
Note: All calculations are in kg/m3. procedure of heavy/modified compaction test (ASTM D1557
(2012)). The diameter of the mold used for determination of
Table 2. Mix proportion of the considered PCC mixes.
OMC and MDD was 152.4 mm. For determination of OMC
Mix Natural Coarse Natural Fine Coarse RAP Cement Water
and MDD, the coarse and fine aggregates were mixed in
Control 1120 735 0 425 161.5
required proportions (falling within the gradation limits of
50CR 560 735 560 425 161.5 MORTH specification). The mold was filled with 5 equal layers
100CR 0 735 1120 425 161.5 of GSB and WMM material, each layer was compacted by giv-
Note: All calculations are in kg/m3. ing 56 numbers of blows with the help of 4.54 kg hammer. The
height of the free fall of the hammer was 457 mm.
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test was conducted on the
et al. 2005, 2006, Al-Oraimi et al. 2009, Mathias et al. 2009, prepared specimens in both soaked and un-soaked condition
Berry et al. 2015, Brand and Roesler 2015a, 2015b, Singh in accordance with ASTM D1883 (2016). Six numbers of speci-
et al. 2017a, 2017b, 2017c, Mohti et al. 2016, Shi et al. 2017, mens were prepared for each mix wherein three were tested just
Singh et al. 2018a), it was decided to consider only the coarse after preparation and the remaining specimens were tested after
fraction of RAP for cement concrete and dry lean concrete 4 days water soaking. For determination of the coefficient of
mixes. The aggregate to cement ratio (12:1) was kept constant permeability of the GSB mixes, specimens of size 100 mm
for all the considered mixes. As similar to GSB & WMM mixes, (diameter) and 127.3 mm (height) were cast and tested in
NAC-26.5 mm (∼15%) was used in all the considered mixes to accordance with IS: 2720-17 (1986). To enhance the reproduci-
meet the stipulated gradation requirement of DLC, as pre- bility and the validity of the considered study, three replicate
scribed by IRC: SP: 49 (2014) and due to which, the proportion specimens for an individual mixture were cast & tested and
of RAP in 50CR & 100CR mixes was restricted to 23.5% & 47%, the average value has been reported.
respectively. The cement content of 150 kg/m3 was kept con-
stant for the considered mixes. The mix proportion of the
DLC is being presented in Table 1.
3.2. Dry lean concrete
Cement concrete mix design (control mix) was carried out
in accordance with IRC: 44 (2008) guidelines (Table 2). Two Determination of OMC and MDD values for the individual
numbers of mixes were prepared by replacing 50% and 100% mixes was carried out in accordance with IRC: SP:49 (2014).
NAC-16 mm aggregates by CR aggregates (i.e. 30% & 60% by As according to specification, considered aggregate fractions
weight of total aggregates). The water-cement ratio considered and Portland cement were thoroughly mixed at different moist-
for the mix design was 0.38. ure contents (5–8%, at an interval of 0.5%, by mass of total
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PAVEMENT ENGINEERING 1785

mixture) and filled in three equal layers in the 150 mm cubical
molds, each layer been compacted using a special vibratory
hammer. After 20–24 h, the specimens were de-molded and
moisture density curve was established, to determine the
OMC & MDD values. After the determination of OMC and
MDD values for all the considered mixes, cubical specimens
of 150 mm size were cast at OMC and tested at 7 days of
moist curing for determination of compressive strength in
accordance with IS: 516 (1959) specification.
3.3. Dense bituminous Macadam
Cylindrical specimens of 100 mm × 63 mm size were prepared
in accordance with ASTM D6926 (2016) and tested for deter-
mination of volumetric properties in accordance with ASTM
D6927 (2015). Mechanical and volumetric properties such as
Marshall Stability, flow value, air voids, VMA (voids in mineral
aggregates) and VFA (voids filled with asphalt) were found in
accordance with Asphalt Institute MS-2 guidelines (2014).
3.4. Cement concrete mixes
The fresh properties of concrete mixes such as initial slump and
density were measured in accordance with ASTM C143 (2015)
and ASTM C138 (2017) guidelines respectively. Three number
of cubical specimens of size 150 mm were prepared for deter-
mination of compressive strength at 28 days of moist curing
in accordance with IS: 516 (1959). Similarly, three replicate
prisms of 100 × 100 × 500 mm size were prepared for determi-
nation of modulus of rupture in accordance with IS: 516 (1959)
guidelines. The rate of loading considered for determination of
compressive strength was 140 kg/cm2/min, whereas, the load
applied for the determination of the modulus of rupture was
180 kg/min.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Aggregate properties
The properties of aggregates as determined in accordance with
IS: 2386 (1997) are being illustrated in Table 3. It can be
observed that the specific gravities of both coarse RAP (CR)
and fine RAP (FR) aggregates are lower than the natural
aggregates. This may be attributed to the presence of lower den-
sity asphalt coating around the aggregates. The water absorp-
tion of CR was found to be higher than natural coarse
aggregates (NAC), whereas, opposite results were obtained
for finer fractions. The reason for lower water absorption of
FR than the considered natural fine could be the presence of
significant amount of asphalt and absence of finer passing
0.425 mm in FR, whereas, agglomerated particles may be the
reason for higher water absorption of CR than the considered
NAC. The aggregate impact value (AIV) and Los Angles
abrasion value (LAV) of CR aggregates was found to be
lower than NAC aggregates. This may be attributed to the pres-
ence of soft asphaltic film around the aggregates which pro-
tected them from the impact forces. Determination of
aggregate crushing value (ACV) was not possible for CR aggre-
gates because of the presence of asphalt film which binds the
aggregates into a single solid mass under confining pressure
(Singh et al. 2017b). As can be seen in Table 3, all the aggregates
are meeting the stipulated limits of MORTH (2013) and IS: 383
(1970) to be used for constructions of GSB, WMM, DLC, and
PCC layers. The properties of extracted asphalt and percentage
of asphalt content in the individual fractions of considered RAP
is also being presented in Table 3.
4.2. Granular subbase (GSB)
4.2.1. Optimum moisture content and maximum dry
density
The results of heavy compaction test in terms of optimum
moisture content (OMC) and maximum dry density (MDD)
of considered GSB mixes are being presented in Table 4. Repla-
cement of natural coarse aggregates (NAC) by coarse fraction
of RAP (CR) was found to reduce the OMC, whereas, incorpor-
ations of finer fraction of RAP (FR) in the as-received state
(FR’) increased the same considerably. This reduction in
OMC on incorporations of CR may be probably due to the
hydrophobicity of asphalt film, whereas, increase in the OMC
on incorporations of FR’ aggregates is due to lack of finer frac-
tions (0% passing 0.425 mm IS sieve), which resulted in for-
mations of excessive voids in FR’ mixes. During the
compaction of initial layers, water percolation from the bottom
of the mold was observed, whereas from the top of the mold

Table 3. Properties of considered aggregates.

NAC 26.5 NAC 16 MORTH& IS:383 Specifications for Base/ MORTH& IS:383 Specifications for binder/
Properties mm mm CR NAF FR Subbase Course wearing course
Water Absorption (%) 0.5 0.7 1.1 1.68 0.6 <2% <2%
Specific Gravity 2.70 2.65 2.39 2.52 2.32 – –
ACV (%) 18 22 ND NA NA <45% <30%
AIV (%) 18 16 9 NA NA <30% <27%
LAV (%) 18 23 16 NA NA <40% <35%
Plasticity NA NA NA NP NP Material passing 425µ shall have LL < 25
and PI < 6
Combined elongation and 28 27 23 NA NA <30% <30%
flakiness value (%)
Asphalt Content (%) 0 0 3.42 0 7.3 – –
Penetration value of extracted 21 – –
asphalt (dmm)
Softening Point of extracted 80.2 – –
asphalt (°C)
Note: NP = Non-plastic; NA = Not applicable.
1786 S. SINGH ET AL.
Table 4. OMC and MDD values obtained for considered GSB mixes.
Mix Control 50CR 100CR
OMC (%) 8.2 7.8 6.3
MDD (g/cc) 2.22 2.16 2.13
Figure 5. CBR of considered GSB mixes (error bars represents standard deviation).
mixing water oozed out when final layers were compacted. This
phenomenon of draining of water, from the bottom as well as
from the top of the mold, was found to be predominant for
high fine RAP mixes. In the cognisance of the above, natural
fine aggregates (NAF) passing 0.425 mm IS sieve were added
in the required proportions in FR aggregates. As similar to
the effect of CR aggregates, inclusions of 50% and 100% FR
aggregates (after addition of NAF passing 0.425 mm sieve)
reduced the OMC by about 11% and 29%, respectively, with
respect to the control mix. Similarly, combined replacement
of CR and FR in the proportions of 50% (50R) and 100%
(100R) was observed to reduce the OMC by about 13% and
32% respectively.
As similar to the effect of RAP aggregates on OMC, incor-
poration of both fractions of RAP was found to reduce MDD
considerably. However, this reduction was found to be less
than 3% for CR mixes and more than 4% reduction was
observed for mixes containing FR aggregates.
4.2.2. California bearing ratio (CBR)
The result of CBR tests of considered GSB mixes is being
depicted in Figure 5. Inclusions of CR aggregates were found
to have a minimal effect on the CBR value, whereas, a signifi-
cant reduction in CBR was observed when NAF aggregates
were partially replaced by FR aggregates. For instances, the
reduction in CBR with respect to the control mix was found
to be less than 15% for 50CR and 100CR mixes, but this
reduction was more than 50% for 50FR and 100FR mixes. Simi-
larly, combined utilisation of CR and FR in the proportions of
50% was found to have 55% lower CBR value than the control
mix. Complete replacement of natural aggregates by RAP
aggregates was observed to have approximately 70% lower
50FR’ 100FR’ 50FR 100FR 50R 100R
9.2 9.6 7.3 5.8 7.1 5.6
1.82 1.74 2.11 2.06 2.12 2.04
CBR than that of control mix. Presence of significant amount
of bitumen in FR can be attributed for lower binding of the
GSB matrix and thus, higher reduction in the CBR value of
FR mixes as compared to CR inclusive GSB mixes. In the
case of total RAP mixes, most of the aggregates fractions
were coated with asphalt and thus, lowest CBR value was
offered by these GSB matrixes.
In the case of soaked CBR test, CR inclusive GSB mixes were
found to have 15% lower CBR than the control mix, whereas,
for 50FR and 100FR mixes, 29% and 60% lower CBR values
were noted, respectively. As depicted by a dotted line in Figure
5, except 100R mix, rest of the mixes attained the minimum
CBR of 30% which is a bare minimum requirement for GSB
layer. The percentage of RAP content in 100CR, 100FR, and
50R mixes was around 47%, 24.4%, and 35.7%, respectively,
that means a maximum of 47% RAP aggregates can be used
for the construction of GSB mixes if only the coarser fraction
of RAP is utilised. Similarly, if both the RAP fractions are to
be used for GSB layer, a maximum of ∼36% natural aggregates
could be replaced by RAP fractions.
The error bar in Figure 5 depicts the standard deviation
between the results of replicate specimens of individual GSB
mixes. It can be observed that the values of standard deviation
in fine RAP mixes are higher than the standard deviation values
of coarse RAP mixes indicating the detrimental effect of fine
RAP on the properties of GSB mixes.
4.2.3. Permeability coefficient
The main function of providing subbase layer in both flexible
as well as rigid pavements is to protect the subgrade soil
from harmful effects of water ingress either from top or
sides of the pavement. This issue can be overcome by
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PAVEMENT ENGINEERING 1787

Table 5. Results of permeability test of considered GSB mixes. with comparable strength properties but also improves the
Mix Control 50CR 100CR 50FR 100FR 50R 100R drainage characteristics which is an important criterion for
Permeability (cm/ 2.51 2.88 33.46 34.55 48.97 38.94 75.54 the pavements located in high rainfall intensity and higher
s)10−4 groundwater table regions.

Table 6. OMC and MDD values obtained for considered WMM mixes.
Mix Control 50CR 100CR 50FR 100FR
OMC (%) 7.4 7.3 7.1 7.1 6.9
MDD(g/cc) 2.31 2.25 2.19 2.15 2.08
providing a GSB layer above the compacted subgrade soil. In
this context, the aggregate combination having a good coeffi-
cient of permeability is of utmost importance. As illustrated
in Table 5, inclusions of both fractions of RAP increased
the permeability coefficient considerably when compared to
the control mix. This increase was observed to be more pre-
dominant for fine RAP inclusive mixes. For instances, the
permeability coefficient of control mix was 2.51 × 10−4 cm/s
and this was found to be increased to 33.46 × 10−4 cm/s on
complete replacement of NAC by CR aggregates (i.e.
1200% increase with respect to control mix), whereas, incor-
poration of 100% FR aggregates was found to increase the
permeability coefficient by about 1850%. Highest per-
meability coefficient was offered by 100% total RAP mix
(100R). The improvement in the permeability values of
GSB mixes may be attributed to the less moisture holding
capacity of RAP aggregates which is generally due to the
combined actions of open graded nature of fine RAP aggre-
gates and presence of hydrophobic asphalt layer around the
aggregates.
In developing countries like India, utilisation of RAP even
for lower layers of the pavement is a rare occasion. The results
of this study depicted that a maximum of ∼47% RAP aggre-
gates could be utilised for the preparation of GSB layer of
flexible/concrete pavements. This would not only provide
4.3. Wet mix Macadam (WMM)
50R 100R
7 6.6 4.3.1. Optimum moisture content and maximum dry
2.12 2.04 density
The effect of incorporation of RAP aggregates on fresh proper-
ties of WMM mixes is being presented in Table 6. As in the case
of GSB mixes, incorporations of coarse and fine RAP were
found to reduce the OMC and MDD of WMM mixes. But
the lesser reduction in OMC and higher reduction in MDD
with respect to the control mix were observed. For instances,
the reduction in OMC & MDD values on incorporations of
100% RAP aggregates (100R), as compared to the control
GSB mix was found to be 32% & 7% respectively, whereas,
for 100% RAP WMM mix, the reductions were noted to be
11% & 12% respectively. It should also be noted that the resul-
tant proportion of RAP in 100R GSB mix was around 72%,
whereas, in case of 100R-WMM mix, the proportion of RAP
was only 55% i.e. ∼20% lesser RAP fraction and still the
reduction in CBR was observed to be more in WMM mixes,
depicting, utilisation of RAP aggregates would have a more det-
rimental effect on the upper layers of pavement than the lower
layers (in terms of strength). This finding suggests usage of
higher fractions of RAP for lower layers of pavement (GSB)
than for upper unbound layers (WMM).
4.3.2. California bearing ratio (CBR)
The results of CBR in both soaked and un-soaked condition are
being depicted in Figure 6. As can be seen in Figure 6, incorpor-
ation of both fractions of RAP resulted in a reduction in the
CBR value compared to the control mix. However, the
reduction was found to be more profound for FR mixes as

Figure 6. CBR of considered WMM mixes (error bars represents standard deviation).
1788 S. SINGH ET AL.
compared to CR mixes. For example, less than 10% reduction
with respect to the control mix was observed for CR inclusive
WMM mixes, whereas, about 25% and 55% reductions were
noted for 50FR and 100FR mixes respectively. Similarly, in
soaked condition, the reductions with respect to the control
mix were noted to be 4%, 8%, 25% and 63% for 50CR,
100CR, 50FR, and 100FR mixes, respectively. As far as the com-
bined replacement of natural aggregates by RAP aggregates is
concerned, inclusions of 50% and 100% RAP aggregates
resulted in a reduction of CBR by about 45% and 70% respect-
ively. It can be seen in Figure 6 (dotted line), the minimum rec-
ommended CBR for WMM as per MORTH specification is
achieved by 50CR, 100CR, 50FR, and 50R mixes. This finding
indicates that a maximum of 35% RAP fraction can be utilised
for preparation of WMM layer of pavements if coarse aggre-
gates are to be used, whereas, if combined RAP is to be utilised,
a maximum of 27.5% natural aggregates could be saved. In the
case of GSB layer, for the aforementioned conditions, this
maximum RAP content was 47% (for coarse RAP) & 35.7%
(for combined RAP), respectively, i.e. around 10–12% lower
saving in aggregate demand, if RAP is to be utilised for prep-
arations of WMM layer as compared to that achieved while
preparing RAP inclusive GSB mixes.
4.4. Dry lean concrete (DLC)
4.4.1. Optimum moisture content and maximum dry
density
The effect of incorporation of coarse RAP aggregates on the
fresh properties of DLC mixes is being illustrated in Table 7.
It can be seen in Table 7 that, as the proportion of CR
Table 7. OMC and MDD values obtained for considered DLC mixes.
Mix Control 50CR 100CR
OMC (%) 6.5 7.1 7.9
MDD (g/cc) 2.26 2.14 2.07
Figure 7. Compressive strength of considered DLC mixes.
aggregates increases, the OMC value tends to increase linearly
which is contrary to the results of GSB and WMM mixes,
wherein incorporation of CR aggregates reduced the OMC
value. However, the effect on MDD values remain the same
i.e. as the proportions of CR aggregates increases, the MDD
tends to reduce gradually. Moreover, the percentage reduction
in the MDD was found to be more as compared to GSB and
WMM mixes. For instance, for 100% CR inclusive mix, the
reduction in MDD was less than 5% for GSB and WMM
mixes, whereas, more than 5% reduction was noted for
100CR DLC mix. This shows that as the strength requirement
of a highway layer increases (GSB being lowest, WMM inter-
mediate and DLC highest), the detrimental effect of RAP on
layer properties also increases linearly indicating incorporating
a higher fraction of RAP in lower layers and a lower percentage
of RAP for upper layers of the pavement.
4.4.2. Compressive strength
Figure 7 depicts the compressive strength of considered DLC
mixes at 7 days moist curing. These results indicate that as the
proportion of CR aggregates increases, the compressive strength
of DLC mixes decreases gradually. The reduction in compres-
sive strength was noted to be more than 50% for both the
RAP mixes with respect to the control mix. Even, the 50CR
mix couldn’t achieve the minimum recommended strength of
7 MPa (as per IRC: SP: 49). However, the compressive strength
is just 0.9 MPa lesser than the minimum recommended strength
which may be improved by increasing the quantity of Portland
cement. It shall also be noted that in the present study, relatively
lesser oxidised RAP aggregates were utilised for the preparation
of DLC mixes and milling of such a new section (2.5 years) is a
rare occasion and therefore, it can be suitability assumed that for
a normal condition RAP fraction (which contains relatively
stiffer asphalt coating), 50% would be the optimum replacement
level (∼23.5% of total aggregate fraction) for preparation of
DLC layer of the pavement.

4.5. Dense bituminous Macadam
Utilisation of RAP with the soft asphaltic film may be con-
sidered unfavourable for unbound granular and cement con-
crete mixes (Singh et al. 2017a, 2018b), however, the same is
considered to be favourable for bound courses of the flexible
pavement (Fakhri and Ahmadi 2017). This is owing to the
fact that the asphalt binder is the most costly component of
the bituminous mixtures. Moreover, 100% utilisation of RAP
is a sustainable way of disposing of this valuable waste. Since
the considered RAP was 2.5 years old only, it was initially
decided to utilise the same completely (100%) in the as-received
state for production of dense bituminous Macadam (DBM)
mixture. The initial asphalt content in the considered RAP
was 4.5% which is the minimum recommended asphalt content
for preparation of DBM mixtures (MORTH 2013). Utilisation
of 100% RAP could produce satisfactory Marshall Stability
value, however, the volumetric properties were found to be
non-confirmatory with the stipulated standard limits of
MORTH (2013) specifications (Singh et al. 2018b). This was
due to the deficiency in the finer fraction of the mixture.
Hence, it was decided to improvise the RAP grading by incor-
porating natural stone dust and accordingly 41% natural stone
dust was added. Similarly, the asphalt demand for the resultant
Table 8. Slump and Density values of fresh concrete mixes.
Mix Control 50CR 100CR
Slump (mm) 16 21 26
Density (g/cc) 2.41 2.31 2.23
Figure 8. Volumetric Properties of considered DBM mixture.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PAVEMENT ENGINEERING 1789
mixture (59% RAP and 41% natural stone dust) was found to
be 2.9%. Figure 8 shows the results of the volumetric properties
of the revised mixture (containing extra natural aggregates
(41%) and binder (2.9%)). As can be seen from Figure 8, at
5.5% asphalt content, the volumetric properties are found to
be well within the recommended limits of MORTH (2013). It
should be noted that inclusions of RAP for bituminous mix-
tures could yield with adequate rutting resistance, however,
can significantly reduce the fatigue performance of the layer
and therefore, before considering such high proportion of
RAP for bound courses of pavements, fatigue properties need
to be confirmed.
4.6. Cement concrete mixes
4.6.1. Fresh properties
The properties of the fresh concrete mix, in terms of initial
slump value and density, are being illustrated in Table 8. It
was observed that as the proportion of CR aggregates increases,
the initial workability of concrete mixes increases linearly. This
may be attributed to the hydrophobic nature of RAP aggregates
owing to the presence of asphalt coating around them. How-
ever, reduction in fresh density was noticed on incorporations
of CR aggregates. This may be due to the presence of low-den-
sity asphalt coating around the circumference of the aggregates.
4.6.2. Strength properties
The results of compressive strength and modulus of rupture of
considered mixes are being depicted in Figure 9. It can be seen
1790 S. SINGH ET AL.
Figure 9. Compressive strength and modulus of rupture of considered PCC mixes (error bars represents standard deviation).
that, with the increase in the proportion of CR aggregates, both
the strength properties of concrete decreases linearly. For
instance, the compressive strength and modulus of rupture of
control mix was 42.7 and 6.3 MPa respectively, which got
reduced to 32.5 and 4.4 MPa on inclusions with 50% CR aggre-
gates i.e. 24% and 30% reduction with respect to the control
mix. Similarly, at 100% replacement, the reduction in the com-
pressive strength and modulus of rupture was found to be 43%
and 41%, respectively. This decrease in the strength properties
of concrete mixes containing CR aggregates may be attributed
to the presence of asphalt coating around the aggregates which
hindered the formation of bonding between RAP surface and
hydrated mortar matrix. Concrete pavements are designed
based on the modulus of rupture and the minimum rec-
ommended modulus of rupture (in laboratory condition) for
M40 grade concrete in accordance with IRC: 58 (2015) specifi-
cation is 4.9 MPa which could not be achieved by any of the
RAP mixes. However, 50CR mix attained a compressive
strength of 30 MPa & flexural strengths of 4.4 MPa at 28
days of moist curing and thus, such mixes may be suggested
for preparation of M30 grade concrete mixes to be used for
low volume traffic roads such as in rural areas.
In developing countries like India, due to economic reasons,
flexible pavements always remained the first choice for
Figure 10. Cross-section of flexible and rigid pavement inclusive of type and proportion of RAP.
constructions of major and minor highways. Recently, there
has been a shift in the choice of material from bitumen to con-
crete owing to the superiority of later over the former. How-
ever, the high cost of aggregates and Portland cement makes
the concrete pavements less economical (in terms of initial
cost) than the flexible pavements. The results of the present
study indicated that coarse RAP could be utilised for lowering
the initial cost of concrete pavements, however, mechanical &
other durability criterions shall have to be satisfied.
5. Special discussion
The findings of the present study support the utilisation of RAP
aggregates as a partial replacement of natural aggregates for
constructions of various layers of the pavement. The type and
proportion of RAP aggregates that could be used to replace
natural aggregates for construction of various layers of concrete
and flexible pavement without violating the minimum rec-
ommended specifications of MORTH (2013) are being pre-
sented in Figure 10. As can be seen in Figure 10, with the
increase in the strength requirement of the layer, the usage of
RAP decreases linearly. Moreover, it can also be observed
that the coarser fraction of RAP holds greater potential to be
used in the construction of both the pavements. This is due
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PAVEMENT ENGINEERING 1791

Figure 11. Relationship between MDD and CBR.

to a deficiency in the finer fraction (< 0.425 mm IS sieve) of the source only. Hence, it would be a prudent idea to evaluate the
fine RAP aggregates. Inclusions of finer natural aggregates were optimum proportion of individual fraction of RAP obtained
found to increase the suitability of FR aggregates; however, it from different sources for various layers of flexible and concrete
could not enhance the performance as that of CR aggregates. pavements.
It was observed that the CBR value (Figure 11) (both soaked
and un-soaked) for GSB and WMM were highly dependent 6. Conclusions
on the MDD values of the fresh mixes. This clearly suggests
The present study evaluates the potential of RAP obtained from
that the strength properties of RAP inclusive GSB & WMM
a single source for various layers of flexible and concrete pave-
mixes could be improved by adding a certain amount of addi-
ments. Various basic required properties as stipulated by
tives such as cement. Similarly, it was also found that the com-
MORTH (2013) for individual layers of flexible as well as con-
pressive strength of 50CR was only 0.9 MPa lower than the
crete pavement were evaluated thoroughly to find the suitability
minimum recommended compressive strength for production
and proportion of RAP. From the present study, it was found
of DLC layer and such gap can be improved by increasing
that the finer fraction of RAP was coarser and gap graded in
the quantity of Portland cement. As far as the binder course
nature which needs to be improvised. As far as the potential
of flexible pavement is concerned, it was found that extra quan-
of RAP aggregates in different layers are concerned, it was
tity of stone dust (41%) and asphalt (2.9%) would be required
observed that as the strength requirement of individual layers
to meet the requirements of standard specifications despite the
increases (subbase being weakest, the base layer being inter-
RAP being obtained from just 2.5 years old pavement. How-
mediate and wearing course being strongest) the suitability
ever, the presence of asphalt was found to provide hindrance
and percentage of RAP usage decrease linearly. However, incor-
in the formation of bonding between RAP aggregates and
poration of coarse RAP doesn’t affect much the properties of
hydrated mortar matrix.
subbase and base layer mixes, whereas, a higher reduction in
Based on the results of the present laboratory study, it is
strength properties was observed when used for upper subbase
suggested to intermix the natural aggregates with different frac-
and wearing course of concrete pavements. The results of the
tions of RAP (coarse and fine), in order to increase the feasi-
present study indicated that the hardened properties of RAP
bility, suitability and optimum proportion of RAP for GSB
mixes are mainly depended upon the density of the fresh
and WMM layers of a pavement. As far as the usage of RAP
mixes which needs to be improved in order to increase the
in rigid pavement is concerned, an extra quantity of cement
feasibility and suitability of RAP for different highway appli-
shall be added for RAP DLC mixes, whereas 50% coarse RAP
cations. For bound courses of flexible pavements, the suitability
can be utilised for preparations of M30 grade concrete mixes
of RAP can be increased by including softer grade virgin binder.
to be used for low volume traffic conditions. For re-using of
RAP in binder course of flexible pavement, extra doses of
asphalt and natural aggregates shall be introduced based on Acknowledgements
the asphalt demand of the combined gradation of the con- This work was supported by the M/s N.B.C.C. Ltd., India under Grant
sidered mixture. Moreover, fatigue properties shall be con- (Project No. NBC-931-CED).
sidered before deciding the optimum proportion of RAP for
bituminous mixtures.
The above recommendations have been made based upon Disclosure statement
the laboratory study carried out on RAP obtained from a single No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
1792 S. SINGH ET AL.
Funding
This work was supported by N.B.C.C.: [grant number NBC-931-CED].
ORCID
Surender Singh http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-739X
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