1.

Introduction

2. Protocols

3. Protocol Layers

4. Network Interconnection/Internet

1. Introduction -A network can be defined as a group of computers and other

devices connected in some ways so as to be able to exchange data. -Each of
the devices on the network can be thought of as a node; each node has a
unique address. -Addresses are numeric quantities that are easy for computers
to work with, but not for humans to remember. Example: 204.160.241.98 -
Some networks also provide names

2. Protocols -Define the rules that govern the communications between two
computers connected to the network. -Roles: addressing and routing of
messages, error detection and recovery, sequence and flow controls etc. -A
protocol specification consists of the syntax, which defines the kinds and
formats of the messages exchanged, and the semantic, which specifies the
action taken by each entity when specific events occur. Example: HTTP
protocol for communication between web browsers and servers.

3. Protocol Layers

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Data Model -ISO standard for
computer networks design and functioning. -Involves at least 7 layers, each
playing a specific role when applications are communicating over the net. -
During the sending process, each layer (from top to down) will add a specific
header to the raw data. -At the reception, headers are eliminated conversely
until the data arrived to the receiving application.

>>Application layer (applications connected to the network)

>>Presentation layer (provides standard data representations for

applications)

>>Session layer (manages sessions among applications)

 >>Transport layer (provides end-to-end errors detection and correction)

>>Network layer (handles connection to the network by the higher layers)

>>Data-link layer (provides safe communication of data over the physical

network)

>>Physical layer (defines the physical characteristics of the network)

The TCP/IP Model -Consists of only 4 layers: network, internet ,application,

transport, and Layers

>>Network layer -Provides the same functionality as the physical, the data link
and network layers in the OSI model. -Mapping between IP addresses and
network physical addresses. -Encapsulation of IP datagrams, e.g packets, in
format understandable by the network.

>> Internet layer -Lies at the heart of TCP/IP. -Based on the Internet Protocol
(IP), which provides the frame for transmitting data from place A to place B.

>>Transport layer -Based on two main protocols: TCP (Transmission Control

Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram protocol)

>>Application layer -Combines the functions of the OSI application,

presentation, and session layers. -Protocols involved in this layer: HTTP, FTP,
SMTP etc.

4) 4. Networks Interconnection/Internet Concept of Network Interconnection –

First implemented in the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency Network

(Arpanet), in 1966 in USA. -Consists of connecting several computer networks
based on different protocols -Requires the definition of a common
interconnection protocol on top the local protocols. -The Internet Protocol (IP)
plays this role, by defining unique addresses for a network and a host machine.

Internet Protocol (IP) Overview –

The IP protocol provides two main functionality: →Decomposition of the initial

information flow into packets of standardized size, and reassembling at the
destination. →Routing of a packet through successive networks, from the
source machine to the destination identified by its IP address. -Transmitted
packets are not guaranteed to be delivered (datagram protocol). -The IP
protocol does not request for connection (connectionless) before sending data
and does not make any error detection. Functions -Decompose the initial data
(to be sent) into datagrams. -Each datagram will have a header including, the
IP address and the port number of the destination. -Datagrams are then sent
to selected gateways, e.g IP routers, connected at the same time to the local
network and to an IP service provider network.

Network Topology

: In bus topology there is a main cable and all the devices are
connected to this main cable through drop lines. There is a device called tap
that connects the drop line to the main cable. Since all the data is transmitted
over the main cable, there is a limit of drop lines and the distance a main
cable can have.
 A tree topology is a special type of structure
where many connected elements are arranged like the
branches of a tree. In a tree topology, there can be only one
connection between any two connected nodes. Because any two
nodes can have only one mutual connection, tree topologies
create a natural parent and child hierarchy.

In ring topology each device is connected with the two devices on either side
of it. There are two dedicated point to point links a device has with the devices
on the either side of it. This structure forms a ring thus it is known as ring
topology. If a device wants to send data to another device then it sends the
data in one direction, each device in ring topology has a repeater, if the
received data is intended for other device then repeater forwards this data
until the intended device receives it.
In star topology each device in the network is connected to a central device
called hub. star topology doesn’t allow direct communication between devices,
a device must have to communicate through hub. If one device wants to send
data to other device, it has to first send the data to hub and then the hub
transmit that data to the designated device.
1. Sharing Resources –
Many organization has a substantial number of computers in operations,
which are located apart. Ex. A group of office workers can share a
common printer, fax, modem, scanner etc.
2)Performance – It is measured in terms of transit time and response time.
Transit time is the time for a message to travel from one device to another
Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response
3)Reliability –
If there are alternate sources of supply, all files could be replicated on two
or, machines. If one of them is not available, due to hardware failure, the
other copies could be used.

4)Scalability: Increases system performances by adding more processors

5)Security: Which is the main characteristics of computer network where you

can take necessary steps for protecting your data from unauthorized access.

The Media Access Control (MAC) data communication Networks protocol sub-layer, also
known as the Medium Access Control, is a sub-layer of the data link layer specified in the
seven-layer OSI model. The medium access layer was made necessary by systems that
share a common communications medium.

And

Mac Address is a hardware identification number that uniquely identifies each device on a
network.

: A hub is a physical layer networking device which is used to connect multiple devices
in a network. They are generally used to connect computers in a LAN. A hub has many
ports in it. A computer which intends to be connected to the network is plugged in to one of
these ports.

A switch is a device in a computer network that connects other devices

together. Multiple data cables are plugged into a switch to enable communication
between different networked devices.

A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between

computer networks. Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet .
Ethernet is primarily a standard communication protocol used to create
local area networks. It transmits and receives data through cables. This
facilitates network communication between two or more different types
of network cables such as from copper to fiber optic

The Ethernet System consists of three basic elements :

(1) The physical medium used to carry Ethernet signals between
computers,
(2) a set of medium access control rules embedded in each Ethernet
interface that allow multiple computers to fairly arbitrate access to the
shared Ethernet channel, and
(3) an Ethernet frame that consists of a standardized set of bits used to
carry data over the system.