1.

Network Access Layer

 This is the bottom-most layer of the TCP/IP model architecture

 It is a combination of the Data Link and Physical Layer of the OSI model

 The physical transmission of data takes place at this layer

 Once the frames are transmitted by a network, encapsulating the IP datagram into these frames
is done in this layer

 Also, the mapping of IP address into physical address is done here

 Mainly, the function of this layer is to transmit the data between two devices, connected in a
network

2. Internet Layer

 It is the second layer of the TCP/IP model and this layer is parallel to the Network Layer of the
OSI Model, in terms of the structure

 Sending the data packets to their destination network is the main function of the Internet layer

 The logical transmission of data takes place at this level

 There are three different protocols used in this layer. These include:

o IP: One of the most important protocols as it detects the IP address of a device which is
later used for internetwork connections. It is using this protocol that the path with
which the data shall be transmitted is decided. There are two common IP versions which
are used, To know the difference between IPv4 and IPv6, visit the linked article.

o ARP: It stands for Address Resolution Protocol. The physical address from the IP address
can be determined using ARP. 

o ICMP: It stands for Internet Control Message Protocol and notification regarding
datagram problems can be sent back to the user using this. Any issue with the network
is immediately notified to the user by ICMP. It can only inform the user about the errors
and cannot rectify the problem

3. Host-To-Host Layer

 This layer is parallel to the transport layer of the OSI Model

 The error-free delivery of data is the main function of this layer

 There are two main protocols present in this layer:

 o TCP: Another integral part, the Transmission Control Protocol is a reliable
communication protocol. It manager the flow of data, i.e. the sequence and
segmentation of the data

o UDP: It is a connection-free protocol which makes it cost-effective but less reliable. 

4. Application Layer

 The topic three layers of the OSI Model: Application, Presentation and Sessions, when combined
together, they perform similar functions as the Application Layer of the TCP/IP model

 node-to-node communication based on the user-interface occurs here

 Multiple protocols are present in this layer, a few common ones have been mentioned below in
brief:

o HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol is used to manage the communication between the
server and web browsers

o NTP: Network Time Protocol can set one standard time source in our computer, which
enables sync between the server and the user

o TELNET: Telecommunication Network is used to have access to files present of the

Telnet network and manage them on internet

o FTP: File Transfer Protocol, as the name suggests allows easy transferring of files

Other protocols of Application layer include Network File System (NFS), Secure Shell (SSH), Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol (SMTP), Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP), etc. 
TOPOLOGY

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected to each
other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.

Bus Topology

 The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a single
cable known as a backbone cable.

 Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected to the
backbone cable.

 When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the network.
All the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it has been addressed
or not.

Ring Topology

 Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

  The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the next
node.

 The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.

 The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.

 It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no termination
point.

 The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.

 The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.

o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one node to
another node.

o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Star Topology

 Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to the central
hub, switch or a central computer.

 The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the server are
known as clients.

 Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.

 Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.

 Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.

Tree topology
  Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.

 A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with each other
in hierarchical fashion.

 The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are the
descendants of the root node.

 There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it forms a
parent-child hierarchy.

Mesh topology

 Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are interconnected with
each other through various redundant connections.

 There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.

 It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point of
communication.

 The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.

  Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures are a
critical concern.

 Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.

 Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:

Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;

Hybrid Topology

 The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.

 A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the data.

 When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid topology and
if similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in Hybrid topology. For
example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another
branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.

WORKING OF INTERNET

The Internet is a global network of connected devices that use the TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) protocol suite to communicate with each other.

The working of the Internet using TCP/IP can be divided into four main components:
 1. Hardware: The physical devices that make up the Internet, such as computers, smartphones,
routers, switches, and servers.

2. TCP/IP Protocol Suite: The standardized communication rules that allow devices to send and
receive data over the Internet. The TCP/IP protocol suite consists of four layers:

 Application layer: This layer provides services such as email, file transfer, and web browsing to
applications running on the device. It provides a user-friendly interface for applications to access
the services provided by the underlying layers.

 Transport layer: This layer is responsible for reliable data transfer between devices. It provides
flow control, error detection and correction, and segmentation/reassembly of data into
manageable units.

 Network layer: This layer routes data packets between different networks based on their
destination IP addresses, ensuring that data is delivered reliably and efficiently.

 Link layer: This layer provides the physical and logical connectivity between devices on the same
network segment, and handles the transfer of data frames between them.

3. Connectivity: The physical and wireless links that connect devices to each other, such as fiber
optic cables, coaxial cables, and Wi-Fi.

4. Services: The applications and services that run on the Internet, such as email, file sharing, video
streaming, and online shopping.

In the Internet, data is transmitted over the network in the form of packets, which are small units of
information that are sent from one device to another. Routers act as intermediaries, directing packets to
their destination based on the information contained in their IP addresses. At the recipient device, the
packets are reassembled into the original message, enabling the user to access the requested
information.

In summary, the Internet uses the TCP/IP protocol suite to provide a standard method of transmitting
data over the network, enabling devices to communicate and exchange information with each other.
The different layers of the TCP/IP model each perform a specific role, working together to ensure the
reliable and efficient transmission of data over the Internet.

TOKEN BUS VS TOKEN RING

S.
Token Bus Network Token Ring Network
No.

In the token bus network, the token is passed While in the token ring network the token is
1.
along a virtual ring. passed over a physical ring.

The token bus network is simply designed for While the token ring network is designed for the
2.
large factories. offices.

The token bus network is defined by the IEEE While the token ring network is defined by the
3.
802.4 standard. IEEE 802.5 standard.

While the token ring network does not provide

4. Token bus network provides better bandwidth.
better bandwidth as compared to the token bus.

While in token ring network, Star topology is

5. In a token bus network, Bus topology is used.
used.

The maximum time it takes to reach the last While the maximum time to reach the last
6. station in a token bus network cannot be station in the token ring network can be
calculated. calculated.

In token ring network, twisted pair and fiber

7 In a token bus network, coaxial cable is used
optic is used.

MULTIPLEXING

• Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a single
medium.

• The process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing and hardware used for
multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.
 • The purpose of multiplexing is to enable signals to be transmitted more efficiently over a
given communication channel, thereby decreasing transmission costs..

The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer combines the signals to form a
composite signal.

The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer separates a signal to
component signals and transfers them to their respective destinations.

FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

• In telecommunications, frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is a technique by which the total

bandwidth available in a communication medium is divided into a series of non-overlapping
frequency bands, each of which is used to carry a separate signal.

• It is an analog technique.

• FDM is commonly used in TV networks.

• It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has different frequencies, and they
are multiplexed to form a composite signal. The multiplexed signal is transmitted in the air.
WAVELENGTH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

• Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical signals are transmitted
through the fibre optic cable.

• WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre.

• It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.

• It is an analog multiplexing technique.

• Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of light with the help of
multiplexer.

• At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to their respective
destinations.

• Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.

• Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various optical signals to form a
composite signal, and the composite signal is transmitted through a fibre optical cable.

• Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e., demultiplexing the signal.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

• It is a digital technique.

• In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the same time with different
frequency, but in case of Time Division Multiplexing technique, all signals operate at the same
frequency with different time.

• In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel is distributed
among different users. Therefore, each user is allocated with different time interval known as a
Time slot at which data is to be transmitted by the sender.
 • A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.

• In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously rather the data
is transmitted one-by-one.

• In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a cycle of time slots in
which each frame contains one or more slots dedicated to each user.

• It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to multiplex digital
signals.

Synchronous TDM

• A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to every device.

• In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact that the device
contains the data or not.

• If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.

• In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are organized in the form
of frames. If a device does not have data for a particular time slot, then the empty slot will be
transmitted.

• The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing, and SONET
multiplexing.

• If there are n devices, then there are n slots.

 •

Asynchronous TDM

• The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is that many slots in
Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but in Asynchronous TDM, slots are fully utilized. This leads to
the smaller transmission time and efficient utilization of the capacity of the channel.

• In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n time slots. In
Asynchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are m time slots where m is less
than n (m<n).

• The number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical analysis of the number of input lines.

SONET

• Synchronous optical networking and synchronous digital hierarchy are standardized protocols
that transfer multiple digital bit streams synchronously over optical fibber using lasers or highly
coherent light from light-emitting diodes. At low transmission rates data can also be transferred
via an electrical interface.

• Synchronous optical networking (SONET) is a standardized digital communication protocol that

is used to transmit a large volume of data over relatively long distances using a fiber optic
medium.

SONET functional layers
• the photonic,

• the section,

• the line,

• the path layer.

• They correspond to both the physical and the data link layers .

• The path layer is responsible for the movement of a signal from its optical source to its optical
destination.

• At the optical source, the signal is changed from an electronic form into an optical form,
multiplexed with other signals, and encapsulated in a frame.

• At the optical destination, the received frame is demultiplexed, and the individual optical signals
are changed back into their electronic forms.

• Line Layer

• The line layer is responsible for the movement of a signal across a physical line. Line layer
overhead is added to the frame at this layer.

• Section Layer

• The section layer is responsible for the movement of a signal across a physical section. It handles
framing, scrambling, and error control.

• Photonic Layer

• The photonic layer corresponds to the physical layer of the OSI model.

• It includes physical specifications for the optical fibber channel, the sensitivity of the receiver,
multiplexing functions, and so on.

• SONET uses NRZ encoding with the presence of light representing 1 and the absence of light
representing 0.
 Distance-vector routing protocol

• A distance-vector routing protocol in data networks determines the best route for data packets

based on distance. ...

• Distance-vector routing protocols measure the distance by the number of routers a packet has
to pass, one router counts as one hop. Some distance-vector protocols also take into
account network latency and other factors that influence traffic on a given route. To determine
the best route across a network, routers, on which a distance-vector protocol is implemented,
exchange information with one another, usually routing tables plus hop counts for destination
networks and possibly other traffic information. Distance-vector routing protocols also require
that a router informs its neighbours of network topology changes periodically.

• The term distance vector refers to the fact that the protocol manipulates vectors (arrays) of

distances to other nodes in the network. The distance vector algorithm was the
original ARPANET routing algorithm and was implemented more widely in local area
networks with the Routing Information Protocol (RIP).

• Distance-vector routing protocols use the Bellman–Ford algorithm to calculate the best route

Link state routing

• Link state routing is a technique in which each router shares the knowledge of its
neighbourhood with every other router in the internetwork.

• The three keys to understand the Link State Routing algorithm:

• Knowledge about the neighbourhood: Instead of sending its routing table, a router sends the
information about its neighbourhood only. A router broadcast its identities and cost of the
directly attached links to other routers.

• Flooding: Each router sends the information to every other router on the internetwork except
its neighbours. This process is known as Flooding. Every router that receives the packet sends
the copies to all its neighbours. Finally, each and every router receives a copy of the same
information.

• Information sharing: A router sends the information to every other router only when the
change occurs in the information.

• Link State Routing has two phases:

• Reliable Flooding

• Initial state: Each node knows the cost of its neighbours.

• Final state: Each node knows the entire graph.

 • Route Calculation

• Each node uses Dijkstra's algorithm on the graph to calculate the optimal routes to all
nodes.

• The Link state routing algorithm is also known as Dijkstra's algorithm which is used to
find the shortest path from one node to every other node in the network.

• The Dijkstra's algorithm is an iterative, and it has the property that after k th iteration of
the algorithm, the least cost paths are well known for k destination nodes.

IPV4 v/s IPV6

• IPv4 is 32-Bit IP address whereas IPv6 is a 128-Bit IP address.

• IPv4 is a numeric addressing method whereas IPv6 is an alphanumeric addressing method.

• IPv4 binary bits are separated by a dot(.) whereas IPv6 binary bits are separated by a colon(:).

• IPv4 offers 12 header fields whereas IPv6 offers 8 header fields.

• IPv4 supports broadcast whereas IPv6 doesn’t support broadcast.

• IPv4 has checksum fields while IPv6 doesn’t have checksum fields

• IPv4 supports VLSM (Virtual Length Subnet Mask) whereas IPv6 doesn’t support VLSM.

• IPv4 uses ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) to map to MAC address whereas IPv6 uses NDP
(Neighbour Discovery Protocol) to map to MAC address.

CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS

 A circuit switched network consists of a set of switches connected by physical links.

 A connection between 2 stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links.

 However each connection uses only one dedicated channel on each link.

 Each link is divided into n channels using FDM or TDM

 Three phases are need to communicate two parties or multiple parties in a

conference call:

 Connection setup

 data transfer

 Connection teardown

 The setup phase: means creating dedicated channels between the switches.

 Data Transfer Phase: After the establishment of the dedicated circuit (channels), the two parties
can transfer data.

 Teardown Phase: When one of the parties needs to disconnect, a signal is sent to each switch to
release the resources

 Circuit switching takes place at the physical layer

 Data transferred between the two stations are not packetized. The data are a continuous flow
sent by the source station and received by the destination station

 There is no addressing involved during data transfer. Of course, there is end-to-end addressing
used during

 PACKET SWITCHED NETWORK

 Messages need to be divided into packets.

 Size of the packet is determined by the network and the governing protocol.

 no resource reservation, but allocated on demand.

 The allocation is done first come, first served based

 When a switch receives a packets , the packet must wait if there are other packets being
processed, this lack of reservation may create delay

 DATAGRAM NETWORKS

 Each packet (called as datagrams in this approach) is treated independently of all others
  All packets (or datagrams) belong to the same message may travel different paths to reach their
destination

 Datagram Switching is done at the network layer

 This approach can cause the datagrams of a transmission to arrive at their destination out of
order with different delays between the packets.

 Packets may also be lost or dropped because of a lack of resources.

 In most protocols, it is the responsibility of an upper- layer protocol to reorder the datagrams
or ask for lost datagrams before passing them on to the application.

The datagram networks are referred to connectionless networks. There are no setup or teardown
phases.

VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS

• It’s a cross between circuit switched network and datagram network, and has some
characteristics of both

Characteristics

• Packets from a single message travel along the same path.

• Three phases to transfer data (set up, data transfer and tear down)

• Data are packetized and each packet carries an address in the header

• Resources can be allocated during setup phase

• Implemented in data link layer

Message switching

• It was a precursor of packet switching.

• Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a complete unit

and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and forwarded.

• In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path between the

sender and receiver.

• The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a dynamic
routing as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on the information
available in the message.
 • Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most efficient
routes.

• Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node. This type
of network is known as store and forward network.

• Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

IP addressing

• An IP (Internet Protocol) Address is the numerical identification (logical address) used to identify

a unique host on a network, the same as a telephone number that uniquely identifies a single
phone. As devices send information across a network, a process will add the Source and
Destination IP Address to each packet sent. IP Addresses are
sent as binary numbers by the devices on the network, but they are typically displayed in
human-readable notations (decimal) such as 192.168.100.1. The decimal format makes it easier
for people, rather than the 32-bit long binary equivalent.

Modem

 computer device that allows you to connect and communicate with other computer via
telephone lines

 Convert digital data from your computer into analog data, called modulation

 Convert analog signal back into a digital data, called demodulation

 Two types of Modem :

 Internal Modem : Fixed within the computer.

 External Modem : Connected externally to a computer like other devices.

Working of Modem

 When modem is powered up and ready to transmit data, it will declare the data set ready(DSR)
signal to terminal.

 Under terminal control the modem dials up the computer on other end and computer will send
back a specified tone.

 Now the terminal will declare the request to send(RTS) signal to the modem.

 Then modem declare its carrier detect(CD) signal to the terminal to indicate contact with
computer.

 When modem is ready to transmit data it declare clear-to-send(CTS) signal back to terminal..
  After that the terminal sends serial data characters to modem.

 After sending all the characters the terminal make its RTS signal high and due to this the modem
undeclared its CTS signal and stop transmitting.

RJ-45 :

 Stands for Registered Jack-45.

 Eight wire connector.

 Used to connect computers on the Ethernets LANs.

 It is similar to telephone connector RJ-11 except that it has eight wires as compared to 4 in RJ-11

Ethernet Card :

 LAN architecture developed by Xerox Corp along with DEC and Intel.

 Uses a Bus or Star topology.

 Supports data transfer rates of up to 10 Mbps.

 Contains connections for either coaxial or twisted pair cables.

 If designed for coaxial cable , than connection will be BNC.

 If designed for twisted pair cable , than connection will be RJ-45

 Hub:

 In computer networking, a hub is a small, simple, inexpensive device that joins multiple
computers together.

 Works at physical layer in OSI model.

How a Hub functions :

 Hubs forward data packets which can be e-mail, documents, graphics etc.

 These data receive over one port from one workstation to all of their remaining ports.

 All users connected to a hub are in same segment and they can share hub’s data-carrying
capacity.

 As more users are added to the segment, they can fight for a limited amount of bandwidth.

Switch :
  A Switch is a small hardware device that joins multiple computers together within one local area
network (LAN).

 Responsible for transforming data in a specific way and forwarding packets between LAN
segments.

 Support any packet protocol.

 LANs which are segmented through switches are called Switched LANs.

 Unlike a hub, instead of broadcasting the received information, a switch sends the information
selectively only to those computers for which it is intended.

How a Switch functions :

 Establish a temporary connection between the source and destination.

 Terminates the connection after the conversation is done.

 Like a phone system with private lines.

 Allows more conversation at any one time.

 Router :

 Device that works as a bridge.

 Can handle different protocols.

 Improve performance and reliability.

 First uses logical address and than uses physical address.

 If destination is not known by the router, it sends the traffic to router which knows the
destination.

How Router functions :

 Use more complete packet address to determine which router should receive each packet next.

 Based on routing table, routers can help to ensure that packets are travelling in correct
direction.

 The sending router can determine an alternate route in case of link failure between two routers.

 Repeater
 It is a device that amplifies and restores the power of a signal being transmitted on the
network..

 Can be installed along the way to ensure that data packets reach their destination.

 Used in long network lines.

 Two types of Repeaters:

 1. Amplifier : amplifies the incoming signals over the network.

 2. Signal repeater : collects the inbound packet and retransmits them.

 Bridge :

 It is a device that lets you link two same networks together.

 Same networks mean networks with same protocol.

 Smart enough to know which computer are on which side of the bridge.

 Improve performance.

 When packet arrives, the bridge examines the destination address of the packet and then
decides whether allow to cress the packet or not.

 Gateway :

 A network gateway is a computer which have internetworking capability of joining together two
networks that use different base protocols.

 Gateway is node on network that provide entry to another network.

 Operates at highest layer of network abstraction.

 Perform data translation and protocol conversion.

 Associated with both router and switch.

 Can be implemented on software, hardware, or as a combination of both.

 The key point about a gateway is that only the data format is translated, not the data itself.

 HTTP

 Stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol.

 Has lightness and speed necessary for distributed, shared, hypermedia information systems
 Application level protocol.

 Messages are passed to the HTTP in a format similar to that used by Internet Mail.

 Used for communication between user agents and proxies/gateways to other Internet
protocols.

 Consist of two items:

 1. The set of request from browser to server.

 2. The set of response going back to the other way.

 Has various built-in request methods by which users can read a webpage, store a webpage, or
remove a webpage.

 FTP :

 Stands for File Transfer Protocol.

 Can transfer any type of file.

 Have to specify whether the file is an ASCII or binary.

 built on a client-server architecture

 Also used as a command such as FTP ftp.cbsecsnip.in .

 Advantage :

 Useful for transfer files from one network to another.

 Provide a way for get a geographic group to co-operate on a project.

 Powerful way to distribute information over the network.

 Purpose :

 Support sharing of files.

 Transfer data constantly and efficiently.

 Support indirect or implicit use of remote computers.

 Protect user for changes in file storage systems

 TCP/IP Stands for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol.

  TCP/IP is TCP and IP working together.

 Defines how electronic devices should be connected to the Internet, and how data should be
transmitted between them.

 TCP takes care of the communication between your application software (i.e. your browser) and
your network software.

 IP takes care of the communication with other computers.

 TCP is responsible for breaking data down into IP packets before they are sent, and for
assembling the packets when they arrive.

 IP is responsible for sending the packets to the correct destination,

 TCP/IP is built on “connectionless” technology.

 Information is transferred as a sequence of “datagrams” (collection of data).

 TCP/IP applications use four layers :

 An application protocol such as mail.

 A protocol which provides services require by many applications such as TCP.

 IP for getting datagrams to their destinations.

 Protocol required to handle a specific physical medium, such as Ethernet.

SLIP :

 Stands for Serial Line Internet Protocol.

used to handle TCP/IP traffic over a dial-up lines.
Doesn't provide error checking.

 Only supports the transmission of one protocol, TCP/IP.

 A later version of SLIP is called compressed SLIP (CSLIP)

 CSLIP protocol just reduces the amount of information in the headers, and does not compress
the transmission.

PPP :

 Stands for Point to Point Protocol .

 Much strong then SLIP.

 Provides error checking .

 Best solution for dial-up internet connections, including ISDN.

 Supports both synchronized and unsynchronized lines.

 Consist of three layers :

◦ LCP(Link Control Protocol) – for link establishment.

◦ NCP(Network Control Protocol) – for traffic transportation.

 IPCP(IP Control Protocol) – for transportation of IP packets over PPP Link