NEBOSH

NEBOSH
International Diploma in Occupational Health and Safety
UNIT IC: International workplace and work equipment safety
Construction and works of a temporary nature

IC9
Element IC9:
– hazards and controls

IC9 1.1 Contents
9.0 Learning outcomes 5
9.1 The scope and nature of construction activities 6
Range of construction activities 7
Site clearance 7
Demolition and dismantling 7
Excavation 7
Loading, unloading and storage of materials 7
Vehicle movements 8
Fabrication 8
Decoration 8
Cleaning 8
Site services 8
Landscaping 9
Particular construction issues 9
Transitory nature of workers 9
Temporary nature of construction activities and the constantly changing workplace 9
Time pressure 9
Weather conditions 10
Literacy, numeracy and language 10
9.2 Management of health and safety on construction sites 12
Duty holders 12
Client duties 13
Designer duties 13
Coordinator duties 14
Principal designer duties 14
Principal contractor duties 14
Contractor duties 15
Notification 17
Health and safety plan 18
Health and safety file 20
© Astutis Ltd Element IC9: Construction and works of a temporary nature – hazards and controls
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IC9 1.1 Contents
9.3 Protecting employees and others during construction work 22
Site planning / site layout 22
Site access 23
Protecting the public 24
Arrangements for site inductions 26
Use of method statements and permits-to-work 27
Method statements 27
Permits-to-work (PTW) 27
9.4 Working at height from fixed or temporary platforms 30
Common access equipment 32
Ladders and stepladders 32
Trestles and staging platforms 37
Independent tied scaffold 37
Falsework 45
Mobile tower scaffold 47
Temporary access types 50
Suspended access cradles 50
Work-positioning systems 51
Boatswain’s (bosun’s) chairs 51
Rope access techniques 52

Falling materials 53
Roof work 55
Fragile roofs 55
Edge protection for flat and sloping roofs 56
Short-duration work 60
Leading edge protection systems 61
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IC9 1.1 Contents
9.5 Demolition work 63
Pre-demolition surveys 63
Pre-demolition processes 63
Demolition – principles and techniques 63
Demolition machinery and attachments 64
Hazards 66
Precautions 67
Exclusion zones 67
Method statements / safe system of work 68
9.6 Excavations 70
Hazards and precautions 70
Ground movement / collapse of excavation sides 70
Surcharging 75
Ground and surface water 75
Stability of adjacent structures and services 76
Underground services 76
Overhead lines 79
People falling into excavations 79
Plant falling into excavations 79
Materials falling into excavations 79

Toxic gas and oxygen deficiency 80
Biological and chemical health hazards 80
Noise and vibration 81
Use of 360 excavators

o
82
Controlling the risk 82
Training and competence 83
Inspection and maintenance 83
Quick hitches 83
Trenchless technologies 84
Statutory inspections and examinations 85
References 87
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9.0 9.0 Learning outcomes
On completion of this element, candidates should be able to:
XX Outline the scope and nature of construction activities.
XX Outline the principle duties and specific responsibilities for the effective management of
health and safety risks on construction sites.
XX Explain the appropriate site control measures that should be adopted to protect
employees and others during construction work.
XX Outline the hazards associated with working at heights from fixed work or temporary
platforms and the necessary precautions and safe working practices.
XX Explain the hazards and control measures associated with demolition work.
XX Explain the hazards and control measures associated with excavation work.
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9.1 9.1 The scope and nature of construction activities
The International Labour Organization (ILO) Safety and Health in Construction Convention, 1988
(C167) applies to all construction activities, namely building, civil engineering, and erection and
dismantling work, including any process, operation or transport on a construction site, from
the preparation of the site to the completion of the project.
Construction covers:
1 building, including excavation and the construction, structural alteration, renovation,

repair, maintenance (including cleaning and painting) and demolition of all types of
buildings and structures
2 civil engineering, including excavation and the construction, structural alteration, repair,
maintenance and demolition of, for example, airports, docks, harbours, inland waterways,
dams, river and avalanche and sea defence works, roads and highways, railways, bridges,
tunnels, viaducts and works related to the provision of services such as communications,
drainage, sewerage, water and energy supplies
3 the erection and dismantling of prefabricated buildings and structures, as well as the
manufacturing of prefabricated elements on the construction site.
Although it is difficult to obtain accurate statistics in an industry in which many accidents go

undetected and unreported, in many countries known fatal accidents, and those involving loss
of working time are higher than those in any other manufacturing industry.
According to ILO estimates in 2005:
XX each year there are at least 60 000 fatal accidents on construction sites around the world,
i.e. a fatal accident occurs once every ten minutes
XX construction site activities are responsible for 1/6th of all fatal accidents at work
XX in industrialised countries, as many as 25 to 40% of work-related deaths occur on

construction sites, even though the sector employs only 6 to 10% of the workforce
XX in some countries, it is estimated that 30% of construction workers suffer from back
pains or other musculoskeletal disorders.
In the UK the construction industry typically contributes around £100 billion (8.5%) to gross
domestic product (GDP). There are around two million people working in the UK construction
industry (4% of UK working population). Almost 90% work in small companies employing ten
workers or fewer. Around 70 000 workers are truly self-employed.
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The construction sector has the largest number of fatal injuries, of the main industry groups,
and third highest overall (after agriculture and extraction).
700 construction workers have been killed in workplace accidents since 2000/01. Since 1981
there have been more than 2 700 fatalities. In 2009/10 there were 42 fatal injuries (2.2 per
100 000 workers).
With the exception of fatalities it is known that there is significant amount of under-reporting of
accidents and occupational illnesses. The UK’s Health and Safety Executive (HSE) has estimated
the figure for reportable construction accidents each year at approximately 30 000, but only
around 12 000 are actually reported.
Range of construction activities
The range of activities involved in a construction project will vary between projects, but will
typically include:
Site clearance
May involve demolition, removal of overgrowth and groundworks, removal of waste and
ground remediation.
Demolition and dismantling
Demolition activities are discussed in Section 9.4.
Excavation
Excavations include any earthwork, trench, well, shaft, tunnel or underground working.
Excavations are used for laying foundations and installing site utilities. Excavation hazards and
controls are discussed in Section 9.5.
Loading, unloading and storage of materials
The delivery of structural materials and the removal of wastes, the manual and mechanical
handling activities, and the storage of valuable, flammable or otherwise hazardous materials,
all present safety management challenges on a construction site.
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Vehicle movements
Movement of heavy plant and other site vehicles presents a danger to site workers and others.
Ground and weather conditions and the dynamic nature of a construction project can make
this more challenging than in industrial workplaces as discussed in Element IC10.
The particular hazards associated with site dumpers, 360o excavators and all-terrain fork lift
trucks are discussed elsewhere in this element or in Element IC7.
Fabrication
Steel erecting, welding and form-working are common in commercial construction. Mechanical
lifting of structural steels, welding and working at height are all hazardous activities.
Decoration
Painting of internal and external surfaces involves working at height. Paint and other finishes
may be hazardous on skin contact or by inhalation.
Cleaning
Cleaning as you go and good standards of housekeeping are important during a construction
project. In preparing a completed building for occupation and sale, cleaning activities may
involve working at height, the use of high pressure water jetting, and hazardous cleaning
chemicals. The use of shot-blasting for cleaning structural stonework or timber creates a
hazardous silicate dust.
Site services
Site utilities (such as electricity, gas, water and telecommunications) will usually be delivered to
a new structure underground. Fitting cables and pipework throughout a building involves work
at height, and confined space work.
Decommissioning, whereby an area is brought from its fully operational status to one where all
live or charged systems are rendered dead or inert and reduced to the lowest possible hazard
level, is an essential early stage of a demolition project.
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Landscaping
Groundworks to modify site levels and contours ready for lawning, and the introduction of
trees and shrubs, etc. is one of the last stages of a project, readying the site for occupation
or sale. Landscaping will involve the use of earthmoving plant, and mechanical and manual
handling activities.
Particular construction issues
The following issues are particular concerns in the construction sector:
Transitory nature of workers
Construction projects are relatively short term and construction workers are used to travelling
around the country from project to project (see also notes on migrant workers below). Workers
may be self-employed or working on short term contracts with different contractors. Problems
arising include inconsistencies in approach, difficulty in ensuring effective consultation,
cooperation and coordination of activities, and a lack of ‘ownership’ of a project.
Temporary nature of construction activities and the constantly

changing workplace
Each stage of a building project involves different skills with workers often working for different
contractors. Effective project planning is critical to ensure smooth handovers of work areas,
to avoid congestion, and to prevent the hazardous activities of one contractor exposing third
parties to risk.
Time pressure
As mentioned the timeline for a project can easily be disrupted by the weather or other variables
such as the availability of specialist contractors. Missed deadlines for transitional handovers
and completion can result in the imposition of severe contractual penalties.
Contractors are also challenged to price ‘competitively’ for work and can also lose money if
projects overrun.
There can therefore be pressures at all levels to get the job done on time, leading to corner
cutting and rushing, which can impact on health, safety and quality.
As discussed in Section 9.2, the client has overall accountability for ensuring the project is
adequately resourced.
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Weather conditions
Most construction projects involve working outdoors and extremes of weather can pose
problems, such as UV radiation from sunlight and heat stress issues in the summer, the cold in
the winter as well as high winds and heavy rain. Interruptions to scheduled work can also cause
knock on problems (rushing / corner cutting) to keep a project on schedule.
Literacy, numeracy and language
All safety critical information has to be comprehensible and readily understood. If levels of
literacy and numeracy are low, alternative means of sharing information need to be available:
XX tool box talks or verbal briefings rather than written instructions
XX the use of diagrams and pictograms.
Migrant workers may have a more limited ability to communicate effectively with other
workers, particularly in understanding risks and how to avoid them. Many may have very
limited vocabularies. Communicating necessary health and safety information where there is
no common language presents challenges to employers. It is imperative that employers make
early efforts to establish the needs of a particular workforce, and provide a range of methods
to communicate (translators, pictorial information, etc.).
More information and advice translated into a range of languages is available at the UK’s Health
and Safety Executive (HSE) Migrant Workers site.
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WEB LINKS
Safety and Health in Construction Convention 1988 (C167) from the International
Labour Organization (ILO)
www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_
CODE:C167
Working in Great Britain from overseas webpages from the UK’s Health and Safety
Executive (HSE)
www.hse.gov.uk/migrantworkers
Health and safety in the construction industry webpages from the UK's Health and
Safety Executive (HSE)
www.hse.gov.uk/construction
Construction Industry webpages from the USA’s Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA)
www.osha.gov/doc/index.html
Construction webpages from Safe Work Australia

www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/construction
DISCUSS
It is a common perception that construction is the most hazardous area of work and
has the worst reputation for safety. Do you agree? Why is this? Are things changing?
Go online to share your thoughts and see what your fellow

online learners thoughts and experiences are.
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9.2 9.2 Management of health and safety on construction sites
Effective management of a construction project requires:
XX a realistic project programme with adequate time allowed for planning, preparation and
the work itself
XX early appointment of key people
XX competent duty holders with sufficient resources to meet their legal duties
XX early identification and reduction of risks
XX provision of health and safety information through every stage of a project, from design
to demolition and disposal
XX cooperation and coordination between duty holders
XX health and safety resources proportionate to the risk and complexity of the project.
Processes for risk management, provision of information and the cooperation and coordination
of duty holders are managed through clearly defined roles and responsibilities, and the use of
two key documents – the health and safety plan and the health and safety file (discussed later).
Duty holders
The NEBOSH International Diploma syllabus has been influenced by the UK Construction
(Design and Management) Regulations (CDM) and the International Labour Organization (ILO)
Code of Practice for Safety and Health in Construction.
Five specific duty holders are identified. They may be organisations rather than individuals, and
may be within the same organisation:
1 client
2 designer(s)
3 coordinator
4 principal contractor
5 contractors.
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Client duties
Clients should:
XX check the competence and resources of all appointed duty holders
XX coordinate or nominate a competent person to coordinate all activities relating to safety

and health on their construction projects
XX inform all contractors on the project of special risks to health and safety of which the
clients are or should be aware
XX require those submitting tenders to make provision for the cost of safety and health
measures during the construction process
XX take account of safety and health requirements during the construction process when
estimating the periods for completion of work stages and overall completion, to ensure
that sufficient time and resources are available overall
XX ensure that construction work does not commence until suitable welfare facilities and
the construction phase plan are in place
XX retain the health and safety file at completion of the project and provide access to it
as required.
Designer duties
Designers, including architects, engineers and quantity surveyors should eliminate health and
safety hazards and reduce risks during design (whether they present in the construction phase
of the project or during subsequent use). This would include:
XX avoiding the use of dangerous structural or other procedures
XX avoiding the use of hazardous materials
XX addressing problems associated with subsequent maintenance and upkeep
XX providing information about remaining risks.
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Coordinator duties
The primary role of the coordinator is to advise and assist the client with his/her duties and
to coordinate risk management activities before commencement of the construction phase.
This may involve:
XX coordinating the health and safety aspects of design work and cooperate with others
involved with the project
XX facilitating good communication between client, designers and contractors
XX liaising with the principal contractor regarding ongoing design
XX identifying, collecting and passing on pre-construction info
XX preparing and updating the health and safety file.
Note: In April 2015, with the introduction of a new set of CDM Regulations in the UK, the role
of the CDM coordinator has been removed and the duties allocated to the principal designer.
Principal designer duties
A principal designer is a designer that is appointed by the client to a project involving more than
one contractor.
The principal designer is responsible for:
XX planning, managing, monitoring and coordinating health and safety in the pre-
construction phase of a project (this involves identifying and eliminating or controlling
foreseeable risks; and ensuring designers carry out their duties
XX preparing and providing relevant information for other duty holders
XX providing relevant information to the principal contractor to help them plan, manage,
monitor and coordinate health and safety in the pre-construction phase of a project.
Principal contractor duties
Whenever two or more employers undertake activities simultaneously or successively at one

construction site, the principal contractor takes primary responsibility for overall construction
site activities and is responsible for planning and coordinating safety and health measures and
for ensuring compliance with those measures. The role involves:
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XX planning, managing and monitoring the construction phase in liaison with other
contractors
XX checking the competence of contractors and other duty holders
XX preparation, development and implementation of a written health and safety plan and
site rules before the construction phase begins
XX ensuring that suitable welfare facilities are provided from the start and maintained
throughout the construction phase of the project
XX ensuring that all workers have site inductions and any further information and training
needed for the work
XX communicating relevant parts of the health and safety plan to the contractors
XX ensuring that the workers are consulted on health and safety arrangements
XX liaising with the coordinator regarding ongoing design
XX ensuring the security of the site.
Contractor duties
All contractors are responsible for:
XX planning, managing and monitoring their own work and that of their workers
XX checking the competence of all their appointees and workers
XX providing appropriate information, instruction, training and supervision to their workers
XX cooperating with the principal contractor
XX informing the principal contractor of any sub-contractors engaged
XX informing the principal contractor of any problems with the health and safety plan
XX informing the principal contractor of any reportable accidents
XX providing any information needed for the health and safety file.
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WEB LINKS
The Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 2015 webpages from the UK’s
Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
www.hse.gov.uk/construction/cdm/2015/index.htm
Safety and health in construction code of practice from the International Labour
Organization (ILO)
www.ilo.org/safework/info/standards-and-instruments/codes/WCMS_107826/lang--
en/index.htm
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Notification
The ILO advocates that national laws or regulations should provide for the notification by the
client to the enforcing authority of construction sites of prescribed size, duration or other
relevant characteristics.
In the UK under CDM Regulations a project is notifiable if the construction phase is:
a longer than 30 days and have more than twenty workers working simultaneously at any
point of the project, or
b involves more than 500 person days of construction work.
The information that has to be sent to the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) is set out in the
regulations, and a prescribed form, F10 (rev) is available for use.
The actual form is not needed as long as the following information is provided:
1 date of forwarding
2 exact address of the construction site
3 the name of the local authority where the site is located
4 a brief description of the project and the construction work which it includes
5 contact details of the client (name, address, telephone number and any email address)
6 contact details of the principal designer (name, address, telephone number and
any email address)
7 contact details of the principal contractor (name, address, telephone number and any
email address)
8 date planned for the start of the construction phase
9 the time allowed by the client for the construction work

10 planned duration of the construction phase
11 estimated maximum number of people at work on the construction site
12 planned number of contractors on the construction site
13 name and address of any contractor already appointed
14 name and address of any designer already engaged
15 a declaration signed by or on behalf of the client, that the client is aware of his duties
under these regulations.
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Health and safety plan
The client provides the principal contractor with pre-construction information regarding the:
XX description of the project

XX client’s considerations and management requirements
XX environmental restrictions and existing on-site risks
XX significant design and construction hazards
XX health and safety file.
The principal contractor prepares a detailed response to the contents of the pre-construction
information, which becomes the health and safety plan.
The health and safety plan provides a general framework for the management of health and
safety. The plan is altered and modified in line with contract progress, and also provides a
focus for on-going communications with sub-contractors, designers and others involved in the
execution of the project.
The level of detail should be proportionate to the risks involved in the project. The basic
contents are summarised in Table 9.1.
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XX Project description
Project XX Programme details / key dates

description XX Duty holder details
XX Extent and location of existing records and plans
XX Management structure and responsibilities

XX Project health and safety goals
XX Arrangements for:
• monitoring and review of health and safety performance
• liaison, consultation and exchange of information between

interested parties
• managing design changes
Management • selection and control of contractors
of works
• site security
• site induction and other on-site training
• welfare facilities and first aid
• accident and incident reporting and investigation
• production and approval of risk assessments and written
systems of work
• site rules
• fire and emergency procedures.
Table 9.1: Health and safety plan (1 of 2)
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Arrangements XX Safety risks, for example:
for controlling
• delivery and removal of materials (including waste) and work
significant site
equipment
risks
• dealing with services – water, electricity and gas, including
overhead power lines and temporary electrical installations
• stability of structures whilst carrying out construction
work, including temporary structures and existing unstable
structures
• preventing falls
• work on excavations and work where there are poor ground

conditions
• traffic routes and segregation of vehicles and pedestrians
• storage of materials and work equipment.
XX Health risks, for example:
• the removal of asbestos

• dealing with contaminated land
• use of hazardous substances
• reducing noise and vibration.
The health XX Layout and format

and safety file XX Arrangements for the collection and gathering of information
XX Storage of information
Table 9.1: Health and safety plan (2 of 2)
Health and safety file
The health and safety file should include the following information, where this may be relevant
to the health and safety of any future construction work.
The level of detail should be proportionate to the risks likely to be involved in such work.
a A brief description of the work carried out.
b Residual hazards and how they have been dealt with, for example, surveys or other
information concerning asbestos, contaminated land, or buried services.
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c Key structural principles incorporated in the design of the structure, for example, bracing
and safe working loads for floors and roofs, particularly where these may preclude placing
scaffolding or heavy machinery there.
d Any hazards associated with the materials used, for example, hazardous substances, lead
paint and special coatings which should not be burned off.
e Information regarding the removal or dismantling of installed plant and equipment, such
as lifting arrangements.
f Health and safety information about equipment provided for cleaning or maintaining
the structure.
g The nature, location and markings of significant services, including fire-fighting services.
h Information and as-built drawings of the structure, its plant and equipment, for example,
the means of safe access to and from service voids fire doors and compartmentation.
WATCH. LISTEN
There are a number of common hazards found on building

sites. If you do not work in construction you may not be
familiar with these, so it might help to see them illustrated in
the Safe on site NAPO animations from EU-OSHA.
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Protecting employees and others during construction
9.3
9.3
work
Site planning / site layout
The ILO considers a badly planned site to be the underlying cause of many accidents resulting
from falls of material and collisions between workers and plant or equipment.
Space constraints, particularly urban work sites, are nearly always the biggest limiting factor
and proper management planning is essential in ensuring the safe and efficient running of a
construction project.
Careful consideration should be given to the following.
XX The sequence or order in which work will be done and to any especially hazardous
operations or processes.
XX Access for workers on and around the site with routes kept be free from obstruction
and from exposure to hazards such as falling materials, materials-handling equipment
and vehicles.
XX Vehicle routes should:
• be segregated from pedestrian routes

• minimise the need for reversing operations with one-way systems and turning points
• be adequate for the number, type and size of the largest vehicles that may use them
• have firm surfaces, adequate drainage and safe profiles to allow safe vehicle
movements.
XX Storage areas for materials and equipment should be as close as possible to the appropriate
work area e.g. Sand and gravel close to the cement-batching plant, and timber close to
the joinery shop.
XX Delivery times for materials should be scheduled to minimise disruption to site activities
and traffic on adjacent highways.
XX The location of construction machinery. This is usually dependent on operational

requirements so that tower cranes are subject to constraints such as their radius of
operation, and pick-up and unloading points. The objective should be to avoid the need
to slew the load over workers.
XX The location of trade workshops – these are not usually moved after they are built.
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XX The location of medical and welfare facilities. On large sites sanitary facilities for both
sexes should be provided at several locations.
XX Artificial lighting at places where work continues or workers pass after dark.
XX Site security (see notes on site access and protecting the public below).
XX Arrangements to keep the site tidy and for the collection, storage and removal of waste.
XX The need for low-voltage electric power supplies for temporary lighting, portable tools
and equipment.
XX Training needs of both workers and supervisors.
Site access
There should be safe access onto and around the site for people and vehicles. Plan how vehicles
will be kept clear of pedestrians, especially at site entrances where it may be necessary to
provide doors or gates to achieve this segregation. Doors that open onto traffic routes may
need viewing panels or windows.
Plans should also address segregation of vehicles and pedestrians at vehicle loading/unloading
areas, parking and manoeuvring places and areas where drivers’ vision may be obstructed.
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Safety Barrier Pedestrian Security office Pedestrian Safety
signs route fence entrance signs
Figure 9.1: Site entrance to large construction site
Protecting the public
The precautions which need to be taken to adequately protect the public and visitors may differ
significantly from those taken to protect those working on the site as the public are likely to be
less aware of the dangers involved with the construction process than those working on site.
This lack of awareness can be bridged through good communication and the sharing of
relevant information.
Even experienced construction workers visiting a site may also require additional information if
they are unsure of the site layout, specific groups, such as children, need special consideration
because of their vulnerability, and consideration should also be given to the safety of trespassers
on site.
Determining the site perimeter is an important aspect of managing public risk. For most sites
the perimeter is a clearly defined geographical area within which construction work will be
carried out. Once the site perimeter is established consideration can be given to:
XX activities presenting risk on site within the perimeter (such as scaffolds, excavations and
vehicle movements)
XX activities which can create risks outside the site perimeter (e.g. noise, dust , and mud on
the public highway).
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Consideration must be given to:
XX planning the form that the perimeter will take
XX providing the perimeter
XX maintaining what has been provided.
A 2 m high fence is an effective site barrier for most sites, however larger hoardings may be
appropriate where there have been previous attempts by children to gain access to the site.
Perimeter fences can be constructed from a range of materials, including metal mesh or
plywood or other sheeting materials.
If a fence is to be used then it should be difficult to climb. Using a small gauge mesh which
prevents children getting their hands and feet through should mean that no one can gain
handholds or footholds.
Sectional fencing should be locked together and not easily separated without using a tool from
the inside of the site.
Gaps underneath perimeter fencing and gates should be kept as small as possible to stop
anyone gaining access under the fence. On uneven ground the gaps can be quite considerable
if steps are not taken to level the surface.
The feet of sectional fencing should be highlighted wherever they protrude into pedestrian
areas to help prevent tripping accidents.
Wind loading can be considerable where timber sheeting is used and the perimeter fencing
(including the support and fixing arrangements for the structures) should be designed and
constructed to withstand foreseeable wind loads.
It can be useful to provide public vision panels. These requirements need to be reflected in its
design and construction.
Securable gates should be provided at access points. The gates should form part of the fence
and be of the same size. The gate should be lockable for site security purposes but must not
impede the ability to escape in an emergency.
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Arrangements for site inductions
Each contractor must provide any person employed by that contractor or working under
the contractor’s control on the construction site any information and instruction so that
construction work can be carried out without risk to health and safety. This includes:
XX a suitable site induction, where not already provided by the principal contractor
XX the procedures to be followed in the event of serious and imminent danger to health and
safety
XX information on risks to their health and safety.
All site induction training should be recorded, and general matters for training include:
XX signing in / out arrangements
XX fitness to work / alcohol / drug screening procedures
XX parking and site traffic rules
XX PPE requirements
XX working conditions on site, exclusion areas
XX emergency procedures (medical, fire, environmental, security, RV points, incident

reporting)
XX use of mobile phones, smoking
XX specific PTW requirements
XX use of welfare facilities.
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Use of method statements and permits-to-work
Method statements
Method statements can be an effective and practical health and safety management tool
for communicating a safe system of work to those undertaking it, especially for higher-risk
complex or unusual work such as steel and formwork erection, demolition or the use of
hazardous substances.
The method statement draws together the information compiled about the various hazards
and the ways in which they are to be controlled for any particular job from the conclusions of
the risk assessments.
A method statement also takes account of the company’s health and safety organisation and
training procedures and may include arrangements to deal with serious or imminent danger.
The method statement describes in a logical sequence exactly how a job is to be carried out in
a safe manner and without risks to health, and includes all the control measures/precautions
to be taken. The most effective health and safety method statements often have a number of
diagrams to make it clear how work should be carried out.
It ensures that the job is to be properly planned and resourced. It can also provide information
for other contractors working at the site about any effects the work will have on them and help
the principal contractor to develop an overall health and safety plan for the construction phase
of a project.
If a similar operation is repeated, the statement will be similar from job to job, however it
will need to be adapted to suit local conditions. If circumstances change markedly, e.g. with
demolition, a more comprehensive revision may be required ahead of the job.
Monitoring/auditing arrangements are required to check that the working methods set out in
the statement are actually put into practice on site.
Permits-to-work (PTW)
As discussed in Element IA6 a permit-to-work (PTW) system is a formal recorded process used
to control work which is identified as potentially hazardous. It is also a means of communication
between the various parties who carry out the hazardous work.
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The essential features of permit-to-work systems and the basic process are summarised below:
Essential features Basic process
Clear identification of persons responsible Issue by a competent issuing authority

for authorising particular jobs (and any setting the parameters of the permit and
limits to their authority) and persons confirming that precautions are in place.
responsible for specifying necessary
precautions.
Clear identification of the types of Acceptance by a competent worker

hazardous work (e.g. hot work, use of (performing authority) confirming
explosives, high voltage, or other high risk understanding of the work to be done,
electrical work etc.) hazards involved and corresponding
precautions.
Clear and standardised identification of: Hand-back of the PTW, by the performing
authority, confirming that the work has
XX tasks
been completed to plan.
XX risk assessments
XX permitted task duration
XX supplemental or simultaneous
activity and control measures.
Training and instruction in the issue, use Cancellation of the PTW by the issuing
and closure of permits. authority confirming the work has been
tested and the work area returned to
normal use.
Monitoring and auditing to ensure that Additional procedures are required for
the system works as intended. extension of agreed time limits if necessary
and for managing shift handovers.
28
WEB LINKS
Protecting the public web pages from the UK’s Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
www.hse.gov.uk/construction/safetytopics/publicprotection.htm
Site Security web pages from the UK’s Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
www.hse.gov.uk/comah/sragtech/techmeassecurity.htm
Protecting the Public Near Construction Sites briefing from ASSE (USA)
www.asse.org/broadcasts/a10-34-brief5-27-09.html
29
9.4 9.4 Working at height from fixed or temporary platforms
Falls from height within the construction industry, account for a high percentage of work-
related fatalities. In the United States, 33% of all fatalities in construction are caused by falls
from height, and in the UK, the figure is 52%.
As discussed in Element IC1, Section 4 some attempts to regulate work at height are designed
around a notional safe height such as 1.8 metres above which protection must be provided.
Historically in the UK work at height in the construction sector utilised the ‘two metre rule’,
however it was known that around 2/3 of all fall injuries were as a result of falls of less than
2 metres, and safeguarding on the basis of an arbitrary height was considered inconsistent
with the principles of risk assessment embodied in European Directives for working at height
(2001/45/EC) and the use of work equipment (89/655/EEC).
The current UK approach is embodied in the Work at Height Regulations 2005, which apply to
all work at height where there is a risk of a fall liable to cause personal injury.
Duty holders (employers, the self-employed, and any person that controls the work of others,
such as facilities managers or building owners who may contract others to work at height),
must ensure:
XX all work at height is properly planned and organised

XX those involved in work at height are competent
XX the risks from work at height are assessed and suitable work equipment is selected
and used
XX the risks from fragile surfaces are properly controlled
XX equipment for work at height is properly inspected and maintained.
Duty holders must also adhere to the following hierarchy for managing and selecting equipment
for work at height.
XX Avoid work at height where possible.

XX Use work equipment or other measures to prevent falls (where working at height cannot
be avoided).
XX Use work equipment or other measures to minimise the distance and consequences of a
fall, where the risk of a fall cannot be eliminated.
30
Element IC1 considered the following control measures.
XX Fall prevention equipment including:
• guard rails
• work restraint.
XX Fall arrest equipment including:
• lanyard and shock absorber (and/or inertia reel)
• landing systems.
WEB LINKS
European Union (EU) Directive 2001/45/EC

eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32001L0045
European Union (EU) Directive 89/655/EEC

eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:31989L0655
Work at Height Regulations 2005 (UK)

www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2005/735/contents/made
31
Common access equipment
Ladders and stepladders
In the UK a third of all reported fall-from-height incidents involve ladders and stepladders,
typically accounting for 14 deaths and 1 200 major injuries to workers each year.
A ladder should only be used for work at height if a risk assessment has demonstrated that the
use of more suitable work equipment is not justified because of:
XX The low risk
• ‘light work’ (loads < 10 kg or otherwise justified by a detailed manual handling

assessment)
• a handhold is available on the ladder or stepladder.
XX Three points of contact (hands and feet) can be maintained at the working position.
XX The short duration of use (maximum of 30 minutes in one position).
XX Existing features on site which cannot be altered.
Hazards and Precautions
When working on a ladder or stepladder care should be taken to avoid:
XX overloading – the maximum load stated on the ladder should not be exceeded
XX overreaching – the workers body should remain between the stiles, and both feet should
be planted on the same rung throughout the task.

Figure 9.2: Overreaching
32
Carrying of tools and equipment should be avoided (by wearing a tool belt, for example) so that
three point contact can be maintained.
Where the job means that a handhold cannot be maintained other access equipment should
be used. For some work off a stepladder, such as loading or unloading from shelves, the use of
a stepladder may still be justified by a risk assessment, taking into account:
XX the height of the task

XX a safe handhold still being available on the stepladder
XX whether it is light work
XX whether it avoids side loading
XX whether it avoids overreaching
XX whether the user’s feet are fully supported
XX whether the stepladder can be tied.
Side loading should be avoided on stepladders, by having the steps facing the work activity.
Where side-on loadings cannot be avoided the steps should be tied to a suitable point, or a
more suitable type of access equipment should be used.
 
Figure 9.3: Avoiding side loading a stepladder
Selecting a ladder
A ladder or a stepladder should be:
XX suitable for worst case surface conditions, such as smooth, wet floor tiles
XX suitable for the task/environment, for example, non-conducting ladder for electrical work
XX Class 3 (industrial) or EN 131 ladders or stepladders for use at work
XX suitable size for the work
XX used with the manufacturer’s recommended stability devices
33
Safe positioning / setting up
A ladder or stepladder should only be used:
XX On firm ground or on a suitable board to spread the load.

XX On clean, solid surfaces, free of loose material so the feet can grip.
XX On level ground. For leaning ladders the maximum safe ground slopes on a suitable
surface are:
• side slope – 16o (with level rungs)

• back slope – 6o.
Levelling
device
16°
6°
Figure 9.4: Maximum safe ground slopes
Securing a ladder
The options for securing a ladder are:
XX Tie the ladder to a suitable point, making sure both stiles are tied.
XX Where this is not practical, use a safe, unsecured ladder or a ladder supplemented with
an effective ladder stability device.
XX If this is not possible, then securely wedge the ladder, against a wall, for example.
XX If none of the above can be achieved, foot the ladder. Note: footing is the last resort and
should be avoided, where reasonably practicable, by the use of other access equipment.
34
 
 
Figure 9.5: Securing a ladder
Training in safe use
Ladders, stepladders and stability devices should only be used by people who are competent
to do so.
Users should be trained and instructed to use the equipment safely, in accordance with the
following rules:
1 Ensure the ladder or stepladder is long enough
For ladders:
XX don’t use the top three rungs
XX ladders used for access should project at

least 1 m above the landing point and be
tied.
For stepladders:
XX don’t use the top two steps of a stepladder,

unless a suitable handrail is available
XX don’t use the top three steps of swing-back

or double-sided stepladders, where a step
forms the very top of the stepladder.
Figure 9.6: Ladder landing access
35
 
Figure 9.7: Stepladder – don’t use top steps
2 Ensure the ladder or stepladder rungs or steps are level for use:
• judged by naked eye
• adjusted by specially designed devices.
3 Ensure the weather is suitable:

• do not use in strong or gusting winds (follow manufacturer’s advice).
4 Wear robust, sensible footwear (such as safety shoes/boots or trainers) with:

• intact soles
• no dangling laces
• no mud / slippery contaminants.
5 Know how to prevent members of the public and unauthorised workers from using them.
6 Know that certain medical conditions or medication, alcohol or drug abuse could stop
them from using ladders.
7 Know how to tie a ladder or stepladder properly.
WEB LINKS
Using ladders safely webpages from the UK’s Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
www.hse.gov.uk/work-at-height/using-ladders-safely.htm
Stairways and Ladders guide from the USA’s Occupational Safety and Health
www.osha.gov/Publications/ladders/osha3124.html
36
Trestles and staging platforms
Trestles are made with a swing back similar to stepladders, but both halves have heavy cross
bearers to support a working platform. Platforms should be of lightweight staging. Access to
trestle platforms should be by means of a stepladder.
Trestles can be used if the risk assessment shows that the risk of a person falling and injuring
themselves is low, and the work on top of the trestle is of short duration.
Steel or aluminium trestles are used in conjunction with scaffold boards or staging. Guardrail
systems are available for trestles and if they are not used the decision would need to be justified
by risk assessment.
Other supports, such as bandstands, are used with staging and are often referred to as trestles.
Figure 9.8: A frame trestle and extending trestles with working platform
Independent tied scaffold
An independent tied scaffold is a traditional tube and coupler scaffold. It is independent

because it is free standing, although it is tied into the building being worked on to provide
increased horizontal stability.
An independent scaffold is constructed with two rows of standards (vertical tubes), both
internal (close to the structure) and external. The distance between the standards, parallel
with the face of the building, is called the bay-length. A shorter bay length means that the
scaffold is stronger and capable of supporting heavier loads. The components are illustrated in
Figure 9.9 (a simplified illustration) and described in Table 9.2.
Provided the scaffold is properly designed, constructed, maintained and used it provides a safe
means of access and a safe working platform which, through the provision of guard rails and
toe boards, prevents falls and falling objects.
37
Guard rail
Working Toe board

platform
(deck)
Transom
Bay Standard
width
Ledger
bracing
Ledger
Base plate
Faḉade Sole board

bracing
Figure 9.9: Independent tied scaffold
38
Component Description
Standard Vertical (upright) tube.
Ledger Horizontal tube – in the direction of the larger dimension of the

working scaffold.
Transom Horizontal tube – in the direction of the smaller dimensions of the

working scaffold.
Raker Load-bearing tube inclined at 75o and coupled to the second lift. Used
where normal ties are inappropriate.
Façade (Face) Diagonal tube parallel to the façade of the building.

bracing
Ledger Diagonal tube perpendicular to the face of the building.

bracing
Base plate Metal plate used to spread the load from a standard (base plates with
vertical adjustment are called base jacks).
Sole board Timber plank positioned beneath two or more base plates to evenly
distribute the scaffold load over the ground.
Coupler Device used to connect two tubes.
Tie Means of securing the scaffold to the building (see Figure 9.10).
Bay Distance between pairs of standards (parallel to face of building).
Lift A floor or a storey.
Table 9.2: Scaffold components and features
39
Eye bolt
55
Anchor
Reveal tie
Through tie
Figure 9.10: Scaffold ties
40
Scaffolding – hazards and precautions
The main hazards associated with scaffolds are:
XX collapse of the scaffold

XX people falling from the scaffold
XX objects (including components) falling, or being dropped from the scaffold
XX people walking into the scaffold.
The risk factors and precautions are outlined in Table 9.3.
Hazards Precautions
Collapse XX Designed and constructed by competent

scaffolders.
XX Inadequate design and
construction XX Loaded within specification of design class.
XX Overloading XX Additional ties provided if sheeted, to cope

XX Wind loading if sheeted with additional wind loading.
XX Vehicular impacts XX Segregated from vehicular traffic and/or

protected by barriers.
Fall from height XX Safe means of access provided.
XX Workers XX Working platforms fully boarded and edge

protected.
XX Trespassers
XX Site security.
XX Ladders removed and secured outside of

working hours.
Falling objects XX Provision of toe boards / brick guards.
XX Construction materials/tools XX Segregated or protected pedestrian walkways.
XX Scaffold components XX Safe systems and adequate supervision for

erection and taking down.
People walking into the scaffold XX Highlighted with hazard warning tape and
lighting.
XX Workers
XX Guide rail for visually impaired (if on
XX Public–pedestrians if scaffold highway).
on pavement/highway
XX Padding of tube ends.
Table 9.3: Scaffold – major hazards and precautions
41
General advice for scaffolds
XX Only competent people should design, alter, erect or dismantle a scaffold.

XX Scaffolds should be:
• erected on a firm, level foundation, capable of supporting the weight of the scaffold
and any loads likely to be placed on it
• fully braced and tied into the building being worked on.
XX Scaffolds should not be overloaded and should be designed for the appropriate class of
use (See Table 9.4).
XX Working platforms should be fully boarded and edge protected, and be wide enough for
the class of use (Table 9.4).
Type of Use of Platform No of Max. Max. Typical

scaffold scaffold loadings boards working bay loads
platforms centres
kN/ Kg/
m2 m2
Light duty Plastering 1.5 153 4 2 2.4 m 2 men +

independent Painting 175 kg
Cleaning materials
General Building 2.0 204 5 2 + 1 very 2.1 m 1 man +

purpose work Light light duty 350 kg
independent brick work materials
Heavy duty Brickwork 2.5 255 5 2 + 1 very 2.0 m 2 men +

independent Heavy light duty 250 kg
cladding materials
Table 9.4: Independent tied scaffold – classes of use
Statutory inspection of scaffolds
Scaffolding must be regularly inspected by a competent person:
a Immediately after it has been constructed (the scaffold contractor should provide a
hand-over certificate within 24 hours of completing the scaffold).
b Before anybody goes on to it (this may be some time after it has been built).
c After any incident that may have damaged it, for example, after a storm or vehicle impact.
d Every 7 days (a formal report must be completed and entered into the site register).
42
A written report should be made following inspection and before the end of the working shift.
Within 24 hours the report, or a copy, should be provided to the person on whose behalf the
inspection was carried out.
The following information should be included:
XX name and address of person on whose behalf the inspection was carried out
XX location of the workplace inspected
XX description of workplace or part of workplace inspected
XX date and time of inspection
XX details of any matter identified that could lead to a health or safety risk
XX details of any action taken as a result of any identified health or safety risk.
WEB LINKS
Scaffold checklist webpage from the UK’s Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
www.hse.gov.uk/construction/safetytopics/scaffoldinginfo.htm
Scaffolding webpage from the USA’s Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
www.osha.gov/SLTC/scaffolding/index.html
EXAM QUESTIONS
An independent scaffold is to be used as a working platform to carry out repairs to a

two-storey building.
(a) Outline factors which should be considered in order to confirm that (15 marks)
the scaffold is safe to use.
(b) Identify the inspection requirements for the scaffold. (5 marks)
Remember that you can have a go at answering these

questions online AND the answers expected by the examiners
will also be revealed!
43
EXAM QUESTIONS
The International Labour Organization’s Standard R175 and its associated Code of
Practice sets out general principles for ‘Safety and Health in Construction’.
Minor repairs need to be carried out to the sloping roof of a large two storey property.
A scaffold is to be erected in order to gain access to the work area.
Using the guidance in R175, outline the precautions necessary for carrying (20 marks)
out the repairs.

44
Falsework
Falsework is any temporary structure used to support a permanent structure while it is not
self-supporting, either in new construction or refurbishment. Any failure of falsework may lead
to the collapse of the permanent structure.
The causes of many past failures were foreseeable and could have been prevented by proper
consideration when planning, erecting, loading or dismantling the falsework.
Failures often occur on fairly simple structures erected by smaller falsework contractors, who
may not employ design staff.
All practicable steps should be taken to ensure that any new or existing structure or any part of
such structure which may become unstable or in a temporary state of weakness or instability
due to the carrying out of construction work does not collapse.
Buttresses, temporary supports or temporary structures should be designed, installed and

maintained to withstand any foreseeable loads which may be imposed on it. No part of a
structure shall be so loaded as to render it unsafe.
Falsework should be constructed in accordance with BS EN 12812:2008 – Falsework.

Performance requirements and general design.
The falsework designer should give due consideration to:
XX designing falsework that can be erected, inspected and dismantled safely, including how
striking (dismantling) will be achieved (it may be craned into position in one piece but
could have to be removed piecemeal)
XX selecting adequate foundations or providing information to ensure adequate foundations

are used
XX stability requirements, lateral restraint and wind uplift on untied decking components
XX providing the information that the temporary works coordinator will need to manage the
interface between the falsework and the permanent structure safely.
All materials used in the falsework construction should be:
XX fit for purpose and sufficiently strong and stable
XX free of patent defect
XX be compatible (i.e. different proprietary components should not be mixed, unless

expressly approved by the designer).
45
Once complete, all falsework should be inspected and certified as ready for use (a written
permit-to-load procedure is strongly recommended). The frequency of subsequent inspections
will depend on the nature of the temporary works. They should be carried out frequently
enough to enable any faults to be rectified promptly.
WEB LINKS
BS EN 12812:2008 – Falsework. Performance requirements and general design.

shop.bsigroup.com/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000030171945
46
Mobile tower scaffold
Mobile access towers are widely used and can provide an effective and safe means of gaining
access to work at height. However, aluminium and thin-wall steel towers are light and can
easily overturn if used incorrectly.
Guard rail
Intermediate rail
Toe board
Ladder on
end frame
Outrigger
Lockable castor
Figure 9.11: Mobile tower scaffold
Safe erection
Mobile tower scaffolds should be constructed by competent personnel in accordance with the
erection sequence specified in the manufacturer’s instructions.
Towers should not be erected taller than manufacturers’ instructions (maximum height is
usually a multiple of longest base dimension) and should only be constructed with compatible
components, in good order.
47
The Prefabricated Access Suppliers and Manufacturers Association (PASMA) have worked
with the UK’s Health and Safety Executive (HSE) to develop safe methods of work for tower
scaffold erection.
There are two approved methods:
XX Advance guard rail systems, which use specially designed temporary guard rail units,
which are locked in place from the level below and moved up to the platform level.
XX ‘Through the Trap’ (3T), which makes use of standard tower components with the
operator taking up a working position in the trap door of the platform, from where
they can add or remove the components which act as the guard rails on the level
above the platform.
Safe use
The tower should be used on firm, level ground. The castors should be locked or base
plates properly supported. Outriggers should be used in accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommendations.
Barriers should be erected at ground level to prevent people walking in the area adjacent to
the tower.
The tower should not be over loaded with heavy materials or equipment. Side loading
should also be avoided as this will affect the tower stability, for example, supporting ladders,
trestles and rubbish chutes, and strong winds, especially when sheeted.
Safe access must be provided to the work platform. This is usually by an integral internal
ladder. The rungs on the tower end frames should not be climbed, unless specifically designed
for the purpose.
The working platform must be provided with suitable edge protection, including guard rail,
intermediate rail and toe boards.
Moving the tower
The tower height should be reduced to less than 4 m. The route of travel should be checked
for overhead obstructions, poor ground conditions and other hazards such as moving vehicles.
The tower should only be moved by manual force (pushing or pulling) applied at waist to
shoulder height. The tower should never be towed by a vehicle. The tower should not be moved
with people, materials or equipment on it, and should not be moved in high winds.
48
Inspections and reports
The inspection requirements for mobile towers scaffold depends upon the height of the
scaffold, as in Table 9.5:
Working platform < 2 m high Working platform 2 m or higher
XX after assembly in any position XX after assembly in any position
XX after any event liable to have XX after any event liable to have
affected its stability affected its stability
XX at suitable intervals depending on XX at intervals not exceeding seven

frequency and conditions of use. days.
Table 9.5: Inspection requirements for mobile tower scaffolds
The results of the inspection should be recorded and kept until the next inspection.
For towers over 2 m, inspected after assembly or to comply with the seven day regime, the
report must be written in the same shift as the inspection and forwarded to the responsible
person within 24 hours.
The report must be kept on site until construction work is complete and, in any case, be
retained for 3 months.
WEB LINKS
Prefabricated Access Suppliers and Manufacturers Association

www.pasma.co.uk
49
Temporary access types
Suspended access cradles
Accidents happen during installation, use and dismantling of temporary cradles. Most accidents
happen because of:
XX unsafe access to and from the cradle
XX insufficient or poorly secured counterweights and holding-down systems
XX failure of the cradle platform or component, such as drop-nose pins and bolts
XX failure of winches, climbing devices, safety gear and ropes, usually as a result of poor
maintenance
XX failure to follow the manufacturer’s instructions on erection and dismantling.
Equipment should be selected, installed, thoroughly examined and tested to ensure that
it is suitable for its intended purpose. Cradles should only be used by suitably trained and
competent workers.
When using cradles the following checks should be made:
XX Adequate floor covering, guard rails and toe boards to prevent materials falling from, or
through, the cradle’s base.
XX The equipment should be capable of fitting closely to the building and, where buffers or
rollers are fitted, they should run against suitable features on the building.
Support to reduce pressure

on building edge
Counterweight
Cradle
Figure 9.12: Suspended access cradle
50
XX The building should be capable of carrying the loads placed upon it, particularly under
the counterweights and under the fulcrum (or pivot point) of the outrigger.
XX Jib spacing should match the cradle length and, when the cradle can move, adequate
stops should be provided to prevent the cradle running off the end of the track.
XX Jib length and counterweights should be specified to give a factor of safety against
overturning of no less than three.
XX A secondary safety rope fitted with a fall arrest device should be provided and used.
XX Adequate operating instructions and technical support should be available. If the

equipment is hired, the supplier should be able to advise.
XX The cradle should not be overloaded, and loads should be placed on the platform as
uniformly as possible.
XX There should be safe access into the cradle, ideally from ground level.
XX There should be a plan for rescuing the operator if there is a cradle fault while at a
high level.
If the motor on a powered cradle fails, it can make the cradle tip, or people may overbalance
and fall while reaching out of the cradle. Safety harnesses with a short lanyard attached to
specially designed anchorage points installed in the cradle help keep the workers in a safe
position within the cradle.
Work-positioning systems
A work-positioning system is a personal fall-protection system, which includes a harness

connected to a reliable anchor to support the user in tension or suspension in such a way that a
fall is prevented or restricted. A back-up system must be provided in case the primary support
fails. Examples include: boatswain’s chairs, or people working on telephone poles.
Boatswain’s (bosun’s) chairs
A bosun’s chair should only be used for light, short-duration work where the provision of a
working platform or other mobile access equipment is not practicable. A chair with a seat, a
back and a central suspension point is preferable to a plank seat.
The user should be attached to the suspension system by a harness and lanyard to protect
against falls. A carrying point should be available for tools.
51
The rope grab must be compatible with the rope type, rope diameter and/or energy-absorbing
lanyard in use.
Rope access techniques
Rope access and positioning systems normally comprise two ropes, each secured to different
anchors. The working line is used for access, egress and positioning, and the second is the
safety line. The user is connected to both lines.
The working line is equipped with a means of ascent and descent and has a self-locking system
which prevents the user from falling.
The safety line is equipped with a mobile fall protection system that is connected to and travels
with the user of the system.
Rope access is often used to access the sides of tall building when cradles are not suitable.
The technique is suitable for inspection and other similar activities but not for general
construction work.
The following precautions should be made:
XX The equipment must be erected and used under the supervision of a competent person
and a pre-use check must be carried out.
XX Anyone using the technique must be trained and competent.
XX The working line and safety line should be attached to two separate anchor points.
XX All equipment must be checked carefully before each use.
XX All equipment must be maintained to a high standard.
XX Tools should be attached to the operator with a suitable lanyard so that they cannot
be dropped.
XX Where a risk of dropped tools or falling materials remains, the area beneath the work
should be fenced off or protected by fans, covered walkways, or similar.
52
Falling materials
Workers and members of the public have been killed or seriously injured after being struck by
falling or ejected materials.
The first priority is to prevent materials falling in the first place. This should be supported with
additional measures to protect people, to prevent them from being struck by any materials
which do fall.
The following precautions should be considered:
XX Safe systems are required for raising and

lowering materials, for example, an enclosed
hoist platform or carefully positioned gin
wheel away from public areas.
XX Debris chutes should be used when removing

debris into a skip. The skip should be covered
to stop flying debris and cut down dust.
XX Materials must not be dropped or thrown

into an uncontrolled area, and chutes used
for debris.
XX Safe systems of work are required for

dismantling equipment, for example,
striking formwork or scaffolds to prevent
components and timbers falling into public
areas.
Figure 9.13: Debris chute and
XX Debris netting should be provided to retain
covered skip
light ejected materials.
XX Plastic sheeting should be used on scaffolds to retain dust, drips and splashes which may
occur when cleaning building façades.
XX Scaffold fans may be required to protect people below from heavier objects.
XX Covered walkways (tunnels) may also be needed where the risk is particularly high.
XX Material storage should be kept to a minimum.
XX Toeboards or brick guards should be provided, and materials should not be stored above
the height of the toeboards or brick guards.
53
XX Protected walkways may be needed in some circumstances, for example, demolition
sites where materials could fall into pedestrian areas.
XX Where the risk of materials falling cannot be eliminated the area should be fenced off,
and access should be controlled to avoid times when there is a risk of being struck.
XX Warning signs should be prominently displayed.
Brickguard
Tarpaulin /
similar
sheeting
Second layer
of boards
Without sheeting, materials

could escape at these points
Figure 9.14: Protection to scaffold working platform where public are at risk from falling materials (HSG33)
Figure 9.15: Scaffold fans and debris net (from Combisafe)
54
Roof work
Fragile roofs
A fragile roof has a surface covering that

would be liable to fail if any reasonably
foreseeable loading were to be applied
to it.
Fragile roof coverings include:
XX asbestos cement sheet

XX plastic sheet
XX corroded metal sheet
XX glass
XX wood
XX wool slabs
XX roof lights.
Precautions
XX Assume that roofs are fragile unless confirmed otherwise.
XX Provide warnings at roof access points.
XX Avoid working on a roof if it is possible to

carry out the work in another way, such as
approaching the roof from below.
Danger Use crawling
Fragile roof boards
XX Do not go onto a fragile roof without using
weight supporting platforms.
XX Do not walk along the line of the purlin bolts.
XX Ensure that platforms are wide enough and long enough to give adequate support across
roof members, and that there are enough platforms.
XX Protect against falling through the fragile roof adjacent to the platform by providing:
• safety net or scaffolding close to the underside of the roof

• suitable guard rails and toe boards at the edges of the platform
• further suitable coverings over all fragile materials within 2 m of the working platform.
55
Edge protection for flat and sloping roofs
Flat roofs
Flat roofs have a pitch of < 10o and are usually waterproofed with a membrane such as felt.
Most falls from flat roofs occur:
XX from the edge of a completed roof
XX during surveying, inspection or construction
XX from the edge where work is being carried out
XX through openings or gaps
XX through surfaces that are, or have become, fragile.
Where the design of the roof does not provide permanent edge protection, such as a solid
parapet wall of at least 950 mm in height, temporary edge protection will be required to give
protection for the full duration of the work.
This temporary edge protection should be strong and rigid enough to prevent people from
falling and to withstand other loads likely to be placed on it, and be designed in such a way that
it is not necessary to remove it to work at the edge of the roof.
Guard rails should preferably be supported at ground level so they do not obstruct work on
the roof edge. Guard rails can also be supported by an upstand at the edge of the roof, or by
frames, counterweights or scaffolding on the roof.
The structure to which the edge protection is attached should be capable of supporting it.
56
Toeboard clip
Approx 3.0 m
centres Toeboard
Guard rail
Intermediate rail
Gaps no 950 mm minimum

more
than
470 mm
Not more
than 5.0 m
Figure 9.17: Flat roof edge protection supported at ground level (HSG33)
Pitched roofs
Traditional pitched roofs have a pitch of > 10o and are typically covered with slates or tiles.
Most falls occur from:
XX the eaves
XX the roof, typically slipping down the roof, then falling from the eaves
XX the roof, falling internally, for example, during roof truss erection, stripping roofs,
installing membranes and re-roofing
XX gable ends.
Falls from sloping roofs are more likely if the pitch is steep, if the surface is slippery from, for
example, moisture, ice, snow, moss or lichens, and in windy conditions.
Unless work is of very short duration, full edge protection is required on all roof elevations to
which access is needed.
57
The potential loading on edge protection when a person slides down a pitched roof onto it is
much greater than when falling against edge protection on a flat roof. The scaffold supplier
should design the edge protection to be suitable for the pitch of the roof.
If work on the roof requires access within 2 m of gable ends, then edge protection will be
needed at those edges. At gable ends there should be one or more working platforms between
the eaves height and the ridge. The distance from the highest working platform to the ridge
should be no more than one lift high.
A scaffold platform at eaves level provides a good standard of edge protection, a working
platform and storage space for materials. The working platform should be as close as possible
to the eaves, and is recommended to be no greater than 300 mm below eaves level. Brick
guards will be necessary if materials, such as roof slates, are stacked above toeboard height.
They can also reduce gaps between guard rails, but need to be designed for this purpose (taking
account of the pitch of the roof) and securely fixed.
Guard rails
Guard rail
Not more than 470 mm

Min
Scaffold board 950 mm Guard rail
guard rail
height Not more than 470 mm
Toe board
Guard rail Working board with guard rail
Figure 9.18: Pitched roof edge protection (HSG33)
58
Roof ladders
On most sloping roofs, suitable roof ladders or crawling boards will be required in addition to
edge protection. It may be safe to work without a roof ladder where a high standard of edge
protection is provided, the pitch is shallow, and the surface provides particularly good foothold
and is non-fragile. The decision should be made following a risk assessment.
Roof ladders or crawling boards should be: long enough to span at least three rafters, strong
enough to support workers, and secured or placed to prevent accidental movement.
The top of the roof ladder should not be anchored against the ridge tiles, as they are liable
to break away from the ridge. The weight should bear on the opposite slope by a properly
designed and manufactured ridge hook, or be secured by other means.
Figure 9.19: Roof ladder and ridge iron (HSG33)
59
Short-duration work
Short-duration work means tasks that take minutes rather than hours, such as inspection,
minor repairs or minor adjustments.
Safeguards such as a full independent scaffold or edge protection are unlikely to be reasonably
practicable for such work. Suitable precautions should be determined following an assessment
of risks considering:
XX duration of the work
XX complexity of the work
XX pitch of the roof
XX condition of the roof
XX type of roofing material (slate or tile)
XX weather conditions
XX risk to those putting up edge protection
XX risk to other workers and the public.
The minimum precautions required for short-duration roof work are:
XX a safe means of access to the roof level
XX safe means of working on the roof, such as:
• a suitable roof ladder
• on a flat roof without edge protection, a work restraint system comprising a harness
with a short lanyard attached to a secured anchor, that prevents the wearer from
reaching the roof edge / position from which they could fall.
Mobile access equipment can provide a suitable working platform in some situations, and can
be particularly appropriate for short-duration minor work.
60
Leading edge protection systems
Purlin trolleys are used as an alternative to fall arrest systems and safety netting during
roofing operations, and are suitable for many industrial roofing situations.
Purlin trolley systems are essentially passive systems and offer collective protection.
The exposed leading edge (i.e. the opposite side to that being worked on) is protected at all
times, prior-to and following roof sheet installation, as the fixed double guardrail is always in
front of the roofing operations.
Figure 9.20: Purlin trolley – leading edge protection system
The systems provide a safety deck for the users to walk on, and to store their hand tools.
No access is required to the area below the roof for the installation and use of purlin
trolley systems.
The working edge is protected by a support framework, positioned between the roof purlins,
which prevent the operative falling into the gap when the trolley is moved along, as the
installation progresses.
61
WEB LINKS
Health and safety in roof work (HSG33) guide from the UK’s Health and Safety
Executive (HSE)
www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/hsg33.htm
Roof work webpages from the HSE

www.hse.gov.uk/construction/safetytopics/roofwork.htm
Fall Protection webpages from the USA’s Occupational Safety and Health
www.osha.gov/SLTC/fallprotection/index.html
EXAM QUESTIONS
Outline the advantages and limitations of the following types of fall protection devices
AND give an example where EACH could be used.
(a) Safety harnesses (5 marks)
(b) Safety belts (5 marks)
(c) Safety nets (5 marks)
(d) Air bags (5 marks)

62
9.5 9.5 Demolition work
Demolition is one of the most hazardous aspects of the construction industry. The majority of
accidents involve either premature collapse of structures, or falls from height. Fatalities and
severe injuries can result from fairly minor demolition work.
Demolition can be a high profile activity, which often attracts public interest, and usually
requires stringent safety measures. Robust physical isolation is an essential component of
safety management of a demolition project.
Pre-demolition surveys
A range of pre-demolition surveys may be necessary to pull together pre-construction

information for the principal contractor, including:
XX structural surveys to determine structural hazards

XX hazardous substance surveys to determine site specific hazards, for example, the
presence of asbestos, the storage of hazardous materials on site, and contaminated land
XX Site/environmental surveys to determine all other site specific issues such as access,
ground conditions, overhead obstructions, neighbours, etc.
Pre-demolition processes
Before demolition proper can begin the following will need to be addressed:
XX Gas, electricity, water, telecommunications and other site services need to be isolated
or disconnected before demolition work begins. If this is not possible, pipes and cables
should be labelled clearly, to make sure they are not disturbed.
XX Hazardous substances, such as asbestos, will need to be removed in a controlled manner.
XX Soft-stripping (the removal of non-structural components) and hard-stripping activities
(the salvaging of structural components such as architectural ironwork, dressed stone,
hardwood timbers, etc.) should be completed before structural demolition begins.
Demolition – principles and techniques
Structural demolition may be undertaken in accordance with the following principles:
XX piecemeal (progressive) demolition
63
XX controlled (deliberate) collapse
XX pre weakening through deliberate removal of structural components.
There are a number of demolition techniques available which may be used in combinations or
at different parts of the demolition site. The techniques broadly fit into one of four categories:
1 by hand, using powered tools and often involving working at height

2 by machine, comprising: a base machine (compact machine, high reach machine, tower
crane), equipment (boom and dipper arm, for example), and attachments (hydraulic
such as pusher arms, impact hammers or shears and non-hydraulic, such as demolition
balls, wire ropes, drills and saws)
3 by explosive
4 by other means, including gas expansion bursters, hydraulic bursters, expanding
chemicals, hot cutting and high pressure water jetting.
Demolition machinery and attachments
As shown in Figure 9.21, demolition machinery comprises:
XX a base machine (compact machine, high reach machine or tower crane)

XX equipment (for example, boom and dipper arm)
XX attachments (hydraulic and non-hydraulic – as shown in Table 9.6).
Optional
extension
Equipment
Dipper arm Boom
Protective cage
Optional
attachments
Base machine
Figure 9.21: Demolition base machine, equipment and attachments (BS 6187)
64
Hydraulic attachments
Pusher arm Progressive demolition of structure. Exerts horizontal thrust to

reduce height by pushing over small sections. Should be fitted with
deflector plate.
Impact Progressive demolition of masonry and concrete structures by

hammer applying heavy blows to a point in contact with the material.
Vibration may affect structural stability.
Hydraulic Cold cutting of metal and reinforced concrete sections and

shears dismantling of redundant oil and chemical storage tanks.
Pulveriser Progressive demolition of reinforced concrete or brick structures by

crushing the material with a powerful jaw action. Used for crushing
beams, columns, floor slabs and panels.
Demolition A telescopic or rigid demolition pole, to which attachments are

pole fixed. Used to achieve a greater working height / distance from the
base machine.
Grapple Used for bringing steel and concrete beams, columns, walls and floor
sections, and roof joists progressively to ground level.
Multi-purpose Progressive demolition of reinforced concrete or steel structures by

attachments the use of interchangeable jaws for steel cutting, concrete crushing,
concrete pulverizing or plate/tank cutting.
Non-hydraulic attachments
Demolition Progressive demolition of a building by the use of a weight that is

ball suspended from a lifting appliance and then released to impact the
structure, repeatedly, in the same or different locations.
The maximum ball weight should not exceed 50% of the safe working
load (SWL) of the machine, at the working radius.
Wire rope Wire ropes are attached to a pre-weakened steel structure, and used
pulling to pull it to the ground by winch or tracked plant. Not to be used on
brick or masonry structures.
Drilling and Diamond cutting and drilling techniques, and wet and dry tungsten
sawing cutting methods are used to weaken and/or remove parts of (or
complete) structures, particularly where work is in confined spaces, or
a high degree of accuracy is needed, or noise, dust, smoke, etc. would
be unacceptable.
Table 9.6: Demolition attachments
65
Hazards
The hazards presented by demolition activities will vary depending upon the techniques used.
The main safety hazards include:
XX premature or unexpected collapse

XX falling materials
XX falling from height
XX impact from site vehicle movements
XX mechanical hazards associated with moving parts of heavy plant and hand tools
XX fire and explosion from site services, hot work, or use of explosives
XX confined spaces – cellars and voids.
The main health hazards include:
Chemical XX Lead dust and fumes from paint removal, hot cutting, etc.
XX Silica dust from stone crushing or shot blasting.
XX Asbestos fibres from insulation materials, etc.
XX Gases vapours and fumes from hot cutting, chemical residues, soil
contamination, organic decomposition, bonfires, etc.
Physical XX Ionising radiations from smoke detectors or lightning conductors or

from historical uses of premises.
XX Noise from plant, explosive shot firing, etc.
XX Vibration – WBVS from driving plant / HAVS from use of pneumatic
drills and breakers.
Biological XX Leptospirosis from contaminated surface water.

XX Ornithosis/psittacosis from bird droppings.
XX Tetanus from contaminated soil.
XX Food poisoning organisms from sewage.
66
Precautions
Irrespective of the demolition technique(s) used on a particular project, safeguards are designed
around the following key principles:
XX effective work planning through site surveys and effective risk assessment
XX the establishment and maintenance of safe working spaces and exclusion zones
XX the development of safe systems of work, detailing appropriate precautions for the
method of demolition used.
Exclusion zones
An exclusion zone is a designated three-dimensional space from which all persons, including the
public, are excluded during demolition activities. It should be designed to be adequate for the
particular demolition activities. The exclusion zone is made up of four areas:
1 building/structure footprint (plan area)

2 designed drop area
3 predicted debris area
4 buffer zone.
Structure to be
demolished
Debris may Direction of designed

also fall in collapse of part or
this direction whole of stucture
Plan area
Designed drop area

Buffer area Predicted debris area Predicted debris area Buffer area
Exclusion zone
Figure 9.22: Exclusion zone
For debris dropping, a radius of 6 m, or half the drop height (whichever is the greater), should
be kept clear.
67
Where cranes, grabs, balling machines, pusher arms and similar equipment are in operation a
minimum 6 m width from the face of the building to be demolished should be allowed.
For tall structures a distance of not less than twice the total height should be allowed along the
proposed line of fall.
Method statements / safe system of work
Following hazard identification and risk assessment a demolition method statement should be
developed to specify the necessary precautions to eliminate or adequately control the hazards
(i.e. provide a safe system of work).
The method statement should be easy to understand and should be effectively communicated
to and accepted by the workforce. It is equally important that it is understood and enforced by
supervisors and management.
An effective method statement will typically address:
XX the sequence and method(s) of demolition detailing means for access, provision of safe
working platforms and machinery requirements
XX details of pre-weakening of structures prior to demolition by explosion or pulling down
XX arrangements for protection of personnel and others through the establishment of

exclusion zones
XX details for the making safe of electricity, gas and water supplies and site drainage
XX specification of temporary services required during the operation
XX detail methods for dealing with hazardous materials retained on site in machinery,
pipework or tanks
XX methods for identifying the presence of hazardous substances such as asbestos on site
and the methods to be used during its removal and disposal
XX requirements for personal protective equipment
XX arrangements for controlling site transport.
Many demolition activities will be of sufficiently high risk to warrant permit-to-work controls.
BS 6187:2011 – Code of practice for full and partial demolition gives good practice
recommendations for the demolition (both full and partial) of facilities, including buildings
and structures.
68
WEB LINKS
Demolition webpages from the UK’s Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
www.hse.gov.uk/construction/safetytopics/demolition.htm
BS 6187:2011 Code of practice for full and partial demolition.

shop.bsigroup.com/en/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000030153573
Demolition webpages from the USA’s Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
www.osha.gov/doc/topics/demolition/index.html
Demolition webpages from Safe Work Australia

www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/demolition
WATCH. LISTEN. DO
One of the most hazardous aspects of the construction

industry is demolition. Go online to view a short documentary
on a demolition and see if you can identify what the demolition
contractor needs to know in Safe demolition?
EXAM QUESTIONS
A rectangular, steel-framed warehouse, measuring 40 m x 100 m and 18 m high was

severely damaged in a storm. One of the long coated steel walls suffered catastrophic
failure, which in turn caused the flat roof of the warehouse to collapse and the other
coated steel walls to buckle.
Outline the health and safety issues to be considered when planning the (15 marks)
subsequent demolition of the damaged warehouse.

69
9.6 9.6 Excavations
Digging foundations and trenches for drains is one of the first jobs carried out on a construction
site. Work in and around any excavation is hazardous and accounts for an average of seven
fatal accidents each year.
Hazards and precautions
The main hazards associated with excavations are:
XX ground movement / collapse of excavation sides

XX surcharging
XX ground and surface water
XX stability of adjacent structures and services
XX underground services
XX overhead lines
XX people falling into excavations
XX plant falling into excavations
XX materials falling into excavation
XX toxic gas and oxygen deficiency
XX biological and chemical health hazards
XX noise and vibration.
These are described in more detail on the following pages.
Ground movement / collapse of excavation sides
Hazards
Excavations in non-cohesive loose sand and gravel, soft clays and silts, will be especially
prone to collapse. Excavations in cohesive soils and in weak rock may stand unsupported for
periods ranging from 30 seconds to 30 days. However there is no way of knowing when such
excavations will collapse.
70
Ground type markedly affects the probability, timing, and the extent and nature of collapse.
The following factors increase the risk of collapse of excavation sides:
XX loose, uncompacted, granular soils, i.e. sand or gravel, or mixtures containing them
XX excavations through different strata, for example, a weak layer lower down in an
excavated face can undermine more stable layers above, such as layers of sand or
gravel in otherwise stiff clays
XX the presence of groundwater and the effect on the excavation sides from surface
water running into the excavation
XX made-up ground, such as loosely consolidated fill material, old refuse tips, etc.
XX proximity to earlier excavations
XX loose blocks of fractured rock
XX weathering, such as rain, drying out, or freeze/thaw effects
XX vibration from plant, equipment, road or rail traffic
XX surcharging by spoil, stored materials or plant including vehicles
XX proximity of loaded foundations
XX damage to the support system by personnel, or when materials are lowered into
the excavation.
Controls
Ground conditions should be regularly inspected by a competent person. The excavation

should be battered or stepped, or supported.
71
Battering or stepping
Battering back the sides of an excavation to

a safe angle to prevent instability is often
the simplest and safest way of ensuring
stability. Stepping the excavation sides by
cutting one or more steps are cut into the
excavation side(s) is an alternative.
The angle of the battering / design of steps

is dependent on the type of soil and its
natural angle of repose.
Angle of repose
The angle measured in degrees to the
horizontal which ground material, if
left, will ultimately form to become
Figure 9.23: Battered trench
completely stable.
72
Supports
Excavations should be supported with timber, sheeting or proprietary support systems (for
example, hydraulic waling frame, drag box or trench box).
Figure 9.24: Timbered excavation with ladder access and supported services
(guard rails omitted from left hand side for clarity)
Terminology
XX Walings: Horizontal timbers (may be steel or aluminium in proprietary systems) that

transfer the loads from the poling boards or sheets to the struts, or screw props which
provide bracing.
XX Hydraulic waling frames: Used in conjunction with steel trench sheeting where cross
services are encountered. The frames are designed to be installed from outside the
trench, eliminating the need to enter an unsupported excavation.
XX Puncheons: Short sturdy vertical lengths of timber that support the walings.
XX Poling boards: Vertical boards to the side walls of an excavation.
XX Drag box: Provides local support to trenches as a moveable ‘shield’, generally in stable or
self-supporting ground conditions. Have rigid or pinned (adjustable) struts. Moved into
position by an excavator.
XX Trench box: Pre-constructed unit positioned in an excavation by an excavator.
XX Trench sheeting: Overlapping profiled steel sheets, available in 2-8 m lengths, positioned
vertically to the side walls of the excavation and braced with a hydraulic frame or
traditional timbers with mechanical or hydraulic struts.
73
Figure 9.25: Trench box, trench box with edge protection and trench sheeting
WEB LINKS
Structural stability during excavations webpages from the UK’s Health and Safety
Executive (HSE)
www.hse.gov.uk/construction/safetytopics/excavations.htm
74
Surcharging
Hazards
Surcharging occurs when a load applied to the ground by plant, stored materials, spoil or
structures increases the horizontal load on the excavation sides, causing them to collapse.
Controls
XX Barriers and signs to keep vehicles away.

XX Use of stop blocks for tipping vehicles.
XX Materials stored away from excavation (min 1.5 m or > depth of excavation).
Figure 9.26: Stop block for site dumper
Ground and surface water
Hazards
Depending on the permeability of the ground, water may flow into any excavation below the
natural groundwater level. Particular attention should be given to areas close to rivers, lakes
and sea.
Controls
Water is channelled into sumps and removed using hydraulic pumps.
75
Stability of adjacent structures and services
Hazards
Disturbing or undermining the services or foundations of adjacent buildings or structures may

cause them to collapse.
Controls
XX Shoring of structures.
XX Supporting of services.
Underground services
Hazards
XX Contact with any electricity cables can result in explosion and burns.
XX Escaping gas can ignite causing fire or explosion.
XX High pressure water pipes, sewerage, telecommunications conduit, and pipe-work for
conveying chemicals all pose specific hazards.
Controls
XX Checking of existing plans.

XX Use of cable avoidance tools (CAT).
XX Appropriate digging techniques (not directly over services, hand tools in immediate
vicinity – see below).
Checking for buried services
Modern cable avoidance tools (CAT) have three modes of operation:
XX Power mode (hum detection)

XX Radio mode (RF detection)
XX Generator mode (genny) (transmitter-receiver)
Power mode – detects the magnetic field radiated by electricity cables which have a current
flowing through them. They do not respond to:
XX Cables where there is little or no current flowing, such as service connection cables to
unoccupied premises or street lighting cables in the daytime.
76
XX Direct current (DC) cables, on railways, for example.
XX Some well-balanced high-voltage cables.
XX Deep cables (> 3 metres deep). Note: Most cables are laid in trenches between 450 mm
and 1 m deep, though some high-voltage (HV) cables will be deeper.
Radio mode – detects low-frequency radio signals, which may be picked up and re-emitted by
long metallic pipes and cables. If radio frequency detection is used, other metallic objects may
re-radiate the signal and results may vary appreciably according to locality, length of the buried
cable or pipe and distance from the termination and geographical orientation.
Generator mode – detects conductors radiating a signal applied by the signal generator (genny).
The genny sends a known signal along buried metallic services, either by direct connection to
the service or by signal induction.
Detecting the signal enables the service carrying it to be located, traced and identified.
Identifying services
Utility Duct Pipe Cable Marker / Warning

tape (if used)
Gas Yellow Yellow Yellow with black

legend
Water Blue Blue MDPE/MOPVC, also Blue

blue coated ductile iron
Can be black in blue

sheathing
Water pipes for Blue with brown stripes

special purposed polyethylene, also blue
(contaminated coated ductile iron
ground)
Sewerage Black
‘Grey’ water Black with green stripes
Table 9.7: Colour coding of ducts, pipes, etc. (UK examples) (1 of 2)
77
Utility Duct Pipe Cable Marker / Warning tape
(if used)
Electricity Black Black Yellow with black legend

(Red for some
HV)
Tele- White Light grey, Yellow with blue legend

communications black
Communications Grey, White with blue legend,

green Green and/or yellow with
identification showing co-
axial or optical fibre cable
Street lighting Orange Black Yellow with black legend

England and Wales
Table 9.7: Colour coding of ducts, pipes, etc. (UK examples) (2 of 2)
WEB LINKS
Excavation and underground services webpages from the UK’s Health and Safety
Executive (HSE)
www.hse.gov.uk/electricity/information/excavations.htm
78
Overhead lines
Hazards
Raised tipper truck bodies, cranes or excavators may directly touch, or come close enough to,
overhead power lines to cause arcing.
Controls
Control plant movement beneath and near to overhead power lines (see Element IC8).
People falling into excavations
Hazards
The top of an excavation presents a fall risk to people close by.
Controls
XX Provision of a substantial barrier, including guard rail, intermediate rail and toe boards.
XX Provision of safe access.
Plant falling into excavations
Hazards
Heavy plant toppling into an excavation can cause serious injury to those working within it and
to the plant operator.
Controls
XX Barriers and signs to keep vehicles away.

XX Use of stop blocks for tipping vehicles.
Materials falling into excavations
Hazards
Spoil or stored materials may fall into excavations from the surface injuring (or killing) workers
in the excavation.
79
Controls
Materials stored away from excavation (min 1.5 m or > depth of excavation).
Toxic gas and oxygen deficiency
Hazards
XX Combustion gases from petrol or diesel engine equipment can collect within trenches.
XX Ground such as chalk or limestone in contact with acidic groundwater can liberate
carbon dioxide.
XX Glauconitic sand (such as Thanet sand) can oxidise, causing oxygen deficiency.
XX Gases such as methane or hydrogen sulphide can seep into excavations from
contaminated ground or damaged services.
Controls
XX Keep generators clear of excavations.

XX Ground condition surveys.
XX Oxygen and gas monitoring.
XX Respiratory protective equipment (RPE).
XX Emergency arrangements.
Biological and chemical health hazards
Hazards
XX Leptospirosis (Weil’s disease) from working near contaminated water.

XX Sewage from damaged sewers or sewer connections poses a risk of gastroenteritis.
XX Tetanus from a dirty penetrating wound.
XX Contaminated ground could contain asbestos, coal-tar residues, lead alkyls or
mercurial compounds.
80
Controls
XX Check site history.

XX Soil sampling.
XX Suitable PPE – overalls, gloves, shoes.
XX Welfare facilities – washing.
XX First aid arrangements.
Noise and vibration
Hazards
The use of pneumatic breakers over even short periods carries serious risk of both noise-
induced hearing loss and hand-arm vibration syndrome.
Controls
XX Specify low noise/vibration equipment and maintaining it in good order.

XX Limit time spent using equipment.
XX Suitable PPE (see Element IB6).
WEB LINKS
Excavations webpages from the USA’s Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA)
www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA2226/2226.html
Model Code of Practice: Excavation work from Safe Work Australia

www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/doc/model-code-practice-excavation-work
81
Use of 360o excavators
Most fatal and serious injuries involving excavators

occur when the excavator is:
XX moving – and strikes a pedestrian, particularly

while reversing
XX slewing – trapping a person between the
excavator and a fixed structure or vehicle
XX working – when the moving bucket or other
attachment strikes a pedestrian, or when the
bucket inadvertently falls from the excavator.
Controlling the risk
After ensuring that the right excavator has been selected for the job there are five main
precautions to be implemented:
1 Exclusion Most excavator related deaths involve a person working in

the vicinity of the excavator rather than the driver. Fencing,
bunting or other suitable barriers should be used to create
and maintain a pedestrian exclusion area.
2 Clearance Plant with minimal tail swing should be used if slewing

in a confined area. Clearance of over 0.5 m needs to be
maintained between any part of the machine, particularly
the ballast weight, and the nearest obstruction.
3 Visibility The driver should have a good all round view and the
excavator should be equipped with adequate visibility aids
to ensure drivers can see areas where people may be at risk
from the operation of the machine.
4 Signaller To direct excavator operation and any pedestrian

movements from a safe position.
5 Bucket attachment Quick hitches can be used to secure buckets to the

excavator arm. Check that you are able to implement and
manage any quick hitch used. A number of deaths have
occurred in recent years when the bucket has fallen from
the machine. (See notes on ‘quick hitches’ later).
82
Training and competence
There are three categories of worker who must be trained and competent regarding the
excavator hazards and precautions:
1 Drivers: should be trained, competent and authorised to operate the specific excavator.
Training certificates from recognised schemes help demonstrate competence and
certificates should be checked for validity.
2 Signallers: should be trained, competent and authorised to direct excavator

movements and, where possible, provided with a protected position from which they
can work in safety.
3 Pedestrians: should be instructed in safe pedestrian routes on site and the procedure for
making drivers aware of their presence.
Inspection and maintenance
A programme of daily visual checks, regular inspections and servicing schedules should be
established in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions and the risks associated with
each vehicle.
Drivers should be encouraged to report defects or problems. Reported problems should be put
right quickly and the excavator taken out of service if the item is safety critical.
Quick hitches
A quick hitch or quick coupler is a latching

device that enables attachments to be
connected to the dipper arm of an excavator
and changed quickly. When used properly
quick hitches speed up the process and
reduce the risk of injuries through manual
handling and crushing.
Quick hitches fall into two broad categories:

dedicated quick hitches or pin system quick Figure 9.27: Manual quick hitch with tommy bar
operated mechanism
hitches which may be manually operated,
automatic or semi-automatically operated.
83
There were four fatal incidents in the UK in 2007 involved semi-automatic quick hitches, and
there have been many other serious incidents involving manual and automatic types.
All fatalities involving quick hitches have occurred when a bucket or other implement
has become detached and struck someone. The two common themes in all of the fatal
accidents were:
XX A missing retaining pin or bar, which should hold the attachment in place against the
quick hitch and insure against accidental release.
XX The victim was in an unsafe position either under the implement, or on its path as it
became detached whilst slewing, lifting and or lowering.
The key precautions that should be in place are:
XX The plant operator must be given sufficient training and information to enable him to
know how to operate and check the quick hitch, and must be authorised to do so.
XX The quick hitch should be regularly inspected and maintained to avoid failure of the quick
hitch or its mechanism as a result of ‘wear and tear’.
High risk activities such as bucket changing should be segregated in clearly defined
exclusion zones.
Trenchless technologies
The need for excavation can be avoided at the design stage by using trenchless technology for
pipe laying, or pipe repair and rehabilitation.
Horizontal directional drilling uses a curved trajectory to enable a pipeline to pass under
an obstacle, such as river or road, without the need for excavations at either end, as with
horizontal boring techniques
Impact moling uses a pneumatic piercing tool to create a bore hole. The approach compacts
and displaces soil rather than excavating and removing it, therefore minimising disruption and
ground reinstatement.
Pipe bursting techniques can be used to replace an existing, damaged pipeline with a new
pipeline of the same (or slightly larger) diameter. The old pipeline can be burst in situ, or
removed piece by piece and broken up as it is pushed out of the tunnel.
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Statutory inspections and examinations
Construction work should not be carried out in an excavation where any supports or battering
have been provided unless:
a The excavation and any work equipment and materials which affect its safety, have been
inspected by a competent person:
(1) at the start of the shift in which the work is to be carried out
(2) after any event likely to have affected the strength or stability of the excavation
(3) after any material unintentionally falls or is dislodged.
b The person who carried out the inspection is satisfied that the work can be carried out
there safely.
Following an inspection if the inspector is not satisfied that the construction work can be
carried out safely at the place inspected, he shall, before the end of the shift within which the
inspection is completed inform the person in control of any unsatisfactory matters and prepare
a written report.
Note: Although an excavation must be inspected at the start of every shift, only one report
is needed in any seven-day period. However, if something happens to affect its strength or
stability, and/or an additional inspection is carried out, a report must then be completed.
The person on whose behalf the inspection was carried out shall keep the report, or a copy
of it, available for inspection by a health and safety enforcement officer. The report should be
kept at the site of the place of work in respect of which the inspection was carried out until that
work is completed, and retained for a further 3 months.
Particulars to be included in a report of inspection:
1 name and address of the person on whose behalf the inspection was carried out
2 location of the place of work inspected
3 description of the place of work or part of that place inspected (including any work
equipment and materials)
4 date and time of the inspection
5 details of any matter identified that could give rise to a risk to the health or safety of
any person
6 details of any action taken as a result of any matter identified in paragraph 5 above
7 details of any further action considered necessary
8 name and position of the person making the report.
85
PRACTICE ACTIVITY
You have read about hazards to watch out for with evacuations,
but would you know what they look like? Why not go online
and see if you can decide if it is safe for work to continue in the
Excavation examination activity?
86
IC9 References
Arlau J (2011) Falls from Elevations in 58. Safety Applications, Encyclopedia of Occupational
Health and Safety, International Labour Organization, Geneva. www.iloencyclopaedia.org/
part-viii-12633/safety-applications/94-58-safety-applications/falls-from-elevations.
BSI (2005) BS 8437:2005 – Code of practice for selection, use and maintenance of personal fall
protection systems and equipment for use in the workplace, BSI, London.
BSI (2010) BS 6187:2011 – Code of practice for full and partial demolition, BSI, London.
HSE (2003) Safe erection, use and dismantling of falsework CIS56, HSE Books, London.
HSE (2006) Health and safety in construction HSG150 (3rd edition), HSE Books, London.
HSE (2007) Managing health and safety in construction – Construction (Design and Management)
Regulations 2007 Approved Code of Practice, L144, HSE Books, London.
HSE (2009) Protecting the public – Your next move HSG151 (3rd edition), HSE Books, London.
HSE (2009) “The safe use of vehicles on construction sites – A guide for clients, designers,
contractors, managers and workers involved with construction transport”, HSG144 2nd edition,
HSE Books, London.
HSE (2010) Tower scaffolds CIS10 Rev 4, HSE Books, London.
HSE (2012) Health and safety in roof work HSG33 (4th edition), HSE Books, London.
HSE (2012) Excavation: What you need to know as a busy builder – CIS64, HSE Books, London.
HSE/SFFC (2012) Safe Use of Quick Hitches on Excavators, CPA 1001, Construction Plant Hire
Association, London.
HSE (Not dated) Selecting, using and maintaining personal fall protection equipment ‘Height
Aware’ campaign Information sheet 4, HSE Books, London.
ILO (1988) “Convention concerning Safety and Health in Construction – C167”, ILO, Geneva.
ILO (1992) “Safety and health in construction: An ILO code of practice”, ILO, Geneva.
ILO (1995) “Safety, health and welfare on construction sites: A training manual”, ILO, Geneva.
ILO (not dated) “Facts on health and safety at work”, ILO, Geneva.
87
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reproduced or transmitted in any form, or by any electronic,
photographic or other means without the express written permission
of Astutis Ltd.
Applications for written permission to reproduce any part of this

study material should be sent to Astutis Ltd., 6 Charnwood Court,
Parc Nantgarw, Cardiff, CF15 7QZ.
Information sourced from the Health and Safety Executive and

Government Departments has been reproduced and / or adapted
under the terms of the open government license for public sector
information version 3.0, as presented by the National Archives at:
www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/
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International Diploma in Occupational Health and Safety

UNIT IC: International workplace and work equipment safety

Construction and works of a temporary nature

– hazards and controls

9.0 Learning outcomes 5

9.1 The scope and nature of construction activities 6

Range of construction activities  7

Demolition and dismantling  7

Loading, unloading and storage of materials 7

Particular construction issues 9

Transitory nature of workers 9

Temporary nature of construction activities and the constantly changing workplace 9

Literacy, numeracy and language 10

9.2 Management of health and safety on construction sites 12

Principal designer duties 14

Principal contractor duties 14

Health and safety plan 18

Health and safety file 20

9.3 Protecting employees and others during construction work 22

Site planning / site layout 22

Protecting the public 24

Arrangements for site inductions 26

Use of method statements and permits-to-work 27

9.4 Working at height from fixed or temporary platforms 30

Common access equipment 32

Ladders and stepladders 32

Trestles and staging platforms 37

Independent tied scaffold 37

Mobile tower scaffold 47

Temporary access types 50

Suspended access cradles 50

Boatswain’s (bosun’s) chairs 51

Rope access techniques 52

Edge protection for flat and sloping roofs 56

Leading edge protection systems 61

9.5 Demolition work 63

Demolition – principles and techniques 63

Demolition machinery and attachments 64

Method statements / safe system of work 68

Hazards and precautions 70

Ground movement / collapse of excavation sides 70

Ground and surface water 75

Stability of adjacent structures and services 76

People falling into excavations 79

Plant falling into excavations 79

Materials falling into excavations 79

Biological and chemical health hazards 80

Noise and vibration 81

Use of 360 excavators

Controlling the risk 82

Training and competence 83

Inspection and maintenance 83

Statutory inspections and examinations 85

On completion of this element, candidates should be able to:

XX Outline the scope and nature of construction activities.

1 building, including excavation and the construction, structural alteration, renovation,

Although it is difficult to obtain accurate statistics in an industry in which many accidents go

According to ILO estimates in 2005:

XX in industrialised countries, as many as 25 to 40% of work-related deaths occur on

Range of construction activities

Demolition and dismantling

Demolition activities are discussed in Section 9.4.

9.0 Learning outcomes 5

9.1 The scope and nature of construction activities 6

Range of construction activities 7

Demolition and dismantling 7

Loading, unloading and storage of materials 7

Particular construction issues 9

Transitory nature of workers 9

Temporary nature of construction activities and the constantly changing workplace 9

Literacy, numeracy and language 10

9.2 Management of health and safety on construction sites 12

Principal designer duties 14

Principal contractor duties 14

Health and safety plan 18

Health and safety file 20

9.3 Protecting employees and others during construction work 22

Site planning / site layout 22

Protecting the public 24

Arrangements for site inductions 26

Use of method statements and permits-to-work 27

9.4 Working at height from fixed or temporary platforms 30

Common access equipment 32

Ladders and stepladders 32

Trestles and staging platforms 37

Independent tied scaffold 37

Mobile tower scaffold 47

Temporary access types 50

Suspended access cradles 50

Boatswain’s (bosun’s) chairs 51

Rope access techniques 52

Edge protection for flat and sloping roofs 56

Leading edge protection systems 61

9.5 Demolition work 63

Demolition – principles and techniques 63

Demolition machinery and attachments 64

Method statements / safe system of work 68

Hazards and precautions 70

Ground movement / collapse of excavation sides 70

Ground and surface water 75

Stability of adjacent structures and services 76

People falling into excavations 79

Plant falling into excavations 79

Materials falling into excavations 79

Biological and chemical health hazards 80

Noise and vibration 81

Use of 360 excavators

Controlling the risk 82

Training and competence 83

Inspection and maintenance 83

Statutory inspections and examinations 85