ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

(Department of Science Education)

Name: Tahirullah
Roll No: BS601976

Course: Chemistry-I (6456) Semester: Spring, 2020

Level: B.Ed. (4 Years) Total Marks: 100
Credit Hours: 03 Pass Marks: 50

Assignment No 1

Question No 1:
Define Thermal Energy. Discuss in detail the Law of Equipartition of Energy.

Answer:

Thermal energy is energy possessed by an object or system due to the movement of particles
within the object or the system. Thermal energy is one of various types of energy, where 'energy'
can be defined as 'the ability to do work.' Work is the movement of an object due to an applied
force. A system is simply a collection of objects within some boundary. Therefore, thermal
energy can be described as the ability of something to do work due to the movement of its
particles.
Because thermal energy is due to the movement of particles, it is a type of kinetic energy, which
is the energy due to motion. Thermal energy results in something having an internal temperature,
and that temperature can be measured - for example, in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit on a
thermometer. The faster the particles move within an object or system, the higher the
temperature that is recorded.
Application of Thermal Energy
Let's take a look at a simple example of thermal energy. A heated element on a stove contains
thermal energy, and the more you turn up the stove, the more internal energy the stove contains.
At the very basic level, this thermal energy is the movement of the molecules that make up the
metal of the stove's element. I know you can't see the molecules moving, but they are. The faster
the molecules, the more internal thermal energy they contain.
Now, let's place a pot of water on top of the heated element. What happens? The stove works,
right? Well, not as we would typically think of it. Here, 'work' is referring to 'the movement of
something when a force is applied.' Specifically, the thermal energy of the stove causes the
particles of the pot and eventually the water to move faster. The internal energy of the heated
element is transferred to the pot and ultimately the water within the pot. This transfer of thermal
energy from the stove to the pot and to the water is referred to as heat. It is very important to
keep these terms straight. In this context, heat is the term we use to refer specifically to the
transfer of thermal energy from one object or a system to another, transfer being the key.
The thermal energy is the energy possessed within the object or within the system due to
movement of particles. They're different - heat and thermal energy.
You can feel the heat if you hold your hand above the stove. The heat, in turn, speeds up the
molecules within the pot and the water. If you place a thermometer in the water, as the water
heats up, you can watch the temperature rise. Again, an increase in internal energy will result in
an increase in temperature.
A single atom is free to move in space along the X, Y and Z axis. However, each of these
movements requires energy. This is derived from the energy held by the atom. The Law of
Equipartition of Energy defines the allocation of energy to each motion of the atom (translational,
rotational and vibrational). Before we understand this law, let’s understand a concept called
‘Degrees of Freedom’.
Imagine a single atom. In a three dimensional space, it can move freely along the X, Y and Z axis.
Motion from one point to another is also known as translation. Hence, this movement along the
three axes is called translational movement. If you have to specify the location of this atom, then
you need three coordinates (x, y, and z).
We can also say that a single atom has 3 Degrees of Freedom. Most monoatomic molecules (i.e.
molecules having a single atom like Argon) have 3 translational degrees of freedom, provided their
movement is unrestricted.
Let’s now imagine a diatomic molecule (a molecule having two atoms like O2 or N2). Apart from
the three translational degrees of freedom, these molecules can also rotate around the centre of
mass. Two such rotations are possible along the axis normal to the axis that joins the two atoms.
This adds two additional degrees of freedom (rotational) to the molecule. In simpler words, to
specify the location of the molecule, you would need the X, Y and Z coordinates along with the
rotational coordinates of the individual atoms.
It is important to note here that these diatomic molecules are not rigid rotators (where molecules do
not vibrate) at all temperatures. Along with the translational and rotational movements, diatomic
molecules also oscillate along the interatomic axis like a single dimensional oscillator. This adds a
vibrational degree of freedom to such molecules.
Hence, to specify the location of a diatomic molecule, you would finally need the X, Y and Z
coordinates along with the rotational and vibrational coordinates. So, in a nutshell, Degrees of
Freedom is nothing but the number of ways in which a molecule can move. This forms the basis of
the Law of Equipartition of Energy.
Law of Equipartition of Energy
The law states that: “In thermal equilibrium, the total energy of the molecule is divided equally
among all Degrees of Freedom of motion”. Before delving into the calculations, let’s understand the
law better. If a molecule has 1000 units of energy and 5 degrees of freedom (which includes
translational, rotational and vibrational movements), then the molecule allocates 200 units of energy
to each motion.
Now, let us look at some equations!
Kinetic Energy of a single molecule: KE = 1/2 mv2. A gas in thermal equilibrium at temperature T,
the average Energy is:
Eavg = 1/2 mvx2 + 1/2 mvy2 + 1/2 mvz2  = 1/2KT + 1/2 KT + 1/2 KT = 3/2 KT
where K = Boltzmann’s constant. In case of a monoatomic molecule, since there is only
translational motion, the energy allotted to each motion is 1/2KT. This is calculated by dividing
total energy by the degrees of freedom:
3/2 KT ÷ 3 = 1/2 KT
In case of a diatomic molecule, translational, rotational and vibrational movements are involved.
Hence the Energy component of translational motion= 1/2 mvx2 + 1/2 mvy2 + 1/2 mvz2. Energy
component of rotational motion= 1/2 I1w12 + 1/2 I2w22  {I1 & I2 moments of inertia. w1 & w2 are
angular speeds}
And, the energy component of vibrational motion= 1/2 m (dy/dt)2+ 1/2 ky2. Where k is the force
constant of the oscillator and y is the vibrational coordinate. It is important to note here that this has
both kinetic and potential modes.
According to the Law of Equipartition of Energy, in thermal equilibrium, the total energy is
distributed equally among all energy modes. While the translational and rotational motion
contributes ½ KT to the total energy, vibrational motion contributes 2 x 1/2KT = KT since it has
both kinetic and potential energy modes.

Question No 2:
Describe the properties of Liquids.

Answer:

Critical Temperature and Critical Pressure

The obvious way to turn a gas into a liquid is to cool it to a temperature below its boiling point.
There is another way of condensing a gas to form a liquid, however, which involves raising the
pressure on the gas. Liquids boil at the temperature at which the vapor pressure is equal to the
pressure on the liquid from its surroundings. Raising the pressure on a gas therefore effectively
increases the boiling point of the liquid.
Suppose that we have water vapor (or steam) in a closed container at 120 oC and 1 atm. Since the
temperature of the system is above the normal boiling point of water, there is no reason for the
steam to condense to form a liquid. Nothing happens as we slowly compress the container   
thereby raising the pressure on the gas  until the pressure reaches 2 atm. At this point, the
system is at the boiling point of water, and some of the gas will condense to form a liquid. As
soon as the pressure on the gas exceeds 2 atm, the vapor pressure of water at 120oC is no longer
large enough for the liquid to boil. The gas therefore condenses to form a liquid, as shown in the
figure below.
In theory, we should be able to predict the pressure at which a gas condenses at a given
temperature by consulting a plot of vapor pressure vs. temperature . In practice, every compound
has a critical temperature (Tc). If the temperature of the gas is above the critical temperature,
the gas can't be condensed, regardless of the pressure applied.
The existence of a critical temperature was discovered by Thomas Andrews in 1869 while
studying the effect of temperature and pressure on the behavior of carbon dioxide. Andrews
found that he could condense CO2 gas into a liquid by raising the pressure on the gas, as long as
he kept the temperature below 31.0oC. At 31.0oC, for example, it takes a pressure of 72.85 atm to
liquify CO2 gas. Andrews found that it was impossible to turn CO2 into a liquid above this
temperature, no matter how much pressure was applied.
Gases can't be liquified at temperatures above the critical temperature because at this point the
properties of gases and liquids become the same, and there is no basis on which to distinguish
between gases and liquids. The vapor pressure of a liquid at the critical temperature is called
the critical pressure (Pc). The vapor pressure of a liquid never gets larger than this critical
pressure.
The critical temperatures, critical pressures, and boiling points of a number of gases are given in
the table below. There is an obvious correlation between the critical temperature and boiling
point of these gases. These properties are related because they are both indirect measures of the
force of attraction between particles in the gas phase.
Critical Temperatures, Critical Pressures and Boiling Points of Common Gases
Gas Tc(oC) Pc (atm) BP (oC)
He -267.96 2.261 -268.94
H2 -240.17 12.77 -252.76
Ne -228.71 26.86 -246.1
N2 -146.89 33.54 -195.81
CO -140.23 34.53 -191.49
Ar -122.44 48.00 -185.87
O2 -118.38 50.14 -182.96
CH4 -82.60 45.44 -161.49
CO2 31.04 72.85 -78.44
NH3 132.4 111.3 -33.42
Cl2 144.0 78.1 -34.03
The experimental values of the critical temperature and pressure of a substance can be used to
calculate the a and b constants in the van der Waals equation.
Surface Tension
There is a force of attraction between molecules in liquids, and liquids can flow until they take
on the shape that maximizes this force of attraction. Below the surface of the liquid, the force
of cohesion (literally, "sticking together") between molecules is the same in all directions, as
shown in the figure below. Molecules on the surface of the liquid, however, feel a net force of
attraction that pulls them back into the body of the liquid. As a result, the liquid tries to take on
the shape that has the smallest possible surface area   the shape of a sphere. The magnitude of
the force that controls the shape of the liquid is called the surface tension. The stronger the
bonds between the molecules in the liquid, the larger the surface tension.
There is also a force of adhesion (literally, "sticking") between a liquid and the walls of the
container. When the force of adhesion is more than half as large as the force of cohesion between
the liquid molecules, the liquid is said to "wet" the solid. A good example of this phenomenon is
the wetting of paper by water. The force of adhesion between paper and water combined with the
force of cohesion between water molecules explains why sheets of wet paper stick together.
Water wets glass because of the force of adhesion that results from interactions between the
positive ends of the polar water molecules and the negatively charged oxygen atoms in glass. As
a result, water forms a meniscus that curves upward in a small-diameter glass tube, as shown in
the figure below. (The
term meniscus comes from the Greek word for "moon" and is used to describe anything that has
a crescent shape.) The meniscus that water forms in a buret results from a balance between the
force of adhesion pulling up on the column of water to wet the walls of the glass tube and the
force of gravity pulling down on the liquid.
The force of adhesion between water and wax is very small compared to the force
of cohesion between water molecules. As a result, rain doesn't adhere to wax. It tends to form
beads, or drops, with the smallest possible surface area, thereby maximizing the force of
cohesion between the water molecules. The same thing happens when mercury is spilled on glass
or poured into a narrow glass tube. The force of cohesion between mercury atoms is so much
larger than the force of adhesion between mercury and glass that the area of contact between
mercury and glass is kept to a minimum, with the net result being the meniscus shown in the
above figure.
Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance to flow. Motor oils are more viscous than gasoline, for
example, and the maple syrup used on pancakes is more viscous than the vegetable oils used in
salad dressings.
Viscosity is measured by determining the rate at which a liquid or gas flows through a small-
diameter glass tube. In 1844 Jean Louis Marie Poiseuille showed that the volume of fluid (V)
that flows down a small-diameter capillary tube per unit of time (t) is proportional to the radius
of the rube (r), the pressure pushing the fluid down the tube (P), the length of the tube (l), and the
viscosity of the fluid ( ).

Viscosity is reported in units called poise (pronounced "pwahz"). The viscosity of water at room

temperature is roughly 1 centipoise, or 1 cP. Gasoline has a viscosity between 0.4 and 0.5 cP; the
viscosity of air is 0.018 cP.
Because the molecules closest to the walls of a small-diameter tube adhere to the glass, viscosity
measures the rate at which molecules in the middle of the stream of liquid or gas flow past this
outer layer of more or less stationary molecules. Viscosity therefore depends on any factor that
can influence the ease with which molecules slip past each other. Liquids tend to become more
viscous as the molecules become larger, or as the amount of intermolecular bonding increases.
They become less viscous as the temperature increases. The viscosity of water, for example,
decreases from 1.77 cP at 0oC to 0.28 cP at 100oC.
Hydrogen Bonding and the Anomalous Properties of Water
We are so familiar with the properties of water that it is difficult to appreciate the extent to which
its behavior is unusual.
 Most solids expand when they melt. Water expands when it freezes.
 Most solids are more dense than the corresponding liquids. Ice (0.917 g/cm3) is not as
dense as water.
 Water has a melting point at least 100oC higher than expected on the basis of the melting
points of H2S, H2Se, and H2Te.
  Water has a boiling point almost 200oC higher than expected from the boiling points of
H2S, H2Se, and H2Te.
 Water has the largest surface tension of any common liquid except liquid mercury.
 Water has an unusually large viscosity.
 Water is an excellent solvent. It can dissolve compounds, such as NaCl, that are insoluble
or only slightly soluble in other liquids.
 Water has an unusually high heat capacity. It takes more heat to raise the temperature of
1 gram of water by 1oC than any other liquid.
These anomalous properties all result from the strong intermolecular bonds in water. Water is
best described as a polar molecule in which there is a partial separation of charge to give positive
and negative poles. The force of attraction between a positively charged hydrogen atom on one
water molecule and the negatively charged oxygen atom on another gives rise to an
intermolecular bond, as shown in the figure below. This dipole-dipole interaction between water
molecules is known as a hydrogen bond.
Hydrogen bonds are separated from other examples of van der Waals forces because they are
unusually strong: 10-12 kJ/mol. The hydrogen bonds in water are particularly important because
of the dominant role that water plays in the chemistry of living systems. Hydrogen bonds are not
limited to water, however.
Hydrogen-bond donors include substances that contain relatively polar H-X bonds, such as NH3,
H2O, and HF. Hydrogen-bond acceptors include substances that have nonbonding pairs of
valence electrons. The H-X bond must be polar to create the partial positive charge on the
hydrogen atom that allows dipole-dipole interactions to exist. As the X atom in the H-X bond
becomes less electronegative, hydrogen bonding between molecules becomes less important.
Hydrogen bonding in HF, for example, is much stronger than in either H2O or HCl.
The hydrogen bonds between water molecules in ice produce the open structure shown in the
figure below. When ice melts, some of these bonds are broken, and this structure collapses to
form a liquid that is about 10% denser. This unusual property of water has several important
consequences. The expansion of water when it freezes is responsible for the cracking of concrete,
which forms potholes in streets and highways. But it also means that ice floats on top of rivers
and streams. The ice that forms each winter therefore has a chance to melt during the summer.
The figure below shows another consequence of the strength of the hydrogen bonds in water.
There is a steady increase in boiling point in the series CH4, GeH4, SiH4, and SnH4. The boiling
points of H2O and HF, however, are anomalously large because of the strong hydrogen bonds
between molecules in these liquids. If this doesn't seem important, try to imagine what life would
be like if water boiled at -80oC.

The surface tension and viscosity of water are also related to the strength of the hydrogen bonds
between water molecules. The surface tension of water is responsible for the capillary action that
brings water up through the root systems of plants. It is also responsible for the efficiency with
which the wax that coats the surface of leaves can protect plants from excessive loss of water
through evaporation.
The unusually large heat capacity of water is also related to the strength of the hydrogen bonds
between water molecules. Anything that increases the motion of water molecules, and therefore
the temperature of water, must interfere with the hydrogen bonds between these molecules. The
fact that it takes so much energy to disrupt these bonds means that water can store enormous
amounts of thermal energy. Although the water in lakes and rivers gets warmer in the summer
and cooler in the winter, the large heat capacity of water limits the range of temperatures that
would otherwise threaten the life that flourishes in this environment. The heat capacity of water
is also responsible for the ocean's ability to act as a thermal reservoir that moderates the swings
in temperature that occur from winter to summer.
Question No 3:
What do you know about the X-Ray Diffraction? Discuss fundamental Principles of X-Ray
Diffraction.

Answer:

X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) is a rapid analytical technique primarily used for phase
identification of a crystalline material and can provide information on unit cell dimensions. The
analyzed material is finely ground, homogenized, and average bulk composition is determined.
Max von Laue, in 1912, discovered that crystalline substances act as three-dimensional
diffraction gratings for X-ray wavelengths similar to the spacing of planes in a crystal lattice. X-
ray diffraction is now a common technique for the study of crystal structures and atomic spacing.
X-ray diffraction is based on constructive interference of monochromatic X-rays and a
crystalline sample. These X-rays are generated by a cathode ray tube, filtered to produce
monochromatic radiation, collimated to concentrate, and directed toward the sample. The
interaction of the incident rays with the sample produces constructive interference (and a
diffracted ray) when conditions satisfy Bragg's Law (nλ=2d sin θ). This law relates the
wavelength of electromagnetic radiation to the diffraction angle and the lattice spacing in a
crystalline sample. These diffracted X-rays are then detected, processed and counted. By
scanning the sample
through a range of 2θangles, all possible diffraction directions of the lattice should be attained
due to the random orientation of the powdered material. Conversion of the diffraction peaks to d-
spacings allows identification of the mineral because each mineral has a set of unique d-
spacings. Typically, this is achieved by comparison of d-spacings with standard reference
patterns.
All diffraction methods are based on generation of X-rays in an X-ray tube. These X-rays are
directed at the sample, and the diffracted rays are collected. A key component of all diffraction is
the angle between the incident and diffracted rays. Powder and single crystal diffraction vary in
instrumentation beyond this.
X-rays are generated in a cathode ray tube by heating a filament to produce electrons,
accelerating the electrons toward a target by applying a voltage, and bombarding the target
material with electrons. When electrons have sufficient energy to dislodge inner shell electrons
of the target material, characteristic X-ray spectra are produced. These spectra consist of several
components, the most common being Kα and Kβ. Kα consists, in part, of Kα1 and Kα2. Kα1 has a
slightly shorter wavelength and twice the intensity as Kα2. The specific wavelengths are
characteristic of the target material (Cu, Fe, Mo, Cr). Filtering, by foils or crystal
monochrometers, is required to produce monochromatic X-rays needed for diffraction. Kα1and
Kα2 are sufficiently close in wavelength such that a weighted average of the two is used. Copper
is the most common target material for single-crystal diffraction, with CuKα radiation = 1.5418Å.
These X-rays are collimated and directed onto the sample. As the sample and detector are
rotated, the intensity of the reflected X-rays is recorded. When the geometry of the incident X-
rays impinging the sample satisfies the Bragg Equation, constructive interference occurs and a
peak in intensity occurs. A detector records and processes this X-ray signal and converts the
signal to a count rate which is then output to a device such as a printer or computer monitor.

Show caption
The geometry of an X-ray diffractometer is such that the sample rotates in the path of the
collimated X-ray beam at an angle θ while the X-ray detector is mounted on an arm to collect the
diffracted X-rays and rotates at an angle of 2θ. The instrument used to maintain the angle and
rotate the sample is termed a goniometer. For typical powder patterns, data is collected at
2θ from ~5° to 70°, angles that are preset in the X-ray scan.
Applications
X-ray powder diffraction is most widely used for the identification of unknown crystalline
materials (e.g. minerals, inorganic compounds). Determination of unknown solids is critical to
studies in geology, environmental science, material science, engineering and biology.
Other applications include:
 characterization of crystalline materials
 identification of fine-grained minerals such as clays and mixed layer clays that are
difficult to determine optically
 determination of unit cell dimensions
 measurement of sample purity
 With specialized techniques, XRD can be used to:
 determine crystal structures using Rietveld refinement
 determine of modal amounts of minerals (quantitative analysis)
 characterize thin films samples by:
o determining lattice mismatch between film and substrate and to inferring
stress and strain
o determining dislocation density and quality of the film by rocking curve
measurements
o measuring superlattices in multilayered epitaxial structures
o determining the thickness, roughness and density of the film using glancing
incidence X-ray reflectivity measurements
 make textural measurements, such as the orientation of grains, in a polycrystalline
sample
Strengths and Limitations of X-ray Powder Diffraction (XRD)?
Strengths
 Powerful and rapid (< 20 min) technique for identification of an unknown mineral
 In most cases, it provides an unambiguous mineral determination
 Minimal sample preparation is required
  XRD units are widely available
 Data interpretation is relatively straight forward
Limitations
 Homogeneous and single phase material is best for identification of an unknown
 Must have access to a standard reference file of inorganic compounds (d-
spacings, hkls)
 Requires tenths of a gram of material which must be ground into a powder
 For mixed materials, detection limit is ~ 2% of sample
 For unit cell determinations, indexing of patterns for non-isometric crystal systems is
complicated
 Peak overlay may occur and worsens for high angle 'reflections'

Question No 4:
Explain First Law of thermodynamics and its different applications.

Answer:

The first law of thermodynamics is the application of the conservation of energy principle to heat

and thermodynamic processes:
The first law makes use of the key concepts of internal energy, heat, and system work. It is used
extensively in the discussion of heat engines. The standard unit for all these quantities would be
the joule, although they are sometimes expressed in calories or BTUs.
It is typical for chemistry texts to write the first law as ΔU=Q+W. It is the same law, of course -
the thermodynamic expression of the conservation of energy principle. It is just that W is defined
as the work done on the system instead of work done by the system. In the context of physics,
the common scenario is one of adding heat to a volume of gas and using the expansion of that
gas to do work, as in the pushing down of a piston in an internal combustion engine. In the
context of chemical reactions and processes, it may be more common to deal with situations
where work is done on the system rather than by it.
Enthalpy
Four quantities called "thermodynamic potentials" are useful in the chemical thermodynamics of
reactions and non-cyclic processes. They are internal energy, the enthalpy, the Helmholtz free
energy and the Gibbs free energy. Enthalpy is defined by
H = U + PV
where P and V are the pressure and volume, and U is internal energy. Enthalpy is then a
precisely measurable state variable, since it is defined in terms of three other precisely definable
state variables. It is somewhat parallel to the first law of thermodynamics for a constant pressure
system
Q = ΔU + PΔV since in this case Q=ΔH. It is a useful quantity for tracking chemical reactions. If
as a result of an exothermic reaction some energy is released to a system, it has to show up in
some measurable form in terms of the state variables. An increase in the enthalpy H = U + PV
might be associated with an increase in internal energy which could be measured by calorimetry,
or with work done by the system, or a combination of the two. The internal energy U might be
thought of as the energy required to create a system in the absence of changes in
temperature or volume. But if the process changes the volume, as in a chemical reaction which
produces a gaseous product, then work must be done to produce the change in volume. For
a constant pressure process, the work you must do to produce a volume change ΔV is PΔV. Then
the term PV can be interpreted as the work you must do to "create room" for the system if you
presume it started at zero volume.
System Work
When work is done by a thermodynamic system, it is usually a gas that is doing the work. The
work done by a gas at constant pressure is:

For non-constant pressure, the work can be visualized as the area under the pressure-volume
curve which represents the process taking place. The more general expression for work done is:

Work done by a system decreases the internal energy of the system, as indicated in the First Law
of Thermodynamics. System work is a major focus in the discussion of heat engines.
Question No 5:
Discuss the order of reaction and discriminate between first order and second order
reactions.

Answer:

Chemical reactions can be classified based on their reaction kinetics, the study of reaction rates.
Kinetic theory states that minute particles of all matter are in constant motion and that the
temperature of a substance is dependent on the velocity of this motion. Increased motion is
accompanied by increased temperature.
The general reaction form is:
aA + bB → cC + dD
Reactions are categorized as zero-order, first-order, second-order, or mixed-order (higher-order)
reactions.
 Chemical reactions may be assigned reaction orders that describe their kinetics.
 The types of orders are zero-order, first-order, second-order, or mixed-order.
 A zero-order reaction proceeds at a constant rate. A first-order reaction rate depends on
the concentration of one of the reactants. A second-order reaction rate is proportional to
the square of the concentration of a reactant or the product of the concentration of two
reactants.
Zero-Order Reactions
Zero-order reactions (where order = 0) have a constant rate. The rate of a zero-order reaction is
constant and independent of the concentration of reactants. This rate is independent of the
concentration of the reactants. The rate law is:
rate = k, with k having the units of M/sec.
First-Order Reactions
A first-order reaction (where order = 1) has a rate proportional to the concentration of one of the
reactants. The rate of a first-order reaction is proportional to the concentration of one reactant. A
common example of a first-order reaction is radioactive decay, the spontaneous process through
which an unstable atomic nucleus breaks into smaller, more stable fragments. The rate law is:
rate = k[A] (or B instead of A), with k having the units of sec-1
Second-Order Reactions
A second-order reaction (where order = 2) has a rate proportional to the concentration of the
square of a single reactant or the product of the concentration of two reactants. The formula is:
rate = k[A]2 (or substitute B for A or k multiplied by the concentration of A times the
concentration of B), with the units of the rate constant M-1sec-1
Mixed-Order or Higher-Order Reactions
Mixed order reactions have a fractional order for their rate, such as:
rate = k[A]1/3
Factors Affecting Reaction Rate
Chemical kinetics predicts that the rate of a chemical reaction will be increased by factors that
increase the kinetic energy of the reactants (up to a point), leading to the increased likelihood
that the reactants will interact with each other. Similarly, factors that decrease the chance of
reactants colliding with each other may be expected to lower the reaction rate. The main factors
that affect reaction rate are:
 The concentration of reactants: A higher concentration of reactants leads to more
collisions per unit time, which leads to an increased reaction rate (except for zero-order
reactions.)
 Temperature: Usually, an increase in temperature is accompanied by an increase in the
reaction rate.
 The presence of catalysts: Catalysts (such as enzymes) lower the activation energy of a
chemical reaction and increase the rate of a chemical reaction without being consumed in
the process. 
 The physical state of reactants: Reactants in the same phase may come into contact via
thermal action, but surface area and agitation affect reactions between reactants in
different phases.
 Pressure: For reactions involving gases, raising pressure increases the collisions between
reactants, increasing the reaction rate.
While chemical kinetics can predict the rate of a chemical reaction, it does not determine the
extent to which the reaction occurs.
End