Pattern 2
The mass in Pattern 2 is like that in Pattern 1, that
is, the mass is single-sided and insulated on the back
side. The distinction here is that the mass is receiv-
ing not direct radiation, but reflected sun.
In a simple direct-gain space, some of the mass
will be of Pattern 1 (a floor slab near the solar glaz-
ing, for example), and some mass will be of Pattern 2
(the ceiling, for example). Much of the mass in such
a space will be directly irradiated some of the time
and indirectly irradiated the rest of the day. In these
cases, an interpolation between Pattern 1 and Pattern
2 must be carried out, as described in Pattern 1.
Example: You have decided to use an 8-inch con-
crete slab for the room described in mass Pattern 1.
This leaves 33 square feet of glazing to provide mass
for. How many square feet of 8-inch brick wall will
be required to provide the mass?
Thermal Mass Pattern 2
522 PASSIVE SOLAR
Mass Sizing for Floor, Wall, or Ceiling
in Indirect Sun
Mass Sq Ft of Mass per Sq Ft of Glazing
Thickness Concrete Brick Drywall Oak Pine
1⁄ 2” — — 114 — —
1” 25 30 57 28 36
11⁄ 2” — — 39 — —
2” 12 15 31 17 21
3” 8 11 — 17 20
4” 7 9 — 19 21
6” 5 9 — 19 22
8” 5 10 — 19 22
According to the table above, 10 square feet of
8-inch brick wall is required to balance each square
foot of glazing. You therefore need 330 square
feet of brick wall. Because the total wall area is
380 square feet, this is a practical solution.
Pattern 3
As in Patterns 1 and 2, the mass in this pattern is one-
sided. The difference is that the mass receives neither
direct radiation nor reflected radiation. It is instead
heated by the room air that is warmed as a result of
solar gains elsewhere in the building.
This pattern is useful for mass deeper within
a passive building. However, solar-heated air must
reach the remote mass either by natural or forced air
circulation. Judgment is required here—a hallway
open to a south room could be included, a back
room closed off from the solar-heated space should
be excluded.
Example: Your remodeling plan calls for remov-
ing half of a wood-framed gypsum wall to open
the south-facing kitchen to the living room. The
remaining wall has an 80-square-foot fireplace of
8-inch brick on the living room side. You plan to
add a south-facing window in the kitchen. How
Thermal Mass Pattern 3
Mass Sizing for Floor, Wall, or Ceiling
Remote from Sun
Mass Sq Ft of Mass per Sq Ft of Glazing
Thickness Concrete Brick Drywall Oak Pine
1⁄ 2” — — 114 — —
1” 27 32 57 32 39
11⁄ 2” — — 42 — —
2” 17 20 35 24 27
3” 15 17 — 26 28
4” 14 17 — 24 30
6” 14 18 — 28 31
8” 15 19 — 28 31
many square feet of window will the mass of the
fireplace balance?
According to the table, the fireplace alone will
account for only 4 square feet of window. You must
look elsewhere for thermal mass.
Thermal Mass Patterns 523
 Pattern 4
Pattern 4 is defined as a floor-to-ceiling wall of
massive material that receives direct sun on one
side and is exposed to the living space on the other
side. In other words, the sunlit side is isolated from
the living space.
This pattern is useful for isolated sun spaces and
greenhouses. The storage wall may have high and
low vents or be unvented, as shown, without affect-
ing the values in the table.
The performance of the wall improves with
thickness up to about 18 inches but is not very
sensitive to variations in thickness within normal
buildable ranges. For brick walls, higher density
bricks (with water absorption of less than 6 percent)
are recommended over bricks of lower density.
Note that the mass surface area refers to the area of
the sunlit side only.
Thermal Mass Pattern 4
524 PASSIVE SOLAR
Mass Sizing for Mass Wall or Water Wall
in Direct Sun
Material and Sq Ft of Mass Surface
Thickness per Sq Ft of Glazing
8”-thick brick 1
12”-thick brick 1
8”-thick water wall 1
Example: You are considering adding an attached
solar greenhouse. The primary purpose of the
greenhouse will be growing plants. The greenhouse
structure should therefore be isolated to avoid excess
humidity in the living space.
As the table shows, 1 square foot of 8-inch
brick, l2-inch concrete, or 8-inch water wall (water
containers) for each square foot of glazing will con-
veniently provide all of the required thermal mass.
Pattern 5
Similar to Pattern 4, mass in this pattern is sunlit on
one side and exposed to the living space on the other
side. The distinction is that there is free air circulation
around this mass material so that heat may be gained
by the living space from either side of the partial wall
or from all sides of the water containers.
This pattern may represent a freestanding
masonry wall or a series of water containers.
The mass is assumed to be in full sun for at
least 6 hours. As with Pattern 4, the wall thicknesses
listed are not very sensitive to variations, and the
wall surface area listed is for one side of the wall
only. Water containers are listed in the table at right
as gallons per square foot of glazing.
Example: You plan to add a sun space with 160 square
feet of south-facing glazing. Unlike the example in
Pattern 4, however, you plan to use the space for liv-
Thermal Mass Pattern 5
Mass Sizing for Partial Mass Wall or
Water Containers in Direct Sun
Material and Sq Ft of Mass Surface
Thickness per Sq Ft of Glazing
8”-thick brick 2
6”-thick concrete 2
Water containers 7 gal per sq ft of glazing
ing rather than growing. You'd like the sun space to
be open to the adjacent kitchen. Will a 3-foot high
by 20-foot-Iong room divider constructed of 8-inch
brick provide sufficient thermal mass?
The area of the room divider exposed to direct
sunlight is 60 square feet. According to the tab1e,
the room divider alone will account for only 30
square feet of glazing. You will probably need to
employ a Pattern 1 brick floor as well.
Thermal Mass Patterns 525
526
0 1 2 3 4 5

Lighting 19
Proper lighting around the home is important for safety, for reading, for Light and Seeing   528
working, for atmosphere, for the long-term health of your eyes, and now Light Sources   530
for economy and the environment. In order to understand why different Lamp Shapes and Bases   532
light sources and intensities are recommended for different applications,
Residential Lighting
you need to understand the relationships between light and seeing. Guidelines   534
Light Sources lists the efficiencies and color characteristics of more than
Meet the Code   538
30 incandescent, fluorescent, high-intensity-discharge, and light-emitting
diode (LED) lamps for use in and around the home.
Lamp Shapes and Bases illustrates the incredible variety of bulb shapes
and bases available today.
Perhaps the most useful section in this chapter is Residential Lighting
Guidelines, adapted from a publication of the California Lighting
Technology Center, designed to aid builders in complying with California’s
rigorous 2005 energy code.
Finally, we provide you with a checklist to make sure your lighting
design and techniques meet the code.

527
 Light and Seeing
Light Units Light Measurements
The relationship between lighting units is displayed
in the illustration at right. A point light source with Illuminance =
a strength (candlepower) of 1 candela results in an 1 foot-candle =
1 lumen/sq ft
illuminance of 1 foot-candle, or 1 lumen per square
foot. Because a sphere of radius 1 foot has a surface
area of 12.57 square feet, the total light output is
1 foot
12.57 lumens.
Illumination levels are usually given in foot-
candles, although lumens per square foot is equiva- Source of
candlepower
lent. Total lamp output is always given in lumens. 1 candela
The intensity of light falling on a surface is
the illuminance. The intensity of light given off or
reflected by a surface is its luminance. For non-light- Illuminance Luminance
A B
emitting surfaces,
Luminance = illuminance × reflectivity
Example: What is the luminance of a surface of
reflectivity 0.50 when illuminated at an intensity of
Surface reflectivity = R
100 foot-candles? Luminance = illuminance × reflec- B=RxA
tivity = 100 footcandles × 0.50 = 50 footcandles

Visual Acuity The Visual Field of a Human

As shown in the illustration at right, the human eye
can detect light from nearly an entire half sphere
Peripheral Field seen by Peripheral
(radius 90 degrees). The ability to discriminate vision seen both eyes vision seen
only by only by
among small details, however, is limited to a radius left eye right eye
of about 1 degree, the central field. The area sur-
rounding the central field is the surround.
The ability of the eye to discern the small details
of a task within the central field is determined by
four factors:
• size of the field.
• contrast between detail and background. 10° 30° 50° 70° 90°

• time (eye fatigue).

• brightness of the task.
The size of a task can be magnified by a lens. In
the case of printed material, contrast is maximized by
printing black on white. Luminance is a function of
both illumination and task reflectance. Deficiencies Angles are from straight ahead
in size, contrast, and time can all be compensated to
a degree by an increase in illumination.

528 LIGHTING
Glare
An area within the visual field that has sufficient
luminance to cause either discomfort or a reduction
in visual acuity is an area of glare. Direct glare is illu-
mination direct from a light source, such as a window
or exposed lamp. Reflected glare is light which has
been reflected from a shiny or glossy surface, usually
within the task area. For optimum visual comfort, the
luminance of the task should be slightly greater than
the luminance of the surround. The table at right lists
maximum recommended luminance ratios.
Glare Guidelines
Luminance
Compared Areas Ratio, Max
Task to adjacent area 3 to 1
Task to a remote dark surface 10 to 1
Task to a remote light surface 0.1 to 1
Window to adjacent wall 20 to 1
Task to any area within visual field 40 to 1

Color Spectral Power Curves of Lamps

Most objects simply reflect incident light received
from a light source. The perceived color of an object LOW-PRESSURE SODIUM
is determined by the color (energy content at differ-
ent wavelengths) of the light source and the reflectiv-
ity of the object at the corresponding wavelengths.
Objects which reflect all wavelengths equally WHITE LED
are termed white, and light sources which emit
light of all frequencies are termed white lights. Not
all wavelengths are emitted equally, however, even
from white lights. The graphs at right show the dis- WARM WHITE FLUORESCENT
tribution of power with frequency (spectral power
Radiant Power (relative)

curves) of various common lamps.

A measure of peak emission wavelength is the
color-correlated temperature (CCT) of the source.
COOL WHITE FLUORESCENT
Direct light from the sun is at a color temperature of
about 6,000°Kelvin (K). The color-correlated tem-
peratures of incandescent sources range from about
2,400 to 3,100°K. Most fluorescent lamps have
INCANDESCENT
color-correlated temperatures between 3,000°K
(warm white) and 4,200°K (cool white).
Incandescent lamps emit light at all wavelengths.
Fluorescent and other gas-discharge lamps emit light
only at specific wavelengths. Color rendition may SUNLIGHT

therefore be different between incandescent and gas-

discharge lamps even though their color-correlated
temperatures may be the same. The color-rendering
index (CRI) compares lamp output with natural day-
light at all frequencies, with a CRI of 100 indicating
300 400 500 600 700 750
a perfect match. Wavelength, nm

Light and Seeing 529

 Light Sources
Electrical lamps fall into one of four categories, Efficiencies of Light Sources
depending on the way in which they convert elec- Light Efficacy,
tricity to light: Source Type Lumens/W

Incandescent lamps emit light from fila- Incandescent 5W tungsten 5.0

ments heated to incandescence by an electric current. 40W tungsten 12.6

Efficiencies range from about 10 to 20 lumens per
watt. Quartz-halogen lamps achieve higher efficien-
cies, of up to 24 lumens per watt, through the use of
higher-temperature filaments. Strong points include
a wide range of bulb styles, a wide range of available
output for the same base style and bulb size, and abil-
ity to concentrate the light beam, Weak points are
relatively low efficiency and short lives. Due to their
low efficiency, most versions are slated for phase-out
starting in 2012.
Fluorescent lamps emit light from phos-
phor coatings stimulated by high-voltage discharge
through the mercury-vapor-filled bulbs. Rare earth
100W tungsten 16.8
100W tungsten halogen 16.7
2.6W tungsten halogen (5V) 19.2
Quartz tungsten halogen (12V) 24
Fluorescent 5W to 24W compact bulb 45–60
34W, T-12 tube 50
32W, T-8 tube 60
36W, T-8 tube to 93
28W, T-5 tube 104
HID Xenon 30–50
Mercury-xenon 50–55
High-pressure sodium 150

phosphor additives modify color output. Ballasts Low-pressure sodium 183–200

are required to limit the arc current. Excluding the 1,400W sulfur 100
tiniest lamps, efficiencies range from about 70 to LED White, available 10–90
90 lumens per watt, including ballast power. Strong White, experimental to 150
points include long lamp life, low operating cost,
and low operating temperature. Compact fluores-
cent lamps (CFLs) are rapidly replacing incandes-
Lamp Efficiencies
cent lamps in residential applications.
High-intensity discharge (HID) lamps 4,000
emit light directly from electric arcs through metal
vapor. Color rendition is inappropriate for resi-
dential applications, but efficiencies range up to
3,000
144 lumens per watt.
Light Output, lumens

Light-emitting diode (LED) A light-

ent
resc

emitting diode is a semiconductor diode emitting

D
HI
Fluo

narrow-spectrum light when electrically biased in 2,000

the forward direction of the p-n junction. nt
sce
de
Individual LEDs are tiny and emit light from ca
n
In
a flat surface. Most often they are encapsulated in
1,000
a plastic lens to shape the radiation pattern. LEDs
have long been used as small indicator lights on elec-
D
LE

tronic devices and increasingly in applications such

as flashlights. It is expected that they will ultimately 0
0 25 50 75 100 125
replace fluorescent lamps. Lamp Input, watts

530 LIGHTING
Characteristics of Some Commercially Available Lamps
Color Output, Power, Lumens
Type Description Temp, °K CRI Lumens Watts per Watt
Incandescent A19, frosted, 25 watt 2,900 — 357 25 14
A19, frosted, 40 watt 2,900 — 460 40 12
A19, frosted, 60 watt 2,950 — 890 60 15
A19, frosted, 75 watt 3,000 — 1,210 75 16
A19, frosted, 100 watt 3,050 — 2,850 150 18
12V quartz-halogen, 20 watt 2,900 — 300 19.4 15
12V quartz-halogen, 45 watt 3,100 — 980 44.5 22
Fluorescent Dulux® EL, 11 watt 3,000 82 600 11 54
Dulux EL, 19 watt 3,000 82 1,200 19 63
Deluxe warm white 2,950 74 1,550 30 52
Warm white 3,000 52 2,360 30 79
Designer 3000K 3,000 67 3,300 40 83
Royal white 3,000 80 2,400 30 80
Octron® 3100K 3,100 75 3,650 40 91
White 3,450 57 1,900 30 63
Octron 3500K 3,500 75 3,650 40 91
Natural white 3,600 86 3,050 55 55
Designer 4100K 4,100 67 8,800 95 93
Octron 4100K 4,100 75 3,650 40 91
Deluxe cool white 4,100 89 2,100 40 53
Lite white 4,150 48 4,300 60 72
Cool white 4,200 62 3,150 40 79
Design 50 5,000 90 1,610 30 54
Daylight 6,300 76 1,900 30 63
HID Mercury, Warmtone 3,300 52 3,700 100 37
Mercury, Brite White Deluxe 4,000 45 3,650 100 37
Mercury, clear 5,900 22 3,380 100 34
Metal halide, clear 3,200 65 6,800 100 68
Metal halide, coated 3,900 70 16,000 250 64
High-pressure sodium, Lumalox 2,000 22 8,850 100 89
High-pressure sodium, Unalox 1,900 20 11,700 150 78
LED A19, warm white 3,000 — 43 1.3 33
A19, cool white 8,000 — 42 1.3 32
PAR38, warm white 3,000 — 182 4.5 40
PAR38, pure white 5,500 — 230 5.0 46
Chandelier, warm white 3,000 — 52 2.4 22

Light Sources 531