Cells

Biology
GCE Study Buddy
A Cell
What is a cell?
• A cell is a unit of life
• Why must life be organized in cells?
• Life requires a structural compartment separate from the
external environment in which macromolecules can perform
unique functions in a relatively constant internal environment
• Cells onsists of living matter called protoplasm
• A jelly-like substance in which chemical activities are carried out
• Consists of 70-90% water, the rest consists of mineral salts and
organic compounds (carbon compounds) such as carbohydrates,
fats and proteins
• Its composition varies from animal to animal and from plant to
plant
• Consists of 2 forms
• Sol (liquid) state
• Gel state (semi-solid)
Cell Theory
• all organisms are made up of one or more cells
• the smallest organisms are single cells
• cells are the functional units of multicellular
organisms
• all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Cell Size
• Cells range in size from a few micrometers to several
centimeters
• Most cells are small because larger cells do not function
efficiently  because small cells can more easily
transport materials into and out of themselves.
• Advantageous to have a large surface-to-volume ratio
• as cell size increases, the volume grows more rapidly
than surface area
• The larger the surface area of a cell, the faster a cell
can take in substances and remove waste products.
• Whereas large internal volume relative to surface area
makes it more difficult to traffic materials into and out
of the cell
How to view cells?
• Use microscopes – can magnify cell sizes
• Light Microscope (LM)
• Pass visible light through a specimen
• Magnify cellular structures with lenses
• Magnifies up to 1000x
• Electron Microscope (EM)
• Uses a beam of electrons
• Has a higher resolving power than the light microscope
• Able to magnify more than 1000x
• 2 types:
• Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
• Makes it possible to explore call structure.
• Beams of electron can only pass through thin samples so cells & tissues
must be cut into ultra thin slices
• Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
• Electrons scan over the surfaces of the specimen.
• No need thin slices
• Can produce 3-D images.
Animal Cell
Plant Cell
Characteristics of Cells
• A surrounding membrane – Plasma membrane
• Protoplasm – cell contents in thick fluid
• Organelles – structures for cell function
• Control centre with DNA - Nucleus

Protoplasm of a cell consists of:

-Cell surface membrane
-Cytoplasm where most cell activities occur and contains enzymes and
organelles. It can exist in sol or get state
-Nucleus which consists of nucleoplasm, nuclear envelope, one or more
nucleoli and chromatin. It controls cell activities and is essential for cell
division
 Nucleus
• Consists of a small spherical mass of denser protoplasm, the
nucleoplasm, surrounded by a nuclear envelope
• Controls the normal cell activities
• Responsible for cell reproduction
• Needed for the continued life of the cell and repair of worn-out parts
• Within the nucleus are:
• Nuclear envelope: double membrane surrounding nucleus
• Separates the nuclear content from the surrounding cytoplasm
• Perforated with thousands of nuclear pores to allow materials to move into
and out of the nucleus to and from the rest of the cell
• Nucleoli: spherical structures
• Main function is the production of ribosomes
• Chromatin: a network of long thread-like structures (DNA bound to
proteins)
• Contain hereditary materials
• Control the activities of the cell
• During cell division, chromatin threads condense and become highly coiled
structures called chromosomes
Nuclear envelope
What’s in the cytoplasm?
• Cytoplasm: the place where most life processes occur
• Embedded in the cytoplasm are important organelles:
• Mitochondria: small spherical or rod-shaped
organelles
• Involved in release of energy from food substances during cell
respiration
What’s in the cytoplasm?
• Chloroplasts
• In plant cells only
• Sites where plants make food, combining carbon dioxide and
water, using energy from sunlight, to make sugar
• Vacuoles
• In both plant and animal cells
• A fluid-filled space enclosed by a membrane
• Animal cells may have many small vacuoles but are usually not
permanent.
• May contain water and food substances
• A plant cell usually has a large central vacuole which contains a
liquid called cell sap
• Cell sap contains dissolved substances such as sugars, amino acids, and
mineral salts
• This large vacuole is enclosed by a membrane called tonoplast
What’s in the cytoplasm?
• Centrioles
• Play a part in cell division
• Absent in most plant cells
• Ribosomes (2 types)
• Free floating ribosomes in cytoplasm
• Attached to the Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Ribosomes build all the cell’s proteins
• Cells active in protein synthesis are often packed with ribosomes.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
– Composed of smooth and rough ER
– Produces an enormous variety of molecules
• Golgi Apparatus
– Works in partnership with the ER
– Refines, stores, and distributes the products of cells
Vacuoles: Lysosomes
• Lysosome: a membrane-enclosed sac
– In animal cells
– Contains digestive enzymes
– The enzymes break down macromolecules

They fuse with food vacuoles They break down damaged

to digest the food organelles
Vacuoles: Central Vacuole
• In plant cells
• Membrane bound storage sacs
• Contents
• Water
• Food
• Wastes
• Make the cell firm by swelling that helps the plant cell
maintain support and rigidity
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Rough ER: The “roughness” is due to ribosomes attached
to the outside of the ER membrane
• The functions of the rough ER include
• Produce membrane proteins
• Produce digestive enzymes
• After the rough ER synthesizes a molecule it packages the
molecule into transport vesicles
• The smooth ER lacks the surface ribosomes of rough ER
• Serves many functions:
• Producing proteins
• Fatty acids for new membrane synthesis
• Produce steroids
• Produce sex hormones
• Detoxification of drugs and poisons
Mitochondria
• Sites of cellular respiration, which involves the production
of energy from food molecules
• The matrix contains enzymes which break down
carbohydrates and other nutrients for energy.
• The breakdown of these molecules in the presence of
oxygen to produce energy is called aerobic cellular
respiration.
• Energy releases may be temporarily stored in small
molecules called ATP (adenosine triphosphate) 
batteries
• ATP can be transported from one part of the cell to
another
• When needed, ATP break down to release energy
Cell Surface Membrane
• Also known as Plasma Membrane
• Separates the inside of the cell from the outside environment
• Partially permeable to control substances entering or leaving
the cell
• Selective permeability
• Allowing some substances to cross more easily than others
• Block passage of some substances altogether
• Consists of Phospholipid Bilayer
• consists of a polar portion, called the head,
• and 2 long fatty acids (non-polar), the tail.
Plant Cell Wall
• All plants have cellulose cell walls.
• Made up of cellulose fibers.
• protect the cell from mechanical damage and help the
cell maintain its rigidity under turgor pressure
• prevents over-expansion of the cell when water diffuses into the
cell.
• It is a barrier to many fungi, bacteria, and other
organisms that may cause plant diseases.
• It is fully permeable to all substances.
• bacterial and fungi cells also have a cell wall, but it is not
made of cellulose.
Cell wall vs. Cell membrane

Q. How permeable are the cell wall and cell

membrane in a plant cell?

Cell Wall Cell Membrane

A Fully Fully
B Fully Partially
C Partially Fully
D Partially Partially
 Animal vs. Plant cells
Plant Cell
• Presence of cellulose cell wall
• Presence of chloroplast
• A large central vacuole
• Cytoplasm reduced to a thin
lining
• Present of starch grains
• Absence of lysosomes
Animal Cell
• Absence of cellulose cell wall
• Absence of chloroplast
• Numerous small vacuoles
(lysosomes)
• Cytoplasm fills the cell
• Absence of starch grains
Animal vs. Plant cells
Q. Which cell structures are found in plant cells and
animal cells?

A.Cell membrane and chloroplasts

B.Cell membrane and nucleus
C.Cell wall and chloroplasts
D.Cell wall and nucleus
Factory Analogy of a Cell
Cell Factory
Cell Wall Factory Wall
Plasma membrane Shipping & receiving Depts

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Nucleus the executive department (Manages activities, initiates
production, controls activities of factory)
Cytoplasm factory floor where most of the products are assembled,

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finished, and shipped.
Ribosome assembly line – assemble raw material to manufacture item
Golgi apparatus packaging, shipping, distributing
Endoplasmic conveyor belt – move product within factory
reticulum
Mitochondrion generator – produce energy for the factory
Vacuole store area - store material for later use
Lysosome collection centre – breakdown and recycle used parts 24
Cell membrane door – allows certain things to enter and leave factory
 Specialized cells, tissues,
organs, and systems
• Types of cells:
• Root hair cell:
• Long and narrow shape to increase surface area to volume ratio for
efficient absorption of water and mineral salts from the soil
• Red blood cell (erythrocyte)
• Contain a red pigment called haemoglobin, enabling the cell to transport
oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body
• Circular biconcave shape to increase surface area to volume ratio so
oxygen can diffuse into and out of the cell at a faster rate
• Lacks nucleus, provide more space for haemoglobin.
• Xylem vessels:
• Transport water and mineral salts from the roots to the stem and leaves
• No cross walls and protoplasm  enables water to move easily through
the lumen
• Lignin strengthens the walls and prevents collapse of the vessel
• When bundled together, xylem vessels provide mechanical support to the
plant
 Root hair cell, Red blood cell,
Xylem vessels

Root hair cell

Xylem vessel: a narrow, cylindrical

tube enclosing a continuous space
called the lumen. The vessel is
Red blood cells: Flattened, circular biconcave
dead because there is no
shape to increase the surface area
protoplasm.
Form versus Function
• A sphere has the least surface area-to-volume ratio of any
shape.
• Cells in multicellular organisms consist of many different types
of cells that do different jobs.
• What does it mean for a cell to be specialized?
• Specific types of cells performs specific functions
• As cells mature, they may change and differentiate
• Differentiation: Process where a cell becomes specialised for a
specific function
• Differentiation could target any number of the following:
1. Shape of cell
2. Component proteins
3. Cell structures or organelles
4. Cell growth
5. Cell division
• The cell becomes adapted to perform a specific function.
Recap
Differentiation is the process by which a cell becomes
specialized for a specific function.

Cell Function Adaptations

Red blood cell transport oxygen •Circular, biconcave shape
•Able to change into a bell shape
•Contains haemoglobin
•Absence of nucleus
Xylem vessel transport water and •Absence of cross walls & protoplasm
mineral salts from roots •Walls strengthened by lignin
to stem and leaves.
Root hair cell absorb water and Presence of long and narrow root hair
mineral salts from soil to increase SA:V ratio
Tissues, Organs, and Systems
• Cells of the same type may be grouped together to
carry out a special function  called simple tissue
• Examples:
• epithelial tissue: a sheet of cells covering both the
internal and external surfaces of body
• plants have similar covering tissues called the epidermis
• muscle tissue: a collection of muscle cells which bring
about movement in our body by their contraction and
relaxation
• Complex tissue: tissues containing several types
of cells
• Examples: Nervous tissue, glandular tissue etc
Tissues
Organs
• Different tissues may be united
to form an organ eg stomach,
liver
• An organ is a group of
different tissues working
together and enabling the
organ to perform a particular
functions
Organ System
• Several organs working together for a special purpose
make up an organ system
• Example: digestive system, respiratory system
• An organism may have a few organ systems.
• Plants: stem and leaves as a system
• Humans have about 40 organs that are grouped into
about 10 named systems.
• The human nervous system includes:
• Brain, spinal cord, nerves
Systems
• An organ system is made up of
several organs working
together for a special purpose.
 Example: Digestive system
 Function: Breakdown and absorb
nutrients that are necessary for
growth & maintenance
 Major organs: Mouth, oesophagus,
stomach, small & large intestines
Human Body Systems
• Respiratory System
• Takes in oxygen from the surroundings. Removes carbon dioxide and
water vapour into the surroundings

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• Digestive System
• Breaks down the food we eat into simpler substances that can be
absorbed by the blood.

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• Nervous System
• Controls our actions, ensures all the parts of our body work smoothly
together and enables us to respond to changes.
• Blood circulatory system
• Carries food, oxygen and water to various parts of the body. Carries
wastes away to be removed.
• Excretory System
• Removes wastes from the body
• Immune System
• Defends against infections 34
Human Body Systems
• Skeletal system
• Supports our body, gives us shape, protects our organs and
enables movement.

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• Muscular system
• Enables movement
• Reproductive system
• Female  Produces eggs for reproduction

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• Male  Produces sperms for reproduction
• Integumentary system (skin)
• Waterproof barrier
• Regulate temperature
• Lymphatic system
• Filters bacteria
• Destroy bacteria
• Endocrine System
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• Secret hormones
• Produce response in the body
Plants: Vascular Tissue
System
• The xylem and phloem that functions in
transport and support; is continuous throughout
the plant.