Significant Weather (SIGWX) Charts

BUREAU OF METEOROLOGY
WEATHER SERVICES
AVIATION
AVIATION WEATHER PRODUCTS
Significant Weather (SIGWX) Charts
SIGWX Forecast Charts

The Bureau issues SIGWX forecast charts for significant weather expected in the airspace:
• FL250 to FL630 – SIGWX High (SWH)
• FL100 to FL250 – SIGWX Medium (SWM)
Charts are valid for 00, 06, 12 and 18 UTC. SWH are normally available sixteen hours before
validity; and SWM are normally available twenty hours before.
Forecast charts are valid for the time point indicated (00, 06, 12 or 18 UTC) but are used for
operations within three hours each side of this time.
The following phenomena are shown on the charts:

• tropical cyclones
The Bureau issues
• moderate or severe turbulence, including clear air turbulence (CAT)
SIGWX forecast • moderate or severe icing
charts for significant • surface fronts
weather expected in • cumulonimbus (CB) cloud associated with thunderstorms and with any of the above
the airspace FL100 • non-convective cloud associated with in-cloud moderate or severe turbulence or icing
• jet streams
to FL630.
• volcanic eruptions
• tropopause heights
• radioactive material
Note that the inclusion of CB on SIGWX charts implies the existence of thunderstorms,
moderate or severe turbulence, moderate or severe icing, and hail.
Cloud amount is indicated by the standard abbreviations:

• ISOL, OCNL, FRQ and EMBD for CB
• FEW, SCT, BKN and OVC for clouds other than CB
The numerals following the cloud type abbreviation are the forecast height of the top and
base of the cloud. If the top/base is above/below the level of the chart coverage, XXX is
used, e.g. ISOL EMBD or ISOL EMBD or ISOL EMBD
CB XXX CB 400 CB XXX
100 XXX XXX
A similar convention is employed to indicate the forecast height of icing and turbulence.
Jet streams are indicated by a solid line with pennants ( ) to show wind speeds of 50
knots, feathers ( ) to show 10 knots, and half feathers ( ) to show 5 knots. A 20 knot
change is indicated by two parallel lines across the jet stream ( ).
The tropopause is indicated at various points by a rectangular box framing the flight level
of the tropopause. The location of the highest and lowest tropopause points may also be
shown.
FURTHER INFORMATION
Aviation Weather Services
Visit us at www.bom.gov.au
SIGWX Symbols Example Charts
Tropical cyclone SIGWX Medium
Moderate
turbulence
Severe
turbulence
Moderate
aircraft icing
Severe aircraft
icing
Volcanic
eruption
Radioactive
materials in the
atmosphere
H Tropopause
460
high
270
L Tropopause low
SIGWX High
380 Tropopause
level
FL270 Position, speed

and level of jet
stream
20 kt change in
jet stream wind
speed
Surface cold
front
Airservices Australia is the official distributor of aviation forecasts, warnings and observations issued by
the Bureau of Meteorology. Flight briefing services are available at: www.airservicesaustralia.com.
Telephone contact details for elaborative briefings are contained in Airservices’ Aeronautical Information
Publication Australia (AIP), which is available online through their website.
The Australian Bureau of Meteorology provides a wide range of observations, synoptic charts, satellite
and radar images, forecast and warnings via the internet at www.bom.gov.au.
© Commonwealth of Australia, 10 February 2011

WEATHER SERVICES
AVIATION
Aerodrome Forecast (TAF)
A TAF is a coded statement of meteorological conditions expected

at an aerodrome and within a radius of five nautical miles of the
aerodrome reference point.
The format of an Australian TAF
NIL
TAF or
TAF AMD or Location Issue Time Validity CNL
TAF COR or
PROV TAF VIS WX CLD
Control tower, Sydney Airport
Validity Wind
CAVOK
TAF AMD YMML 292330Z
3000/3106 14008KT 9999
NSW SCT030
FM301100 14003KT 3000 HZ
BKN009 VIS WX CLD
significant
PROB40 3017/3023 0400 FG changes FM or Time Wind
RMK to mean BECMG
conditions
T 14 15 17 14 Q 1016 1014 CAVOK
1013 1014
significant
variations PROB% INTER or Start Finish
from mean Wind VIS WX CLD
(30 or 40%) TEMPO Time Time
conditions
only used not used
for TS for fog
TS CLD
probability PROB% Start Finish VIS
of TS or poor (30 or 40%) Time Time
visibility
Fog, Mist, Dust, Smoke or Sand CLD
RMK
significant MOD TURB or

Start Finish
low level FM MOD/SEV TURB or BLW.............FT TILL
Time Time
turbulence SEV TURB
TEMP QNH The following lines will only

be included as required
Indicates elements which may

or may not be inluded in line
FURTHER INFORMATION
Explanation of TAF Elements
Identifier
TAF Aerodrome Forecast
TAF AMD Amended Aerodrome Forecast
TAF COR Corrected Aerodrome Forecast
TAF .. CNL Cancelled Aerodrome Forecast
TAF .. NIL Aerodrome Forecast will not be issued
PROV TAF Provisional Aerodrome Forecast
Code Weather Descriptor

MI shallow
Location
BC patches The location is given by either an ICAO location indicator or an approved Airservices
PR partial Australia abbreviation.
DR drifting
BL blowing
Issue Time
The issue time of the TAF is expressed in a six-figure group followed by the code letter Z,
SH showers
e.g. 202230Z gives an issue time of 2230 on the 20th day of the month UTC.
FZ freezing
TS thunderstorm Validity
The period of validity is given in the format ddhh/ddhh, where dd is day of the month
Code Weather Phenomena and hh is hour UTC, e.g. 2100/2206, which gives a 30 hour validity period from 0000 on
DZ drizzle the 21st to 0600 on the 22nd UTC. Note that 00 is used to indicate periods of validity
RA rain beginning at 0000 UTC; and 24 is used to indicate periods of validity ending at 2400 UTC.
GR hail Wind
SN snow The wind direction is given in degrees True, rounded to the nearest 10 degrees. A variable
SG snow grains wind direction is given as VRB (used when the forecasting of a mean wind direction is not
DU dust possible).
SA sand The wind speed is given in knots (KT).
SS sandstorm
The maximum wind gust is included, after the letter G, if it is expected to exceed the mean
DS duststorm
by 10 knots or more, e.g. 28020G30KT gives a wind direction of 280° True, with a mean
GS small hail/snow pellets speed of 20 knots, and a maximum gust of 30 knots.
FG fog
Visibility
BR mist
The horizontal visibility is given in metres in increments of 50 metres when visibility is
FU smoke
forecast to be less than 800 metres; in increments of 100 metres when forecast to be
HZ haze
800 metres or more but less than 5,000 metres; and in increments of 1,000 metres when
PO dust devil forecast to be 5,000 or more but less than 10,000 metres. Visibility is always given in a four
SQ squall figure group: e.g. 500 metres is given as 0500. Forecast visibilities of 10 kilometres or more
FC funnel cloud are given as 9999. Visibility is not given when CAVOK is forecast.
VA volcanic ash
Weather
IC ice crystals Forecast weather is expressed using the abbreviations in the tables on the left.
PL ice pellets
Intensity is indicated for precipitation, duststorms, sandstorms and funnel clouds (tornadoes
Prefix Weather Intensity and water spouts). In these cases, the weather group is prefixed by - for light and + for
heavy; moderate intensity has no prefix, e.g. +TSRA means thunderstorm with heavy rain;
+ Heavy
DZ means moderate drizzle; -RA means light rain.
no
prefix Moderate
After a change group, if the weather ceases to be significant, the weather group is replaced
- Light by NSW (nil significant weather) or CAVOK if appropriate.
Code Cloud Amount Cloud
SKC sky clear Cloud information is given from the lowest to the highest layers in accordance with the
FEW few (1 to 2 oktas) following rule:
SCT scattered (3 to 4 oktas)
• 1st group: the lowest layer regardless of amount
• 2nd group: the next layer covering more than 2 oktas
BKN broken (5 to 7 oktas)
• 3rd group: the next higher layer covering more than 4 oktas
OVC overcast (8 oktas)
• Extra group for cumulonimbus when forecast but not at any of the layer heights given
NSC nil significant cloud
above.
Cloud amount is given using the following abbreviations in the table on the left.
Cloud height is given as a three-figure group in hundreds of feet above the aerodrome, e.g.
cloud at 700 feet above the aerodrome is shown as 007.
Cloud type is identified only for cumulonimbus, e.g. FEW030CB.
CAVOK
The abbreviation CAVOK (Cloud and Visibility and weather OK) is used when the following
conditions are forecast simultaneously:
• Visibility is 10 kilometres or more
• No cloud below 5000 feet or the highest 25 nautical mile minimum sector altitude
whichever is the higher; and no cumulonimbus at any height
• No weather of significance to aviation, i.e. none of the weather listed in the weather table
Significant Changes and Variations (FM, BECMG, INTER, TEMPO)

Significant changes and variations will be included when the changes and variations are
expected to satisfy amendment criteria. It should be noted that these changes relate to
improvements as well as deteriorations.
The term FM is used when one set of prevailing weather conditions is expected to rapidly
change to a different set of prevailing weather conditions. The indicator is the beginning of a
self-contained forecast, with the new conditions applying until the end period of the forecast
or until the commencement time of another FM or BECMG group.
The term BECMG is used when one set of prevailing weather conditions is expected to
change, during the given period, to a different set of prevailing weather conditions. The
indicator is the beginning of a self-contained forecast, with the new conditions applying until
the end period of the forecast, or until the commencement time of another BECMG or FM
group.
Following any change group (FM or BECMG) there will be information on wind, visibility,
weather and cloud; except when CAVOK is given or when fog is forecast.
Following any change group (FM or BECMG) when there is nil significant weather forecast
the abbreviation NSW is used; and the abbreviation SKC will be used when the sky is
forecast to be clear.
The terms TEMPO and INTER are used to indicate significant temporary or intermittent
variations from the prevailing conditions previously given in the TAF. TEMPO is used for
periods of 30 minutes or more but less than 60 minutes. INTER is used for periods less than
30 minutes.
PROB
The term PROB is used if the estimated probability of occurrence is 30 or 40% (probabilities
of less than 30% are not given), and is only used with reference to thunderstorms or poor
visibility (less than the alternate minimum) resulting from fog, mist, dust, smoke or sand. If
the estimated probability of occurrence is equal to or greater than 50%, reference is made
to the phenomenon in the forecast itself, not by the addition of a PROB. When using PROB
with thunderstorms, INTER and TEMPO are also included whenever possible to indicate the
probable duration. Where PROB is used without one of these, the likely period of occurrence
will be deemed to be one hour or more. For example:
PROB30 INTER 1205/1211 5000 -TSRA BKN040CB

indicates a 30% probability of deteriorations of less than 30 minutes due to
thunderstorms with light rain between 0500 and 1100 UTC on the 12th.
PROB40 TEMPO 1102/1113 3000 TSRA BKN040CB

indicates a 40% probability of deteriorations of 30 minutes or more but less than 60
minutes due to thunderstorms with moderate rain between 0200 and 1300 UTC on
the 11th.
PROB30 1005/1014 1000 +TSRA BKN040CB

indicates a 30% probability of deteriorations of one hour or more due to
thunderstorms with heavy rain between 0500 and 1400 UTC on the 10th.
RMK
RMK (remarks) precedes information on Turbulence (if forecast), Temperatures and QNH
Turbulence
Special reference is made in TAF to hazardous turbulence that may endanger aircraft
or adversely affect their safe or efficient operation. The TAF contains information on
commencement time (FMddhhmm), the expected intensity (moderate [MOD] or severe [SEV])
and the vertical extent (BLW.... FT). TILLddhhmm is used to indicate the cessation of the
turbulence when this is expected before the end of the TAF validity.
Air Temperature
Air temperature, preceded by the letter T, is given in whole degrees celsius using two figures.
If the temperature is below zero, the value is prefixed by the letter M (minus). Forecasts of air
temperature are given at three-hourly intervals, for a maximum of nine hours, from the time
of commencement of validity of the forecast. They are given for the times HH, HH+3, HH+6
and HH+9, where HH is the time of the commencement of the TAF validity. They are point
forecasts for these times but are valid for, in the case of the first value, ninety minutes after
the time point HH; and, for subsequent values, ninety minutes each side of the time point.
QNH
QNH, preceded by the letter Q, is given in whole hectopascals using four figures. Forecasts
of QNH are given at three-hourly intervals, for a maximum of nine hours, from the time of
commencement of validity of the forecast. They are given for the times HH, HH+3, HH+6
and HH+9, where HH is the time of the commencement of the TAF validity. They are point
forecasts for these times but are valid for, in the case of the first value, ninety minutes after
the time point HH; and, for subsequent values, ninety minutes each side of the time point.
TAF Examples
TAF YMAY 022230Z 0300/0312 35010KT CAVOK
FM030800 31018KT 9999 SHRA BKN025 OVC100
INTER 0308/0312 31020G40KT 3000 +TSRA BKN010 SCT040CB
RMK FM030600 MOD TURB BLW 5000FT
T 23 24 28 33 Q 1012 1013 1014 1009
Aerial view of Albury Airport, courtesy
of Creative Commons FORECAST DECODE
YMAY Location indicator for Albury Airport
022230Z TAF issued at 2230 on the 2nd day of the month UTC
0300/0312 Validity period of TAF is from 0000 to 1200, on the 3rd day of the month
UTC
35010KT Wind will be from the north (350 degrees True) at 10 knots
CAVOK Cloud, visibility and weather ok
FM030800 Significant changes to the mean conditions are expected to commence

from 0800 on the 3rd UTC, and to persist (at least) until the end of the
forecast period. FM
0000 0800 1200
TAF TAF
START FINISH
Note that there will be intermittent variations to these new mean conditions
(refer INTER below)
31018KT Wind will be from the northwest (310 degrees True) at 18 knots
9999 Visibility will be 10 kilometres or more
SHRA Weather will be moderate showers of rain
BKN025 Cloud will be broken (5 to 7 oktas) with base at 2500 feet above the
aerodrome
OVC100 There will also be overcast cloud (8 oktas) with base at 10000 feet
INTER There will be intermittent (periods of less than 30 minutes) variations to

0308/0312 the previously given mean conditions. Period of INTER is 0800 to 1200
on the 3rd UTC
INTER START
0000 0800 1200
TAF <30 <30 TAF

START Mins Mins FINISH
31020G40KT Intermittently the wind will be from the northwest (310 degrees True) at
20 knots gusting to 40 knots
3000 Visibility will be 3000 metres
+TSRA Weather will be thunderstorms with heavy rain
BKN010 Cloud will be broken (5 to 7 oktas) with base at 1000 feet above the
aerodrome
SCT040CB There will also be 3 to 4 oktas of cumulonimbus cloud with base at
4000 feet
RMK Remarks section follows
FM030600 From 0600 on the 3rd UTC, expect moderate turbulence below
TURB BLW 5000 feet
5000FT
T 23 24 28 33 Forecast air temperatures at 00, 03, 06 and 09 UTC are 23, 24, 28
and 33°
Q 1012 1013 Forecast QNH at 00, 03, 06 and 09 UTC are 1012, 1013, 1014 and
1014 1009 1009hPa.
TAF COR YMLT 212240Z 2200/2218 31015G28KT 6000 -RA BKN010 OVC100
TEMPO 2209/2218 2000 +TSRA BKN005 SCT040CB
RMK
T 25 21 18 15 Q 1014 1013 1013 1011
TAF DECODE

Launceston Airport, photo by COR This TAF is a correction to the previously issued TAF
K Spilling, courtesy of
Creative Commons YMLT Location Indicator for Launceston Airport
212240Z TAF issued at 2240 on the 21st day of the month UTC
2200/2218 Validity period of TAF is from 0000 until 1800 on the 22nd of the month
UTC
31015G28KT Mean wind is expected to be from 310 degrees True at 15 knots with
gusts to 28 knots
-RA Weather will be light rain
BKN010 Cloud will be broken (5 to 7 octas), with base at 1000 feet above the
aerodrome
OVC100 There will also be overcast cloud, with base at 10,000 feet above the
aerodrome
TEMPO There will be temporary variations (periods of 30 to 60 minutes), to the

2209/2218 previously given mean conditions, during the period 0900 to 1800 on
the 22nd.
+TSRA Weather will be thunderstorms with heavy rain showers
BKN005 There will be broken (5 to 7 oktas) cloud with base at 500 feet above the
aerodrome
SCT040CB There will also be scattered (3 to 4 oktas) cumulonmbus cloud with base
at 4000 feet above the aerodrome
and 15oC
1013 1011 1011hPa
TAF AMD YMML 292330Z 3000/3106 14008KT 9999 NSW SCT030
FM301100 14003KT 3000 HZ BKN009
PROB40 3017/3023 0400 FG
RMK
T 14 15 17 14 Q 1016 1014 1013 1014
TAF DECODE
Melbourne Airport, courtesy of
Creative Commons TAF Aerodrome Forecast
AMD This TAF amends the previously issued TAF
YMML Location indicator for Melbourne Airport
292230Z TAF issued at 2230 on the 29th day of the month UTC
3000/3106 Validity period of TAF is from 0000 on the 30th until 0600 on the 31st
UTC
14008KT Mean wind is expected to be from the southeast (140 degrees True)
at 8 knots
9999 Visibility will be 10 kilometres or more
NSW There will be nil significant weather
SCT030 Cloud will be scattered (3 to 4 oktas), with base at 3000 feet above the
aerodrome
FM301100 Significant new mean conditions are expected from 1100 on the 30th UTC
14003KT Mean wind is expected to be from 150 degrees True at 3 knots
3000 Visibility will be 3 kilometres
HZ Weather will be haze
BKN009 Cloud will be broken (5 to 7 oktas), with base at 900 feet above the
aerodrome
PROB40 There is a 40% probability of conditions being the following during the
3017/3023 period 1700 to 2300 on the 30th
0400 Visibility of 400 metres
FG Fog
and 14oC
1013 1014 1014hPa

WEATHER SERVICES
AVIATION
Trend Forecast (TTF)
TTF SPECI YPAD 112200Z Trend Forecast

00000KT 2000 +DZ
The trend forecast is an aerodrome weather report (METAR or SPECI) to which a statement
OVC005 12/11 Q1020 RMK
of trend, for the elements wind, visibility, weather and clouds, is appended, forecasting
RF00.8/001.8
FM2200 32005KT 9999 NSW the weather conditions expected to affect the aerodrome for the validity period of the TTF
BKN008 which is normally the three hours following the time of the report.
FM2300 04005KT 9999 NSW
The TTF supersedes the Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) for its validity period. For aerodromes
SCT020
where the TTF service is not a 24 hour service, a statement in the remarks section during the
last three hours of the service will indicate when the TAF supersedes the TTF, e.g. USE TAF
FOR ARRIVALS AFTER 0800Z.
The format of an Australian TTF
VIS RVR WX Cloud
METAR or Date/ TEMP/ Supplementary Remarks

TTF Location Wind QNH
SPECI Time DEW PT Information
CAVOK
no
significant NOSIG
changes
VIS WX Cloud
significant
changes
to mean FM TIME Wind
conditions
CAVOK
significant
variations INTER Start Finish
from mean or Time Wind VIS WX Cloud
Time
conditions TEMPO
significant MOD TURB or

low level FM TIME MOD/SEV TURB or BLW.................FT TILL Time
turbulence SEV TURB
The following lines will only

be included as required
Indicates elements which may

or may not be inluded in line
FURTHER INFORMATION
The METAR/SPECI component of the TTF is explained in the METAR/SPECI brochure in this
series.
The forecast component of the TTF follows the TAF rules (refer to the TAF brochure in this
series) except for the following:
 NOSIG
NOSIG is used when no significant changes to the existing conditions (as per the METAR/
SPECI) are expected for the validity of the TTF. Note that NOSIG does not mean no significant
weather.
 FM
FM (from) is used in the same way as for the TAF except that in the TTF the time is given in
the format FMHHMM (hours and minutes).
 INTER and TEMPO

INTER and TEMPO are used in the same way as for the TAF except that in the TTF the INTER/
TEMPO period is given in the format HHMM/HHMM (hours and minutes).
 MOD/SEV TURB
Turbulence is used in the same way as for the TAF except that in the TTF the times are given
in the format FMHHMM and TILL HHMM (hours and minutes).
Examples
TTF METAR YPPH 231400Z 02015KT 9999 SCT040 BKN120 22/08 Q1009 RMK
RF00.0/000.0 DISTANT LIGHTNING TO NW
FM1530 32018G35KT 6000 SHRA BKN030 BKN120
INTER 1530/1700 3000 TSRA SCT010 BKN030CB
FM1530 MOD TURB BLW 5000FT
REPORT EXPLANATION
TTF Trend Forecast
Perth Airport, photo courtesy of
Creative Commons METAR Routine meteorological observation
YPPH Perth Airport location indicator
231400Z Report time is 1400 on the 23rd of the month UTC
02015KT Wind is from the north-northeast (020 degrees True) at 15 knots
9999 Visibility is 10 kilometres or more
SCT040 There are 3 to 4 oktas of cloud, with base at 4000 feet above the
aerodrome
BKN120 There are also 5 to 7 oktas of cloud, with base at 12 000 feet above the
aerodrome
22/08 Air temperature is 22°C and dewpoint temperature is 08°C
Q1009 QNH is between 1009 and 1009.9 hectopascals
RMK Indicator that remarks follow (rainfall amount and distant lightning)
RF00.0/000.0 There has been no rainfall in the last 10 minutes nor since 9 am (local
time)
DISTANT Distant (greater than 16 kilometres from the aerodrome reference point)
LIGHTNING lightning to the northwest has been observed
TO NW
FM1530 From 1530 UTC the observed conditions of the METAR are expected to
change to:
32018G35KT Wind will be north-westerly (from 320 degrees True) at 18 knots with
gusts to 35 knots
6000 The prevailing visibility will reduce to 6000 metres
SHRA There willl be moderate showers of rain
BKN030 Cloud will increase to 5 to 7 oktas with base lowering to 3000 feet above
the aerodrome
BKN120 There will also be 5 to 7 oktas at 12 000 feet
INTER The following significant variations to the previously given mean
conditions are expected to occur intermittently (i.e. for periods of less
than 30 minutes):
1530/1700 The period of the INTER will be from 1530 to 1700 UTC
3000 Visibility will reduce to 3000 metres
TSRA Weather will be thunderstorms with moderate rain showers
SCT010 There will be 3 to 4 oktas of cloud, with base at 1000 feet above the
aerodrome
BKN030CB There will be 5 to 7 oktas of cumulonimbus cloud, with base at 3000 feet
above the aerodrome
FM1530 MOD From 1530 UTC, expect moderate turbulence below 5000 feet. Refer to
TURB BLW TAF for conditions after 1700.
5000FT
TTF SPECI YPAD 112200Z 00000KT 2000 +DZ OVC005 12/11 Q1020 RMK RF00.8/001.8
FM2200 32005KT 9999 NSW BKN008
FM2300 04005KT 9999 NSW SCT020
REPORT EXPLANATION
TTF Trend Forecast
SPECI Special meteorological observation (for reduced visibility and cloud)
Adelaide Airport, photo by Adam YPAD Adelaide Airport location indicator
Trevorrow, courtesy of Creative
Commons 112200Z Report time is 2200 on the 11th of the month UTC
00000KT Wind is calm
2000 Visibility is 2000 metres
+DZ Weather is drizzle of heavy intensity
OVC005 There are 8 oktas of cloud, with base at 500 feet above the aerodrome
12/11 Air temperature is 12°C and dewpoint temperature is 11°C
Q1020 QNH is between 1020 and 1020.9 hectopascals
RMK Indicator that remarks (rainfall measurement) follow
RF00.8/001.8 There has been 0.8 mm of rainfall in last 10 minutes; and 1.8 mm since
9 am (local time)
FM2200 From 2200 UTC the observed conditions of the SPECI are expected to
change to:
32005KT Wind will be from the north-west (320 degrees True) at 5 knots
9999 Visibility will increase to 10 kilometres or more
BKN008 There will be 5 to 7 oktas of cloud with base lifting to 800 feet above
aerodrome
FM2300 From 2300 UTC the mean conditions are expected to change to:
04005KT Wind will be from the northeast (040 degrees True) at 5 knots
9999 The prevailing visibility will remain at 10 kilometres or more
SCT020 There will be 3 to 4 oktas of cloud with base lifting to 2000 feet above
the aerodrome
TTF SPECI YMML 092200Z 00000KT 0300 R16/0300N R27/0350N FG 09/09 Q1017
RMK RF00.0/001.8 NOSIG
REPORT EXPLANATION
TTF Trend Forecast
SPECI Special observation (for reduced visibility due fog)
YMML Melbourne Airport location indicator
Melbourne Airport (photo courtesy of
Creative Commons) 092200Z Report time is 2200 on the 9th of the month UTC
00000KT Wind is calm
0300 Visibility is 300 metres
R16/0300N Runway visual range on runway 16 threshold is 300 metres, with nil trend
R27/0350N Runway visual range on runway 27 threshold is 350 metres, with nil trend
FG Weather is fog
09/09 Air temperature and dewpoint temperature are both 9°C
Q1017 QNH is between 1017hPa and 1017.9hPa
RMK Indicator that remarks (rainfall measurement) follow
RF00.0/001.8 There has been nil rainfall in last 10 minutes; and 1.8 mm since 9 am
(local time)
NOSIG No significant changes from the SPECI conditions are expected during the
forecast period (three hours)

WEATHER SERVICES
AVIATION
Wind and Temperature Charts
Wind and Temperature Charts

A wind and temperature chart provides a graphical display of forecast wind and temperature
data for one flight level.
The Bureau's Aviation Weather Centre Melbourne generates these charts from data sourced
from one of the two World Area Forecast Centres (WAFC).
Charts are issued every six hours and are produced for the following areas and flight levels:
Australian Region - 0°S to 50°S, 100°E to 180°E (Mercator projection)

• FL050 850hPa
• FL100 700hPa
The Aviation • FL180 500hPa
Weather Centre • FL240 400hPa
Melbourne • FL300 300hPa
• FL340 250hPa
generates upper
• FL390 200hPa
level wind and
temperature ICAO Area E - 45°N to 47°S, 25°E to 180°E (Mercator projection)
forecast charts • FL100 700hPa

using data from • FL180 500hPa
the World Area • FL300 300hPa
Forecast System. • FL340 250hPa
• FL390 200hPa
ICAO Area F - 42°30'N to 47°30'S, 100°E to 110°W (Mercator projection)

• FL240 400hPa
• FL300 300hPa
• FL340 250hPa
• FL390 200hPa
ICAO Area K - 0°S to 90°S, 0°E to 180°W (Polar Stereographic projection)

• FL300 300hPa
• FL340 250hPa
The data is presented in 5° grids on a geographic background.
Winds are indicated by arrows, where the arrow alignment gives the direction from which
the wind is blowing, and the barb gives the speed, where:
• a pennant barb ( ) represents 50 knots

• a feather barb ( ) represents 10 knots
• a half feather barb ( ) represents 5 knots
FURTHER INFORMATION Temperatures are given in whole degrees Celsius, and are negative unless preceded by the
Aviation Weather Services plus sign (+).
Example Charts
Australian Region
ICAO Area E
ICAO Area F
ICAO Area F
ICAO Area K

WEATHER SERVICES
AVIATION
HAZARDOUS WEATHER PHENOMENA
Fog
Fog is a major
hazard and
inconvenience to
aviation traffic in
Australia.
Introduction
The major problem posed by fog is the closure of airports and the subsequent disruptions
that occur such as diversions of aircraft already nearing their destination. Widespread fog
may obscure ground features so that visual enroute navigation is impaired, but the major
problem is its effect on landing and take off.
Fog is defined as a concentrated suspension of very small water droplets causing horizontal
visibility to be less than 1000 metres.
Fog is actually a cloud occurring at ground level. It forms in the same basic way as cloud -
either a moist air mass is cooled beyond its saturation point (dew point) and condensation
occurs, or extra moisture is added to make the air saturated at that temperature. Most fogs
are initiated when moist air is cooled by contact with an underlying cold surface (whereas
clouds form as a result of moist air being cooled by lifting). In addition, some turbulent
mixing of air must occur to transfer the cooled air to higher levels before fog will form to any
depth.
Types of Fog
Radiation Fog
Radiation fog forms when moist air is cooled below its dew-point by contact with a cold land
surface that is losing heat by radiation. The ideal conditions are:
• High relative humidity at low levels so that overnight cooling will be sufficient for the air
FURTHER INFORMATION temperature to fall to below its dewpoint temperature resulting in condensation occurring.
• Cloudless, or near cloudless skies, to allow a large heat loss at the ground, and
subsequent cooling of the air in contact with the ground.
• Light winds to promote mixing of this cooled air through a few hundred feet of the
surface (a calm wind tends to restrict the fog to low-lying pockets).
The mix of ingredients is often critical. Small particulate matter assists the process by
providing condensation nuclei, so a fog that would not form in open countryside may
form under the same circumstances near a city where small pollution particles provide the
necessary nuclei. If the wind is calm, the cooling may take place through a depth of just
a few centimetres and heavy dew is the only result. The small amount of turbulence (and
subsequent mixing of the cooled air) caused by the sun’s first warming rays may tip the
balance and change fine conditions into an all-enveloping shroud.
Because cold air sinks into valleys, these are preferred areas for radiation fogs, especially if a
stream or river adds moisture to the air. From the air, fog can be seen like a smooth carpet
snaking through the valleys while surrounding hill tops are clear.
Anticyclones (high pressure systems) provide the most favourable situations for radiation
fog, particularly if the preceding situation has brought a moist air mass to the area.
Moisture in the ground can also contribute, so a clear, calm night after a period of rain is a
particularly favourable situation.
Radiation fog usually disperses a few hours after sunrise. An exception occurs when the fog
is very thick or when middle level cloud has moved over the fog and effectively blocks the
heating effect of the sun.
Advection Fog
Advection fog develops when warm moist air moves (advects) over a cooler surface resulting
in the cooling of the air to below its dewpoint temperature, and subsequent saturation and
condensation. Radiation processes frequently assist in the formation and maintenance of
this type of fog, but it is still usually called an advection fog. A certain amount of turbulence
is needed for proper development of advection fog, thus wind between 6–15 knots are
commonly associated with advection fog. Not only does the turbulence facilitate cooling
through a thicker layer, but it also carries the fog to greater heights. Unlike radiation fogs,
advection fogs are often thick and persistent.
Sea Fog
Sea fogs are usually advection fogs. They develop when moist air that has been lying over a
warm water surface moves over a colder water surface, resulting in the cooling of this air to
below its dewpoint temperature. They are relatively rare in the Australian region, but when
they do occur they are often widespread and persistent even in moderate strength winds.
Sea fog has been known to persist for several days around the Australian coastline. They
can occur at any time of the year. The main dangers to aviation presented by sea fog are
when it drifts inland over coastal aerodromes during daytime, usually with a seabreeze, or
obscures the sea surface for seaplane operations.
Advected Fog
Advected fog is any fog that forms remotely and is transported (advected), by light winds
into an area previously clear of fog. Advected fogs are common in Australia, with Sydney,
Adelaide and Hobart being particularly susceptible to this type of fog in the cooler months.
Steam Fog
Steam fog is caused by evaporation from water into overlying colder air, causing the air to
become saturated and condensation to occur. The convection currents above the water
give rise to the steaming appearance. The fog may remain in situ but any light wind may
advect it many kilometres. This is a common occurrence in inland Australia where large,
shallow and warm waterways and dams exist. In coastal areas where cool land breezes have
opportunity to flow across warm seas, steam fog can be extensive and lift into low stratus.
Frontal Fog
Frontal fog occurs at the boundary of two air masses rather than within a single air mass
(as is the case with the previously discussed types). It mainly develops due to precipitation
falling from relatively warm air above a frontal surface, evaporating into drier and cooler
air below, causing this air to saturate and condense. Such fogs usually form rapidly and are
very extensive. The danger of such fogs to aviation is that, unlike radiation fog where the
visibility above the fog is good, a frontal fog will be associated with generally poor weather
such as dense cloud and precipitation. Fortunately, such fogs are not common in Australia.
Upslope Fog
Upslope fog is formed when moist air is forced up a terrain slope and cools to saturation.
It is important to note however that a hill or mountain is not a necessity - a gentle slope
will do. For example, upslope lifting in a southerly air stream is the principle reason for the
formation of low stratus at Broken Hill Airport. Upslope fogs can be long lived when the
airstream is very moist.
Fog Frequency
The occurrence of fog generally follows a seasonal trend, being less likely in summer than in
winter and transition months.
In southwest Australia, radiation fogs are common inland in winter when the Sub-tropical
Ridge lies over the southern states, resulting in clear skies and light winds. These fogs are
usually isolated and dissipate by mid-morning. More widespread fogs tend to form in the
wake of cold fronts when rapid ridging behind the front forms a temperature inversion
which traps the moisture deposited as rainfall. The West Coast Trough can produce fog
about the coastal plain when it moves inland with moist maritime air. Additionally, sea
fog can form with the trough off-shore, and may be advected inland if the trough moves
inland.
In southeast Australia, the incidence of fog is generally low at aerodromes close to the
coast (e.g. Coffs Harbour, Hobart), but increases very rapidly only a short distance inland.
Aerodromes such as Richmond (NSW), Launceston, Mt Gambier and aerodromes along the
Great Dividing Range generally experience in excess of 40 fogs per annum. On the western
slopes of the Great Dividing Range, particularly in southern regions, locations experience
in excess of 25 fogs per annum, while the incidence tapers off further inland. In the
fog-prone parts of Australia, in late autumn or winter, fog may form in early evening and
persist till midday or longer; on isolated occasions fog may persist unbroken for two days at
aerodromes such as Canberra and Launceston.
Monthly fog frequency for selected airports

3
Adelaide Brisbane Cairns Darwin Melbourne Perth Sydney
14
Mean number of fog days per annum
12
Mean number of fog days
10 2
8
2 1
0
Adelaide
Brisbane
Cairns
Darwin
Melbourne
Perth
Sydney
0
July
May
June
April
March
August
January
October
February
December
November
September
Average annual fog frequency

for selected airports
Fogs in tropical Australia are most common near the coast in the dry season. Fogs are
reported from major coastal airports in Western Australia (e.g. Broome, Port Hedland) about
15 times a year. Fogs also occur in North Queensland, more commonly about the coast
and during the cooler months. The number of fogs occurring is largely dependant on the
airport location. Fogs can be expected at Rockhampton more than 30 times each year
while at Cairns fogs are very rare. Often radiation fogs forming in tropical areas are shallow
and do not significantly affect aviation operations. A few times each year, sea fogs form
along the coast and persist for much of the day. Sea fogs are a regular occurrence during
the dry and transition seasons about the Gulf of Carpentaria coast and frequently affect
aerodromes such as Ngukurr, Borroloola and McArthur River Mine. Fogs and low stratus
also occur about coastal valleys in the Northern Territory’s top end during the dry season,
occasionally extending as far inland as Tindal.
Detection & Monitoring

Fog can be detected by a combination of direct surface observations, satellite observations,
and inference from vertical temperature profiles. Surface trends of wind, temperature,
humidity, cloud and visibility provide the basic observational support for likely fog
conditions, both in the formative and dissipative stages. Satellite observations provide the
best estimate of areal coverage and trends in fog cover, especially at night when direct
observations are limited. However, fog cannot be differentiated from low cloud. Inference
from vertical temperature profiles provides important indicators of moisture depth, wind
regimes and conditions conducive to radiative cooling.
Forecasts & Warnings

Fog forecasts are included in Area Forecasts, Trend Forecasts (TTF) and Aerodrome Forecasts
(TAF), with specific reference to timing and horizontal visibility at ground level. Warnings are
not issued for fog.

WEATHER SERVICES
AVIATION
HAZARDOUS WEATHER PHENOMENA
Thunderstorms
A thunderstorm is a
cumulonimbus (CB)
cloud in which electrical
discharge can be seen
as lightning and heard
as thunder. It may also
have associated wind
gusts, precipitation
or tornadoes. A
thunderstorm is
potentially the most Thunderstorm Development
violent and destructive A thunderstorm is essentially a cloud that produces lightning. The lightning is a gigantic
meteorological spark created when an enormous imbalance of positive and negative charge occurs. It greatly
phenomenon confronting heats the surrounding air to many thousands of degrees, causing the air to expand violently,
general aviation resulting in the crashing noise known as thunder.
pilots. Regardless For a thunderstorm to form, moist air must be able to rapidly rise through the atmosphere.
of size or intensity, Three main ingredients are necessary for this to occur:
any thunderstorm is 1. An unstable atmosphere (evidenced by a strong vertical lapse rate, i.e. temperature
hazardous to aviation. falls rapidly with height) which, when associated with high surface temperatures, provides
a favourable environment for the strong vertical atmospheric motions that produce
thunderstorms.
2. A lifting mechanism (to initiate the vertical motion) such as low level convergence of
airstreams, a frontal system, orographic uplift or local differences in heating.
3. Sufficient moisture (water vapour) in the low levels of the atmosphere. As air rises it cools,
causing the invisible water vapour to condense into visible water droplets that form the
cloud. The condensation process releases latent heat into the atmosphere, making the rising
air more buoyant, fuelling further cloud growth.
Types of Thunderstorms
The type and severity of any thunderstorm will depend largely on the instability (buoyancy) of
the rising air within the thunderstorm and the structure of the wind within the atmosphere.
Wind generally tends to increase in speed and change direction with increasing altitude. This
change in wind direction and/or speed with height is known as vertical wind shear.
FURTHER INFORMATION
Aviation Weather Services The most severe thunderstorms occur in an environment with strong instability and strong
Visit us at www.bom.gov.au wind shear.
The dynamical building block of a thunderstorm is the convective cell, which is a compact
region of strong vertical motion. Research has shown that convective cells, as observed
visibly and on radar, often evolve in identifiable patterns. The most commonly observed
storm types are classified as the ordinary cell, the multicell and the supercell.
The ordinary cell thunderstorm

This is the most basic and common thunderstorm type, forming in an environment of
weak vertical wind shear. It is a relatively weak weather system which initially consists of
a single updraft which rises rapidly through the troposphere producing large amounts of
water droplets and ice particles. When the water and ice become too heavy for the updraft
to support, they begin to fall, creating a downdraft that quickly replaces the updraft. As
the downdraft mixes with drier air in the lower troposphere, strong evaporative cooling
may occur, accelerating the downdraft (because of negative buoyancy) which spreads out
horizontally on reaching the surface.
The life cycle of an ordinary thunderstorm cell may be divided into three stages determined
by the magnitude and direction of the predominating vertical motions. These stages are:
• the developing (or cumulus) stage, which is characterised by an updraft throughout the
cell.
• the mature (or cumulonimbus) stage, which is characterised by both updraft and
downdraft, at least in the lower half of the cell. This is the stage of maximum lightning
activity.
• the dissipating stage which is characterised by downdrafts throughout the cell.
Developing Mature Dissipating
The ordinary cell is normally 5–10 km in horizontal extent and usually short-lived (15-
30 minutes) in its mature stage as the downdraft eventually completely replaces the
updraft, depriving the storm of its source of warm, moist air. It has been observed that the
ordinary thunderstorm cell can sometimes produce severe weather (high winds, hail, weak
tornadoes) for a short time if the updraft or downdraft is strong enough.
The multicell thunderstorm

Most thunderstorms are multicellular, i.e. a cluster of short-lived ordinary cells moving as
a single unit with each cell in a different stage of the thunderstorm life cycle. The cold
outflows from each combine to form a large gust front which provides a lifting mechanism
for new updraft development, which can then lead to new cells forming. The degree of
organisation of this thunderstorm type gives it a relatively long life and a greater chance
of producing severe weather over a broad area. They tend to form in environments with
moderate vertical windshear. They are more potent than single cell thunderstorms but
considerably less so than supercells.
In terms of organisation, two types of multicellular thunderstorms are the squall line and the
meso-scale convective complex.
A squall line is a multicell thunderstorm where the cells are arranged in a long line. The
adjacent cells are so close together that they form a continuous line of thunderstorms
accompanied by a continuous, and often strong, surface gust front at the line’s leading
edge, hence the name squall line. They develop along a linear lifting mechanism such as a
cold front or a pre-frontal trough and also within the inter-tropical convergence zone.
Squall lines can be particularly dangerous to aircraft in flight since they can present a
wall of severe weather which is too wide, high and long to negotiate. Cloud bases can
Squall line thunderstorms change rapidly and are often very low. Flying beneath the cloud is an extremely hazardous
procedure due to the high probability of encountering strong downdrafts, hail, rain, poor
visibility, severe turbulence and low cloud.
A meso-scale convective complex is a nearly circular cluster of many interacting

thunderstorm cells at various stages of development, covering an area that can exceed 500
kilometres in diameter. They have the potential to produce severe weather in the form of
moderate-sized hail, weak tornadoes and heavy rainfall.
The supercell thunderstorm

Meso-scale convective complex over As a general rule, the greater the altitude of the top of the thunderstorm, the more
the Gulf of Carpentaria likely it is that the system will produce severe weather. The supercell, characterised by
a single rotating updraft reaching great vertical extent, is relatively rare but is the most
destructive and long-lasting of all thunderstorms. It is a well-organised cell that forms in
an environment of strong vertical wind shear, strong instability and large moisture supply.
The essential factor in its development is the presence of the strong vertical wind shear
which favours a long-lasting vigorous updraft by organising the wind flows such that the
precipitation falls alongside, not into, the updraft; and a strong inflow of moist boundary-
layer air feeding into the storm is maintained. A supercell thunderstorms can thus persist for
Supercell thunderstorm several hours (up to seven hours has been observed) in its mature stage.
The rotating updraft is thought to be dependent upon the presence of wind speed shear in
the mid levels which can cause a rolling about the horizontal axis of this mid-level air which,
if lifted into the vertical by convection, can result in the updraft rotating. Any low-level
shear that may exist will contribute to the rotation if it is lifted into the updraft through the
storm’s inflow. This rotating updraft can lead to the formation of tornadoes.
The dividing line between the cold downdraft and the warm updraft at the surface is called
a gust front. In some cases the gust front can be identified at a distance from the supercell
Roll cloud
by the presence of a detached (horizontal, tube-shaped) roll cloud that is situated directly
behind the gust front. These clouds are seldom accompanied by severe weather. However,
damaging winds may occur under a shelf cloud (also known as arcus cloud) which can
form on the edge of the gust front. It is an elongated wedge-shaped cloud attached to the
leading edge of the supercell where the cold downdraft forces warm moist air upwards.
A rotating wall cloud may form in the rain-free updraft area towards the rear of the
thunderstorm. It occurs in the area of strongest updraft which entrains moist cool air from
the nearby downdraft, allowing condensation at altitudes lower than that of the ambient
Shelf cloud cloud base. Most tornadoes form within wall clouds.
Aviation-related Hazards Associated

with Thunderstorms
All thunderstorms have the potential to be hazardous to aviation no matter what their size
or intensity. These hazards include:
• severe wind shear and turbulence • tornadoes
Wall cloud
• downbursts • heavy rain
• hail • poor visibility
• icing • air pressure changes
• lightning
Downbursts
Initial impact The outflow from a storm’s downdraft will occasionally produce winds of destructive force.
When precipitation falls into drier air inside or below a thunderstorm, it immediately begins
evaporating. This evaporation cools the surrounding air, increasing its density, causing it to
accelerate downwards. A downburst is a concentrated downdraft, typically lasting five to
fifteen minutes, and is of unusually high speed such that it can cause damage on, or near,
the ground. The term microburst is used to describe a downburst which causes damage
over an area with horizontal dimensions of less than four kilometres.
Downburst winds originate from the cloud base and diverge when they make contact with
the ground. The rapid change in wind speed and direction associated with downbursts
Outspread Stage poses a threat to aircraft during take-off and landing phases, during which an aircraft will
first encounter a strong headwind, then a downdraft which is the vertically descending
section of the downburst, and finally a region of strong tailwind. If a pilot was to over-
compensate for the lift experienced in the headwind, a dangerous drop in altitude may
occur when the lift disappears in the downdraft and tailwind regions.
A microburst can be characterised as wet or dry. A wet microburst, which can occur with
a range of thunderstorm types, is accompanied by significant precipitation at the surface.
It develops in environments characterised by weak vertical wind shear and deep moisture
Schematic of downburst capped by a dry layer.
In a dry microburst, precipitation at the surface is either very light or does not occur at
all, although virga (precipitation falling from a cloud but evaporating before reaching the
ground) may be present. They develop in environments with weak vertical wind shear, dry
low levels and moist mid levels. The dry microburst is initiated by evaporative cooling. If
the air underneath a cloud is relatively dry then rain and ice crystals falling from the cloud
will quickly evaporate and chill the air. The cooled air will be heavier than the surrounding
environmental air and will therefore accelerate downward. Dry microbursts can develop
in the absence of lightning and thunder. High-based cumulus and altocumulus have been
observed to produce damaging dry microbursts.
Location & Seasonal Variations

Thunderstorms are most frequent over the northern half of the country, and generally
decrease southward, with lowest frequencies in southeast Tasmania. A secondary maximum
is apparent in southeast Queensland and over central and eastern New South Wales,
extending into the northeastern Victorian highlands. Thunderstorm frequency does not, in
general, appear to vary in any consistent way with rainfall.
40 50
DARWIN
Weipa
50 60
80 40
60 50
Katherine
30
60
60 50
40 40
Cairns
Broome
40
30
20 Mount Isa 30
25 25 25
20 Mackay
15 20 20
30
30 Alice Springs
10 40 Giles
Birdsville
25 15
Carnarvon
Charleville
30
Wiluna
20
15 20 20 BRISBANE
25 10 30
Marree
Cook 10 Bourke
25
20
10 20 25 30
10 Ceduna 10 40
PERTH 15
15 15 25
10 10 Mildura
Esperance 20 ADELAIDE 20 SYDNEY
10
10 Days CANBERRA
Horsham
25
80
60
50
40
30
20
25
10
15
5
MELBOURNE
Orbost
10
15
Average annual thunder-days Burnie

St Helens
10
Analysis generated from approximately 300 recording 5
stations averaged over the 10 year period 1990–1999. HOBART
Global lightning frequency, data from space-based optical sensors. Image, NASA
Tropics
Meteorological conditions over the northern half of Australia are very favourable for
thunderstorms in the warmer months of October through to March. During this time, low
pressure lies across northern and central Australia (giving rise to the low level convergence
and vertical motion that favour thunderstorm development), and high moisture levels exist
particularly in coastal areas. The peak frequency for thunderstorms is in the vicinity of Darwin
with over eighty thunder-days per year. Thunderstorm frequency is far less for the remainder
of the year due to the dry and stable conditions associated with the subtropical high-
pressure belt which normally lies over the continent during the period April to September.
Thunderstorm frequency decreases in the southern parts of the tropics and the adjacent
desert areas of central Australia. This is because the air, though often very hot, is generally
drier. The exception is over inland Western Australia where a wide area experiences over
thirty thunder-days per year. However, many of these are so-called ‘dry’ thunderstorms, with
little or no rain, because of the lack of moisture in the low levels of the atmosphere which
acts to evaporate any falling precipitation. Again, thunderstorms are heavily concentrated in
the summer half-year.
There is a low frequency of thunderstorms (less than 25 days per year) along parts of the
Queensland coast, especially in the very wet section between Cooktown and south of
Innisfail. This is the wettest part of Australia, yet thunder-days are less frequent than in most
remaining areas of the tropics. This is due to the combination of the orographic influences
driving rainfall (the steering flow being unfavourable for thunderstorms tracking over the
eastern coastline), and the stability of the southeast trade winds for much of the year.
Mid-latitudes
The secondary thunderstorm maximum over New South Wales occurs mainly during the
summer months. The frequency of thunderstorms is largely due to the influx of moisture
from the Coral and Tasman Seas combined with low level convergence into low pressure
troughs. Orography also plays a part, with local maxima over the Great Dividing Range, and
favourable steering flow tracking thunderstorms toward the coast. Instability over this area
is often accentuated by strong wind-shears and/or upper atmospheric cold pools which
have originated from higher latitudes.
Thunderstorms are less frequent in Victoria, Tasmania, and the southern parts of Western
and Southern Australia, with less than 10 days per year in some areas. This is partly
because of the relatively lower incidence at these latitudes of the warm and humid air
masses favourable for thunderstorm development. It is also because during the potentially
favourable warmer months, the subtropical high pressure belt lies over or near this area,
giving rise to stable conditions unconducive to thunderstorm development. There is a
local maximum of activity over the high country of northeastern Victoria and the Snowy
Mountains, which appears to be mainly an orographic effect. Thunderstorms are again
most frequent in the warmer months, but some occur in association with active cold frontal
systems in winter and spring.
In contrast with most other parts of Australia, Perth experiences a winter maximum in
thunderstorm frequency. This reflects the prevalence at this time of active frontal systems,
which produce a winter rainfall maximum along the southwest coast, whereas the summer
months are generally hot and dry. A similar feature is apparent in western Tasmania,
also experiencing a weak maximum in winter activity. By contrast, Hobart, shielded by
topography from the frontal systems of the winter westerlies, experiences a summer
maximum. In fact thunderstorms in Hobart are rare in the cooler months, with an average
of less than one thunder-day for the entire April-September period.
Detection & Monitoring

The primary tool for detecting and monitoring thunderstorms is the weather-watch radar,
which may be accessed through the Bureau of Meteorology website www.bom.gov.au/
weather/radar. The site includes valuable information on how to interpret radar images.
Some aircraft are also equipped with radar for detecting and avoiding thunderstorms.
Satellite pictures also provide useful information, particularly in areas not covered by radar,
by giving the pilot a broad understanding of where thunderstorms are developing and
the horizontal extent of those cells, noting that high level cloud will often mask the true
placement of the cell(s) below.
A pilot in command of an aircraft must advise Air Traffic Services (ATS) promptly of
any hazardous weather encountered or observed either visually or by radar. Whenever
practicable, those observations should include as much detail as possible, including location
and severity of the hazard. Hazardous weather includes, in particular, thunderstorms,
severe turbulence, hail, icing, line squalls, and volcanic ash cloud (AIP Gen 3.5 Section 6.2).
Moreover, a pilot in command should make a special AIREP when requested or as soon
as practicable after encountering any SIGMET phenomenon, or any other meteorological
condition which is likely to affect the safety or markedly affect the efficiency of other
aircraft (AIP Gen 3.5 Section 11.1).
Forecasts & Warnings

Thunderstorm forecasts are included in Area Forecasts, Trend Forecasts (TTF) and Aerodrome
Forecasts (TAF). Cumulonimbus clouds are forecast in Significant Weather (SIGWX) charts.
Warnings issued for thunderstorms include Airport Warnings for some locations, AIRMETs
and SIGMETs.
An AIRMET will be issued for the occurrence or expected occurrence of isolated or

occasional thunderstorms affecting the layer below FL185 if the thunderstorms have not
previously been mentioned in a current Area Forecast.
SIGMET for thunderstorms are issued when they are:

• obscured (OBSC) by haze or smoke,
• embedded (EMBD) within other cloud layers,
• frequent (FRQ), i.e. with little or no separation between clouds and covering more than
75% of the area affected, or
• squall line (SQL) thunderstorms along a line of about 100 nautical miles or more in length,
with little or no separation between clouds.
The Australian Bureau of Meteorology provides a wide range of observations, charts, satellite and radar
images, forecast and warnings via the internet at www.bom.gov.au.

AVIATION REFERENCE MATERIAL
Operational Abbreviations Glossary
Bureau of Meteorology › Weather Services › Aviation
A Altitude FIR Flight Information Region

ABV Above FL Flight Level
AERIS Automatic En Route Information Service FM From
AIP Aeronautical Information Publication FRQ Frequent
AIRMET Airmen’s meteorological information of FT Feet
significance to lighter aircraft, and not already G Gust
included in the relevant Area Forecast.
GR Hail
AIREP A report from an aircraft in flight
GS Small Hail
AMD Amend(ment)
HVY Heavy
AMDAR Automated Meteorological Data Relay
HF High frequency
APRX Approximate or approximately
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
ARP AIREP (a report from an aircraft in flight)
ICE Icing
ARS AIREP Special (a special report from an
IFR Instrument Flight Rules
aircraft in flight)
INTER Intermittent (i.e. lasting less than 30 minutes)
ATIS Automatic Terminal Information Services
Fluctuations From Forecast Prevailing
ATS Air Traffic Service Conditions
AUTO Automatic METAR/SPECI INTSF Itensifying
AVFAX Aviation Facsimile System ISOL Isolated
AWIS Automatic Weather Information Service KMH Kilometres per hour
AWC Aviation Weather Centre KT Knots
AWS Automatic Weather Station LOC Location
BKN Broken (cloud amount description: 5 - 7 octas) M Minus
BLW Below MAX Maximum
BOM Bureau of Meteorology MET Meteorology
CA/GRS Certified Air/Ground Radio Service METAR Meteorological Aerodrome Report
CASA Civil Aviation Safety Authority
MO Meteorological Office
CAT Clear Air Turbulence
MOD Moderate
CAVOK Cloud and Visibility OK
MOV Move or moving or movement
CLD Cloud
MPS Metres per second
CLR Clear
MSL Mean Sea Level
DECTALK Automated briefing service
MT Mount
DS Duststorm
MTW Mountain Wave
EMBD Embedded
MWO Meteorological Watch Office
ERSA Enroute Supplement Australia
NAIPS National Aeronautical Information
FAC Facilities Processing System
FCST Forecast NC No Change
FEW Few (cloud amount description: 1 -2 octas) NCD No Cloud Detected (by cloud sensor)
NM Nautical miles SWM Significant Weather Prognosis Medium
NOTAM Notice to Airmen TAF Aerodrome Forecast
NOSIG No Significant Change TC Tropical Cyclone
NSW No Significant Weather TEMPO Temporary (i.e. lasting 30 or more but less than
OBS Observed 60 minutes) Fluctuations From Forecast
Prevailing Conditions
OBSC Obscured
TILL Until
OVC Overcast (cloud amount description)
TOP Cloud top height
PCA Planning Chart Australia
TS Thunderstorm
PROB 30 30% Probability of Occurrence of
Forecast Phenomenon TTF Trend Forecast
QNH Altimeter Setting (to indicate height TURB Turbulence
above MSL) UNICOM A Non-ATS Communications Service
RAAF Royal Australian Air Force Provided by Airservices (may include general
weather reports)
RE Recent
UTC Coordinated Universal Time
RF Rainfall
VA Volcanic Ash
RFC Regional Forecast Centre
VACC Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre
RMK Remark(s)
VFR Visual Flight Rules
RSWT Route Sector Winds and Temperatures
VMC Visual Meteorological Conditions
SAR Search and Rescue
VOLMET Routine broadcast containing aviation
SCT Scattered (cloud amount: 3 - 4 octas)
weather reports and warnings.
SEV Severe
VRB Variable
SFC Surface
WAFC World Area Forecast Centre
SIG Significant
WAFS World Area Forecast System
SIGMET Significant Meteorological Information
WI Within (area)
SKC Sky Clear
WKN Weakening
SPECI Special Meteorological Aerodrome Report
WS Wind Shear
SQL Squall Line
WX Weather
SS Sandstorm
Z Code for UTC (Coordinated Universal Time)
STNR Stationary
SWH Significant Weather Prognosis High
Airservices Australia is the official distributor of aviation forecasts, warnings and observations
issued by the Bureau of Meteorology. Flight briefing services are available at:
www.airservicesaustralia.com. Telephone contact details for elaborative briefings are
contained in Airservices’ Aeronautical Information Publication Australia (AIP), which is
available online through their website.
The Australian Bureau of Meteorology provides a wide range of observations, synoptic charts,
satellite and radar images, forecast and warnings via the internet at www.bom.gov.au.
© Commonwealth of Australia, 20 September 2011

REFERENCE MATERIAL
Glossary of Weather Terms
Bureau of Meteorology › Weather Services › Aviation
A ALTITUDE The vertical distance from indicates the mature or decaying stage
mean sea level to an object aloft. of a thunderstorm.
ACCRETION The process of
supercooled water droplets freezing on ALTOCUMULUS A principal cloud AIRCRAFT ICING Any deposit of ice
impact with snow-flakes, ice particles type, forming in the middle levels of forming on an aircraft.
or other cold objects including aircraft. the troposphere, and appearing as a
white and/or grey layer or patch with a ATMOSPHERE The gaseous portion
ADIABATIC COOLING Cooling of a waved aspect. In aviation forecasts and of the physical environment that
parcel of gas by expansion, with no reports it is coded as AC. encircles the earth. The divisions of
heat exchange between the parcel and the atmosphere are the troposphere,
the surrounding air. ALTOSTRATUS A principal cloud type, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the
forming in the middle levels of the ionosphere, and the exosphere.
ADIABATIC HEATING Warming of a troposphere, and appearing as a grey
parcel of gas by compression, with no or bluish sheet. In aviation forecasts ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE The total
heat exchange between the parcel and and reports it is coded as AS. weight of the atmosphere above the
the surrounding air. point of measurement.
ANABATIC WIND An uphill wind
ADIABATIC PROCESS A process generated by the heating of a sloping B
where a parcel of air cools or warms surface.
due to a change in pressure and BACKING A counter clockwise shift in
volume (expansion or compression), ANEMOMETER An instrument used the wind direction.
with no heat exchange between the to measure wind speed and direction.
BAROMETER An instrument for
parcel and the surrounding air.
ANEROID BAROMETER A non- measuring atmospheric pressure. Two
ADVECTION The horizontal transport liquid instrument used to measure types of barometer are the aneroid
of any property in the atmosphere by atmospheric pressure. barometer and the mercury barometer.
the movement of air.
ANOMALOUS PROPAGATION BLOWING DUST Dust that is raised
ADVECTION FOG Fog resulting from The non-standard propagation of a locally by the wind to a height of at
the movement of moist air over a beam of energy (radio or radar) under least two metres above the ground.
colder surface and the consequent certain atmospheric conditions, which In aviation forecasts and reports it is
cooling of the air to saturation. results in false echoes (i.e. non- coded as BLDU.
precipitation) on a radar image. Usually
ADVECTED FOG Fog transported BLOWING SNOW Snow that is raised
caused by unusual rates of refraction in
by local winds from one locality to locally by the wind to a height of at
the atmosphere.
another. least two metres above the ground.
ANTI-ICING EQUIPMENT Aircraft In aviation forecasts and reports it is
AIR DENSITY The mass of air per unit equipment, such as heating elements coded as BLSN.
volume. and flexible rubber strips, used to
BOILING POINT The temperature at
AIR MASS An extensive body of prevent or clear structural icing.
which the vapour pressure of a liquid
air with approximately uniform ANTICYCLONE An extensive is equal to that of the surrounding
temperature and moisture horizontal spiral movement of the atmosphere. The boiling point of
characteristics. atmosphere around and away from a pure water at the standard sea-level
central region of high pressure. The pressure of 1013.25 hPa is 100°C
ALTIMETER An instrument used to (373°K).
determine altitude using atmospheric spiral motion is anticlockwise in the
pressure (QNH). southern hemisphere and clockwise in
BROKEN CLOUD Used to describe
the northern hemisphere.
an amount of cloud covering the sky
ANVIL The upper portion of a of between five and seven oktas
cumulonimbus cloud that spreads (eighths). In aviation forecasts and
out under the tropopause, often in reports it is coded as BKN
the shape of a blacksmith’s anvil,
BUOYANCY In meteorology, it is
sometimes for hundreds of kilometres
the vertical force acting upon an air
downstream from the parent cloud. It
parcel as a result of a difference in moon. In aviation forecasts and reports CONTACT COOLING The process
density between the air parcel and its it is coded as CS. whereby heat is conducted away from
surrounding environment. warmer air to a colder surface.
CIRRUS A principal cloud type,
BUYS BALLOT’S LAW Describes the forming in the high levels of the CONTINENTAL AIR MASS An
relationship of the wind direction to the troposphere, composed of ice crystals extensive body of air, with a more-or-
pressure distribution. In the southern less uniform temperature and moisture
which appear from the ground as white
hemisphere, if one stands with one’s profile, which has originated over a
tufts or filaments. In aviation forecasts
back to the wind, lower pressure is to large land mass.
and reports it is coded as CI.
the right. Lower pressure will be to the
left in the northern hemisphere. CONTOUR A line joining points of
CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE (CAT) A equal value on a surface.
form of turbulence occuring in regions
C of marked wind shear, particularly at CONTRAIL A condensation trail may
the boundaries of jet streams, but may form behind an aircraft when hot
CARBURETTOR ICING Occurs when humid air from the a jet exhaust mixes
also be found in strong lee waves.
air (including warm air) with a high with environmental air of low water
It occurs in the absence of any visual
water vapour content is drawn into vapour and low temperature. If the
clues (i.e. clouds).
an aircraft’s carburettor (which is increased vapour leads to saturation,
the vapour will condense into water
chilled by the fuel evaporation process CLEAR ICE A sheet of transparent
droplets and/or deposit into ice.
coupled with the pressure reduction in ice formed by the relatively slow
the carburettor’s venturi) causing the freezing of large supercooled water CONVECTION In meteorology, it is the
water vapour to condense and then, droplets, i.e. rain. Does not seriously vertical transport of heat and moisture,
if the temperature has dropped below distort aerofoil shape but does add especially by updrafts and downdrafts
0°C, form ice on the surfaces of the appreciably to aircraft weight and drag. in an unstable atmosphere.
carburettor. The ice may gradually block
COLD AIR ADVECTION The horizontal CONVECTIVE CLOUD A cloud that
the venturi or cause jamming of the owes its vertical development, and
movement of colder air into a location
mechanical parts of the carburettor. possibly its origination, to convection.
of warmer air.
CEILOMETER An instrument for COLD FRONT The leading edge of CONVECTIVE CONDENSATION
estimating cloud amount and height. an advancing cold air mass that is LEVEL The lowest height at which
replacing warmer air. condensation will occur as a result of
CELSIUS TEMPERATURE SCALE (°C) convection due to surface heating.
A temperature scale, named after the CONDENSATION Change of state
from vapour to liquid. CONVERGENCE The condition that
Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius,
exists as a result of a net horizontal
where water at the standard sea-level
CONDENSATION NUCLEI Tiny inflow of air into a region. Convergent
pressure of 1013.25 hPa has a freezing
particles upon which water vapour winds at lower levels are associated
point of 0°C and a boiling point of condenses. with upward motion.
100°C.
CONDENSATION LEVEL The height at COORDINATED UNIVERSAL TIME
CHANGE OF STATE A change in the which an adiabatically lifted air parcel (UTC) The primary time standard by
form of water, e.g. liquid to vapour, ice will become saturated, whereupon which the world regulates clocks and
to liquid, ice to vapour. condensation occurs. Corresponds to time. In aviation forecasts and reports
cloud base level. it is signified by the letter Z.
CIRROCUMULUS A principal cloud
type, forming in the high levels of the CONDITIONAL INSTABILITY Stable CORIOLIS FORCE (EFFECT) An
troposphere, composed of ice crystals unsaturated air that will become apparent force on a moving particle
unstable if saturated. that arises solely from the earth’s
which appear from the ground as very
rotation acting as a deflecting force.
small elements in the form of grains or CONDUCTION The transfer of heat It acts to the left in the southern
small ripples. In aviation forecasts and in response to a temperature gradient hemisphere and to the right in the
reports it is coded as CC. within an object or between objects northern hemisphere. It is greatest
that are in physical contact with one at the poles and nonexistent at the
CIRROSTRATUS A principal cloud another. Transfer is from warmer to equator.
type, forming in the high levels of the colder regions.
troposphere, composed of ice crystals CUMULONIMBUS A principal cloud
CONSTANT PRESSURE CHART A type, with bases forming in the low
which appear from the ground as a
weather chart representing conditions levels of the troposphere, characterised
transparent sheet or veil, often creating
on a constant pressure surface, e.g. by a large vertical extent, and often
a halo phenomenon around the sun or 500 hPa.
capped by an anvil-shaped cirrus cumulonimbus or towering cumulus semi-arid areas and is most likely to
cloud. It is often accompanied by rain cloud. The outward burst of air creates develop on clear, dry, hot afternoons in
showers, turbulence, icing and gusty damaging winds at or near the earth’s response to surface heating. In aviation
surface winds; and sometimes also surface. The term microburst is forecasts and reports it is coded as PO.
by lightning, thunder, hail, microbursts used to describe a downburst which
and/or tornadoes. In aviation forecasts causes damage over an area with DUSTSTORM A phenomenon
and reports it is coded as CB horizontal dimensions of less than four characterized by strong winds and
kilometres. dust-filled air over a large area, and
CUMULUS A principal cloud type, reducing visibility to below 1000
forming in the low levels of the DOWNDRAFT A descent of cool air metres. In aviation forecasts and
troposphere, characterised by flat associated with convective cloud. reports it is coded as DS.
bases and dome or cauliflower-shaped
DOWNSLOPE WIND A wind directed
. E
upper surfaces. Small, separate
cumulus are associated with fair down a slope, often used to describe
winds produced by processes larger in ECHO In meteorology, it is used to
weather, but may grow into towering
scale than the slope. refer to the appearance on a radar
cumulus or cumulonimbus. In aviation
display of the radio signal reflected
forecasts and reports it is coded as CU.
DRIFTING SNOW Snow blown from from a target (e.g. cloud).
the ground by the wind to a height of
D less than two metres. EDDY A small disturbance in the wind
DENSITY The weight of air per unit that can produce turbulence.
volume. DRIZZLE Slow-falling and uniformly
distributed precipitation in the form ELEVATION The distance between
DENSITY ALTITUDE The altitude in the of tiny water droplets (diameters less mean sea level and a point on the
International Standard Atmosphere at than 0.5 millimeters), usually from earth’s surface.
which a given air density is found. stratus or stratocumulus clouds. In
EQUATOR The geographic circle at 0°
aviation forecasts and reports it is
DEPOSITION A process in which a latitude on the earth’s surface.
coded as DZ.
gas transforms into a solid, e.g. the
EQUILIBRIUM LEVEL The height at
process by which water vapour, in DRY ADIABAT A line of
which a rising parcel of air will become
sub-freezing air, changes directly to ice constant potential temperature
equal in temperature to that of the
without first becoming a liquid. on a thermodynamic diagram.
environment, at which point it is no
Meteorologically, the dry adiabat
DEW Water in the form of small liquid longer buoyant and thus will cease to
represents the meteorological
drops that form on grass and other rise in the atmosphere without forcing.
processes that occur with the adiabatic
objects near the ground when the air ascent or descent of a parcel of dry EQUATORIAL TROUGH The quasi-
temperature falls below its dew point, air (where no liquid water is present continuous area of low pressure
usually overnight. and no condensation of water vapour located between the subtropical high
occurs). As an air parcel ascends pressure belts of the northern and
DEW POINT The temperature to
adiabatically, its pressure decreases southern hemispheres, and moving
which air must be cooled, at constant
and its temperature falls due to the north and south with the seasons.
pressure and water vapour content, in
expansion of the air parcel; as it
order for saturation to occur. If the air
descends, its temperature will rise due EVAPORATION The physical process
is cooled further, some of the water
to compression of the air parcel. by which a liquid, such as water, is
vapour will condense to liquid.
transformed into its gaseous state.
DRY ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE The
DIURNAL Pertaining to actions that
rate of change in temperature for EYE An area of clear skies that
are completed within twenty four
dry air ascending or descending develops in the centre of a tropical
hours, and recur every twenty four
adiabatically. The rate is approximately cyclone. It is characterised by light
hours.
3°C per 1000 feet. winds and no rainfall.
DIVERGENCE Horizontal outflow of
DRY LINE The boundary between dry EYE WALL An organized band of
air from a particular region. Divergence
and moist air masses. cumulonimbus clouds that surrounds
at lower levels is associated with a
the eye of a tropical cyclone.
downward movement of air. DUST Small particles of earth or other
matter suspended in the air. In aviation F
DOLDRUMS A nautical term for
forecasts and reports it is coded as DU.
the equatorial trough, an area which FAHRENHEIT TEMPERATURE SCALE
typically has calm or light and variable DUST DEVIL A small and rapidly (°F) The temperature scale, developed
winds. rotating column of wind made visible by the German physicist Daniel Gabriel
by the dust, dirt or debris picked up by Fahrenheit in 1714, where water at the
DOWNBURST A severe localised
the wind. It usually occurs in arid or standard sea-level pressure of 1013.25
downdraft of wind from a
hPa has a freezing point of +32°F and a depth is variable, ranging from tens GUST A sudden and brief increase in
boiling point of +212°F. of metres in a stable environment, wind speed.
to several kilometres in convective
FEEDER BANDS The lines or bands conditions over deserts. GUST FRONT The leading edge of
of cumulonimbus clouds that spiral cool air rushing down and out from
into and around the centre of a tropical FRONT The transition zone or interface a thunderstorm cloud. Is usually
cyclone. between two air masses of different accompanied by a drop in temperature,
densities. a wind shift and a pressure jump
FEW Used to describe an amount of
cloud covering the sky of one or two FRONTAL PASSAGE The passage HAIL Precipitation that originates
oktas (eighths). In aviation forecasts of a front over a specific point on in convective clouds, such as
and reports it is given as FEW. the earth’s surface. Changes in cumulonimbus, in the form of balls
temperature, dew point, wind and or irregular pieces of ice. In aviation
FOEHN A warm and dry downslope atmospheric pressure occur with a forecasts and reports it is coded as
wind descending the lee side of a frontal passage. GR, with small hail coded as GS.
mountain range.
FUNNEL CLOUD A violent, rotating
FOG A suspension in the air, at or near H
column of air visibly extending toward
the earth’s surface, of microscopic the earth’s surface from the base of a HAZE Dust and/or smoke particles
water droplets, or wet hygrscopic towering cumulus or cumulonimbus suspended in the air, and reducing the
particles, reducing horizontal visibility cloud. A funnel cloud reaching the visibility to 5000 metres or less. In
to less than 1000 metres. In aviation ground is called a tornado if over aviation forecasts and reports it is
forecasts and reports it is coded as FG. land, and a waterspout if over water. coded as HZ.
In aviation forecasts and reports it is
FREEZING DRIZZLE Supercooled HIGH PRESSURE SYSTEM An area of
coded as FC.
drizzle (i.e. drizzle existing at a pressure maximum with diverging and
temperature below 0°C) that freezes anti-clockwise winds in the southern
upon impact with surfaces to form
G hemisphere and clockwise in the
glaze. In aviation forecasts and reports GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITE A northern hemisphere.
it is coded as FZDZ. weather satellite, in a west to east
orbit at an altitude of 35 786 km, that HOARFROST A deposit of interlocking
FREEZING POINT The temperature maintains the same position over the ice crystals formed by direct deposition
at which a liquid solidifies under any equator. on objects such as tree branches, leaf
given set of conditions. Pure water edges, wires and poles.
under the standard sea-level pressure GEOSTROPHIC WIND A wind that
of 1013.25 hPa freezes at 0°C (32°F). blows parallel to straight isobars above I
the friction layer, wherein the coriolis
ICING The formation of ice, rime or
FREEZING PRECIPITATION Any force exactly balances the horizontal
hoarfrost on an aircraft.
form of supercooled precipitation that pressure gradient force.
freezes upon impact with surfaces to INFRARED Long-wave
form glaze. GLAZE A coating of ice, generally clear
electromagnetic radiation which is
and smooth, formed on surfaces by
emitted by all objects.
FREEZING RAIN Supercooled rain the freezing of supercooled rain, drizzle
that falls as liquid but freezes upon or fog. INSOLATION Solar radiation or heating
impact with surfaces to form glaze. received at the earth’s surface. The
In aviation forecasts and reports it is GRADIENT WIND A wind that blows
name is derived from INcoming SOLar
coded as FZRA parallel to curved isobars above
radiATION.
the friction layer, wherein the wind
FRICTION The mechanical resistive direction is determined by the balance INSTABILITY A state of the
force offered by one medium or body of three forces, i.e. the coriolis force, atmosphere where an air parcel lifted
to the relative motion of another the centrifugal force and the horizontal vertically will freely accelerate upward
medium or body in contact with the pressure gradient force. once the lifting mechanism ceases.
first. In meteorology, it is the drag The air parcel will form cumulus-type
or resistance of the earth on the GREENWICH MEAN TIME (GMT).
clouds if sufficient moisture is present.
atmosphere. Was used to refer to the primary
time standard, but now replaced by INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES A set
FRICTION LAYER (BOUNDARY Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). of regulations governing all aspects of
LAYER, SURFACE LAYER) The thin civil aviation aircraft operations when a
layer of the lower atmosphere within GROUND CLUTTER A pattern of radar
flight is conducted using instruments
which wind direction and speed is echoes from fixed ground objects such
rather than outside visual reference.
subject to frictional effects caused by as buildings, hills or other objects on or
contact with the earth’s surface. It’s close to the ground.
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD KELVIN-HELMHOLTZ CLOUD Cloud resembling a smooth lense with
ATMOSPHERE (ISA) A hypothetical that forms in Kelvin-Helmholtz waves. sharp outlines. They mostly occur in
vertical distribution of atmospheric The couds, sometimes referred to as mountain waves, and thus indicate
temperature, pressure and density that billows, are in the shape of breaking possible severe turbulence and icing.
by international agreement is taken to waves. These clouds are often good
be representative of the atmosphere indicators of instability and the LEVEL OF FREE CONVECTION The
for purposes of pressure altimeter presence of turbulence. height at which a parcel of saturated air
calibrations, aircraft performance becomes warmer than the surrounding
calculations, ballistic tables, etc. KELVIN TEMPERATURE SCALE air and thus begins to rise freely until it
(°K) A temperature scale, designed reaches its equilibrium level.
INTERTROPICAL CONVERGENCE by Lord Kelvin of Scotland in 1848,
ZONE The region where southeast where 0°K is defined as absolute zero LIFTING CONDENSATION LEVEL The
and northeast trade winds meet, (where all molecular movement stops). height at which a parcel of moist air
usually located between 10 degrees Water freezes at 273°K, and boils at becomes saturated when it is cooled
north and south of the equator. It is 373°K. It is used primarily for scientific by adiabatic lifting.
a broad area of low pressure, located purposes.
LIGHTNING A visible electrical
in the southern hemisphere during
KNOT A unit of speed equivalent to discharge produced by a
our summer, and in the northern
1.852 kilometers per hour. In aviation cumulonimbus cloud. It can occur
hemisphere during its summer.
forecasts and reports it is signified by between cloud and ground, between
INVERSION An increase in KT. clouds, within a single cloud, or
temperature with increasing between a cloud and surrounding air.
altitude, which is opposite to the L LONGITUDE A geographic coordinate
usual decrease of temperature with
LAND BREEZE A diurnal coastal or lake that specifies the east-west position
increasing altitude.
breeze that blows offshore. It is caused of a point on the earth’s surface. It is
ISOBAR A line on a chart connecting by the temperature differences measured as an angle in reference
points of equal pressure. between a water surface and adjacent to the Prime Meridian, which is
land. designated as zero degrees longitude.
ISOTACH A line on a chart connecting
points of equal wind speed LAPSE RATE The rate of change LOW LATITUDES The latitude belt
of temperature with height in the between the equator and 30 degrees
ISOTHERM A line on a chart connecting atmosphere. north and south of the equator.
points of equal temperature.
LATENT HEAT The energy absorbed LOW LEVEL JET A transient strong
or released during a change of state. wind concentrated in relatively narrow
J
Evaporation, melting and sublimation (a bands near the earth’s surface.
JET STREAM An area of strong winds change from solid to gas) absorb heat
concentrated in a relatively narrow from the surrounding air as energy LOW PRESSURE SYSTEM An area
band. Is most commonly used to refer is needed to weaken the individual of pressure minimum with converging
to a stream of maximum winds hydrogen bonds between the water winds rotating clockwise in the
embedded in the mid-latitude molecules. Condensation, freezing and southern hemisphere and anticlockwise
westerlies concentrated in the upper deposition (gas to solid) release the in the northern hemisphere.
troposphere. latent heat, thus adding heat to the
surrounding air. M
K MARITIME AIR MASS An air mass
LATITUDE A geographic coordinate
KATABATIC WIND A drainage wind that has originated over an extensive
that specifies the north-south position
generated by air being cooled by water surface.
of a point on the earth’s surface. It is
conduction along a slope. The cooled
measured as the angular distance, MEAN SEA LEVEL The height of the
air flows downhill as a katabatic wind.
subtended at the earth’s center, along sea surface, measured with respect
KELVIN-HELMHOLTZ WAVE A wave- a meridian from a point on the earth to to land-based benchmarks, after
form disturbance that arises from the equator. The equator is designated averaging out variations due to tides
Kelvin-Helmholtz instability. Named as zero degrees and the poles as 90 and waves. In aviation it is used as a
after Lord Kelvin and Hermann von degrees. measurement reference for altitude at
Helmholtz. flight levels.
LEE (LEESIDE/LEEWARD) The side of
KELVIN-HELMHOLTZ INSTABILITY an obstacle that is furthest away from MEAN SEA LEVEL PRESSURE
Occurs when velocity shear is present the wind. (MSLP) The atmospheric pressure at
within a continuous fluid, or when there mean sea level.
LENTICULAR CLOUD A more-or-less
is sufficient velocity difference across
isolated cloud, downwind of a barrier,
the interface between two fluids.
MECHANICAL TURBULENCE MULTICELL STORM A storm system PRE-FRONTAL SQUALL LINE A line
Disrupted air-flow resulting from wind composed of two or more convective of thunderstorms that may develop
flowing over or around terrain or man- cells at various stages of their life- cycle. ahead of an advancing cold front, and
made obsrtuctions, whereby normal having an orientation more or less
horizontal wind flow is disturbed and N parallel to the cold front.
transformed into eddies and other NIMBOSTRATUS Low or middle-level
irregular movements. PRE-FRONTAL TROUGH An elongated
thick dark cloud with with more or less
area of relatively low pressure that
continuously falling rain, snow or sleet.
MERIDIONAL FLOW Atmospheric may develop ahead of an advancing
In aviation forecasts and reports it is
circulation in which the north and south cold front.
coded as NS.
component of motion is pronounced.
PRESSURE ALTIMETER An aneroid
METAR A French acronym for a O barometer calibrated to indicate
meteorological report from an OCCLUDED FRONT A front formed altitude by measuring atmospheric
aerodrome at a routine time (1/2 when a cold front overtakes a warm pressure and using the standard
hourly) when conditions are better than front. atmosphere pressure/height relations.
specified thresholds. It is the primary The indicated altitude will only
format in aeronautical meteorology OROGRAPHIC LIFTING Occurs where equal the actual altitude if the actual
for reports of surface meteorological the flow of air is forced up and over atmosphere is equivalent to the
information at an aerodrome. physical barriers such as mountains. International Standard Atmosphere.
MICROBURST Used to refer to a P PRESSURE ALTITUDE The altitude in

severe downburst of wind, usually the International Standard Atmosphere
PARCEL A theoretical small and
from a thunderstorm, over an area of at which a given atmospheric pressure
self-contained volume of air
less than four kilometers in diameter. will be observed.
responding to meteorological
The term downburst is used to refer to
processes as a single entity. PRESSURE GRADIENT The pressure
larger diameters.
change that occurs over a fixed
PILOT REPORT A report of in-flight
MIST A suspension in the air, at or distance.
weather by an aircraft pilot. Referred to
near the earth’s surface, of microscopic
as an AIREP. PREVAILING WIND A wind that blows
water droplets or wet hygrscopic
particles which reduce the horizontal from one direction more frequently
POLAR AIR MASS An air mass that
visibility to less than 5000 metres but than any other during a given period.
forms over a high latitude region.
not less than 1000 metres. In aviation Continental polar air is formed over PROGNOSTIC CHART A forecast
forecasts and reports it is coded as BR. cold land surfaces and is typically very weather chart. Commonly known as a
stable with low moisture. prog chart.
MIXING RATIO The ratio of the mass
of a variable atmospheric constituent to POLAR FRONT A semi-continuous,
the mass of dry air. In meteorology, the Q
semi-permanent boundary between
term normally refers to water vapour. polar and subtropical air masses. QUASI-STATIONARY FRONT A front
which is nearly stationary or moving
MONSOON The seasonal shift of POLAR-FRONT JET A jet stream very slowly.
winds caused by the much greater associated with the polar front,
annual variation of temperature over occurring at around 23-39,000 feet R
large land areas compared with above the earth’s surface. It is depicted
neighbouring ocean surfaces, which RADAR Acronym for RAdio Detection
on analysis and forecast charts when
results in an excess of air pressure And Ranging. An electronic instrument
the wind is 80 knots or more.
over the land areas in winter and a used to detect distant objects and
deficit in summer. The monsoon is POLAR-ORBITING SATELLITE A measure their range by detecting
strongest on the southern and eastern satellite whose orbit passes over both scattered or reflected radio energy.
sides of Asia. of the earth’s poles.
RADIATION The process by which
MOUNTAIN WAVE An oscillation POTENTIAL TEMPERATURE The energy is propagated through any
above and downwind of a mountain temperature that an unsaturated parcel medium by virtue of the wave motion
caused by a disturbance in the of dry air would have if it is brought in that medium. Electromagnetic
horizontal air flow due to the high adiabatically from its initial state to a radiation, which emits heat and light, is
ground. They usually occur in groups, standard pressure, typically 1000 hPa. one form.
and aircraft can expect to encounter
PRECIPITATION In meteorology it is RADIATIONAL COOLING The cooling
severe turbulence and icing if flying
any product of the condensation of of the earth’s surface and the adjacent
through them. In aviation forecasts it is
atmospheric water vapour that falls air which occurs at night when the
coded as MTW.
under gravity. earth’s surface suffers a net loss of
heat due to outgoing radiation being field (voltage) attains a strength of near SEVERE THUNDERSTORM The
greater than incoming radiation. 1000 volts per centimeter. It often Bureau defines a severe thunderstorm
occurs during the latter phases of a as one with winds of 48 knots or
RADIATION FOG Fog that forms violent thunderstorm. It typically greater, or hail of diameter 2 cm or
when radiational cooling at the earth’s appears on the extremities of aircraft, larger, or tornadoes or flash floods.
surface lowers the temperature of the lightning rods and steeples.
air near the ground to, or below, its SHOWER Precipitation from a
dew-point. SANDSTORM A strong wind carrying convective cloud that is characterised
sand through the air and reducing by its sudden beginning and ending,
RAIN Precipitation in the form of liquid visibility to less than 1000 metres. In changes in intensity, and rapid changes
water droplets greater than 0.5 mm aviation observations and forecasts it is in the appearance of the sky. It occurs
diameter. In aviation forecasts and coded as SS. in the form of rain (SHRA), snow
reports it is coded as RA. (SHSN), or hail (SHGR).
SATURATE To add something to the
RELATIVE HUMIDITY The ratio of point where no more can be absorbed, SKEW T-LOG P DIAGRAM A
the vapour pressure to the saturation dissolved, or retained. In meteorology, thermodynamic diagram with a
vapour pressure with respect to water. it is used when discussing the amount skewed temperature scale on the
Also known as the ratio of the existing of water vapor in a volume of air. horizontal axis and a logarithmic
amount of water vapour to that which scale of pressure on the vertical
could be held by a parcel of air. It is SATURATED ADIABAT The line axis. It is used to plot radiosonde
usually expressed as a percentage. on a thermodynamic diagram that soundings which give a vertical profile
depicts the change in temperature of of air temperature and dew point
RESOLUTION In relation to radar, it is a saturated air parcel as it rises or falls temperature through the atmosphere.
the ability to read two distinct targets and undergoes cooling or heating due Forecasters use it to evaluate and
separately. The clearer the resolution, to adiabatic expansion or compression. forecast air parcel behaviour. Some
the nearer the two objects can be to
values that can be determined are the
each other and still be distinguishable. SATURATED ADIABATIC LAPSE
Convective Condensation Level, the
RATE The rate of change in
RIDGE An elongated area of high Lifting Condensation Level, and the
temperature of a saturated air parcel
pressure. Level of Free Convection.
as it adiabatically ascends or descends
through the atmosphere. The rate SMOKE Small particles produced
RIME Ice formed by the rapid freezing
varies, from approximately 1.5 to 3°C by combustion that are suspended
of supercooled water droplets when
per 1,000 feet, e.g., the more water in the air (a transition to haze may
they contact an exposed object, such
vapour present in a rising parcel of air, occur when the smoke particles
as an aircraft frame, forming a white
the greater the condensation, and thus have traveled great distance and
and opaque granular deposit of ice.
the greater is the latent heat released, when the larger particles have settled
ROLL CLOUD A low-level, horizontal, reducing the rate of cooling. out, the remaining haze particles
tube-shaped cloud. Usually associated become widely scattered through the
SCATTERED Used to describe an
with a thunderstorm gust front, where atmosphere). In aviation observations
amount of cloud covering the sky of
the roll cloud is completely detached and forecasts it is coded as FU .
three or four oktas (eighths). In aviation
from the base of the cumulonimbus
forecasts and reports it is coded as SNOW Frozen precipitation in the
cloud. It will sometimes form with a
SCT. form of ice crystals that combine in a
cold front.
complex branched hexagonal form as
SEA-BREEZE A diurnal coastal breeze
ROTOR CLOUD A cloud formation they fall towards the earth’s surface. It
that blows onshore due a temperature
found in the lee of a mountain or most often falls from stratiform clouds,
differential between the land and the
similar barrier. The air rotates around but can fall as snow showers from
water.
a horizontal axis parallel to the barrier, cumuliform cloud. In aviation forecasts
causing a hazard to aircraft. SEA-BREEZE FRONT The discontinuity and reports it is coded as SN, or SHSN
in temperature and humidity that for snow showers.
RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (RVR)
marks the leading edge of the intrusion
The maximum distance at which the SPECI A special report of surface
of cool and moist marine air associated
runway, or lights or markers delineating meteorological information at an
with a sea-breeze.
it, can be seen from a position above a aerodrome. They are only issued when
specified point on its centerline. SEA FOG A type of advection fog that specific criteria are met. Has the same
forms when warm moist air advects format as a METAR, except for the
S over water with a cooler temperature, name.
ST. ELMO’S FIRE A luminous and and the consequent cooling of that
SQUALL A sudden onset of strong
sometimes audible electric discharge air to below its dewpoint by the
winds with speeds increasing by at
that occurs from objects, especially underlying cooler water.
least 16 knots and sustained at 22 or
pointed ones, when the local electrical
more knots for at least one minute. The STRATOSPHERE The layer of the THUNDERSTORM A cumulonimbus
intensity and duration is longer than atmosphere located between the cloud characterized by thunder and
that of a gust. In aviation forecasts and troposphere and the mesosphere. lightning and associated gusty surface
reports it is coded as SQ. It is characterized by an increase winds, hail, rain, turbulence, icing and,
in temperature with height and an under the most severe conditions,
SQUALL LINE THUNDERSTORMS absence of convective clouds and microbursts and/or tornadoes. In
A continuous line of thunderstorms associated turbulence. aviation forecasts and reports it is
accompanied by a surface gust front coded as TS.
at the line’s leading edge. In aviation STRATUS A principal cloud type,
forecasts it is coded as SQL TS. forming in the low levels of the TORNADO A rotating column of air
troposphere and normally existing extending between a cumulonimbus
STABLE ATMOSPHERE A state of as a flat layer that does not exhibit cloud and the ground. It is the
the atmosphere in which a lifted air individual elements. In aviation most destructive of all storm-scale
parcel will sink to its equilibrium level forecasts and reports it is coded as ST. atmospheric phenomena (microbursts
once the lifting mecahism ceases, due can be just as severe but they occur
to the air parcel being denser (cooler) SUBLIMATION The process of a ice over a shorter time period).
than the surrounding air. changing directly into water vapour.
TOWERING CUMULUS A vertically
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE SUBSIDENCE A descending motion developed cumulus cloud, often a
A mathematical model of the of air in the atmosphere, ususally with precursor to cumulonimbus. In aviation
atmosphere which is standardised so the implication that it extends over a forecasts and reports it is coded as TCU.
that predictable calculations can be broad area such as occurs with a high-
made. pressure system. TRADE WINDS Two belts of prevailing
wind that blow easterly from the
STANDING WAVE An atmospheric SUBTROPICAL JET A band of subtropical high pressure centres
wave that is stationary with respect to relatively strong winds found between in each hemisphere towards the
the earth’s surface. 20 and 40° latitude in the middle equatorial trough. Primarily lower-level
and upper troposphere. Jet streams winds, they are characterised by their
STEAM FOG Fog that forms when form near boundaries of adjacent air great consistency of direction. To the
when cool air, passing over warm masses with significant differences in north of the trough they blow from
water, reaches its saturation point temperature. the northeast, and to the south of the
due to water evaporating from the
trough they blow from the southeast.
warm water into the cooler air. Fog SUPERCELL A cumulonimbus cloud
rising in the convection currents above characterised by a rotating and TROPICS The region of the earth
the water give rise to a steaming long-lived, intense updraft. They can located between the Tropic of Cancer,
appearance. potentially result in the most severe at 23.5 degrees north and the Tropic of
thunderstorms, capable of producing Capricorn, at 23.5 degrees south.
STRATIFORM Clouds that exhibit extremely large hail, damaging winds
extensive horizontal development (in and violent tornadoes. TROPICAL AIR MASS An air mass
contrast to the vertical development of that forms in the tropics or subtropics.
cumuliform clouds). SUPERCOOLING The reduction of Maritime tropical air is produced over
the temperature of a liquid below its oceans and is warm and humid, while
STRATOCUMULUS A principal freezing point without it becoming a continental tropical air is formed over
cloud type, forming in the low levels solid. arid land and is very hot and dry.
of the troposphere and existing in a
relatively flat layer but having individual SYNOPTIC CHART Any chart that TROPICAL CYCLONE A non-frontal
elements, from which drizzle can depicts meteorological or atmospheric low pressure system that develops
fall. It can form from cumulus clouds conditions over a large area at a given over tropical waters with winds of 34
becoming more stratified when they time. knots or more. In Australia, the term
push up into a stable atmospheric severe tropical cyclone is used when
layer. In aviation forecasts and reports T winds reach or exceed 64 knots.
it is coded as SC.
THERMOSPHERE The layer of the
TROPICAL DISTURBANCE An area
STRATOPAUSE The boundary zone atmosphere located between the
of organized convection, originating
between the stratosphere and the mesosphere and outer space. It is a
in the tropics or occasionally the
mesosphere. In the stratosphere the region of increasing temperature with
subtropics, that maintains its identity
temperature increases with height, height, and includes all of the
for 24 hours or more, but has no
with the stratopause being the point exosphere and most of the ionosphere.
closed wind circulation. It is often the
of maximum temperature, prior to first developmental stage of a tropical
THUNDER The sound emitted by
a decrease in temperature in the cyclone.
rapidly expanding gases along the
mesosphere.
channel of a lightning discharge.
TROPIC OF CANCER Located at surrounding atmosphere, the lower WARM AIR ADVECTION The
23.5 degrees north, it is the most levels of air heat and rise, flowing up horizontal movement of warmer air
northern point on the earth where mountain slopes. into a location.
the sun is directly overhead (on 21
June). VAPOUR PRESSURE The pressure WARM FRONT The leading edge of
exerted by gaseous molecules. In an advancing warm air mass that is
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN Located meteorology, it is that part of total replacing a relatively colder air mass.
at 23.5 degrees south, it is the most atmospheric pressure due to water
southern point on the earth where vapour content. WATER VAPOUR Water in its
the sun is directly overhead (on 22 gaseous form.
December). VEERING A clockwise shift in the
wind direction. WAVE LENGTH The distance
TROPOPAUSE The boundary zone between two successive wave
or transition layer between the VIRGA Precipitation that falls crests separated by a trough.
troposphere and the stratosphere. from clouds but evaporates before
reaching the ground. WHIRLY WIND A small-scale, rapidly
TROPOSPHERE The lowest layer of rotating column of wind, formed
the atmosphere. Is characterised by VISIBILITY A measure of the thermally and thus most likely
clouds, weather and a decrease in opacity of the atmosphere. It is to develop on clear, dry and hot
temperature with increasing altitude. the greatest distance one can see afternoons. Often called a dust devil
prominent objects with unaided when made visible by the dust, dirt
TROUGH An elongated area of low normal eyesight. or debris it picks up.
atmospheric pressure.
VISUAL FLIGHT RULES (VFR) WHITEOUT Occurs when clouds
TURBULENCE Irregular fluctuations Rules that govern civil aircraft and the earth’s surface seem to
occurring in fluid motions. flight under conditions that allow blend, resulting in the horizon
navigation by visual reference to the becoming erased.
U earth’s surface.
WIND DIRECTION The direction
UNSTABLE ATMOSPHERE An from which the wind is blowing.
atmosphere in which air parcels rise W
buoyantly due to the rising air parcel WAKE TURBULENCE A disruption WIND SHEAR A wind direction and/
being less dense (warmer) than the of the airflow behind a moving or speed change over a vertical or
surrounding air. aircraft that produces turbulence. horizontal distance.
UPDRAFT A small-scale current of WALKER CIRCULATION A deep

air with marked vertical motion. east-west circulation induced by the
contrast between the warm waters
V of the western Pacific and the cooler
waters of the eastern Pacific.
VALLEY BREEZE An anabatic wind
which forms during the day by
heating of the valley floor. As the
ground becomes warmer than the
Airservices Australia is the official distributor of aviation forecasts, warnings and observations
issued by the Bureau of Meteorology. Flight briefing services are available at:
www.airservicesaustralia.com. Telephone contact details for elaborative briefings are
contained in Airservices’ Aeronautical Information Publication Australia (AIP), which is
available online through their website.
The Australian Bureau of Meteorology provides a wide range of observations, synoptic charts,
satellite and radar images, forecast and warnings via the internet at www.bom.gov.au.
© Commonwealth of Australia, 5 December 2011

>
>
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WEATHER SERVICES
AVIATION
Route Sector Winds & Temperatures
Route sector winds and temperatures

The Bureau of Meteorology derives route sector wind and temperature (RSWT) forecasts
from data supplied by the International Civil Aviation Organization's (ICAO) World Area
Forecast System (WAFS).
The forecasts are given in three sets, covering eastern, central and western regions.
Forecasts are provided for six flight levels in sectors of frequently used domestic air routes,
e.g. YMML/YSSY. On some of the longer routes, the information is sub-divided into
segments, with the subdivision points indicated in the title of the data block. Where an ICAO
Route sector wind location indicator is unavailable, geographical coordinates are used, e.g. 19S133E.
and temperature Forecasts are issued twice a day, at approximately 05 and 17 UTC. Each issue provides
forecasts are forecasts for time points 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800 UTC, which are valid for use for
derived from periods 2100-0300, 0300-0900, 0900-1500 and 1500-2100 respectively.
WAFS data. They
are provided for FL ISA YMML/YSSY YSSY/YBBN YMML/YPAD YMML/YMHB YPAD/YPOD/YMHB
various sectors of 445 -56 2309064 2005064 2409064 2509059 2409064 2509559
frequently used 385 -56 2410054 2007054 2409553 2509051 2409553 2510051
340 -52 2508043 2005044 2509042 2509043 2509041 2510043
domestic air routes.
300 -45 2507033 2004033 2508532 2608536 2508532 2509036
235 -32 2606018 2002017 2507017 2607024 2507517 2607024
185 21 2605008 2002506 2606507 2606012 2503507 2605006
A row of RSWT data contains the following information:

• Flight level
• The ICAO Standard Atmosphere (ISA) temperature at the given flight level
• A seven-digit block showing the forecast wind direction, wind speed and temperature for
the flight level in the given sector, where:
- the first two digits give the wind direction, to the nearest 10 degrees, in degrees
True;
- the next three digits give the wind speed to the nearest 5 knots; and
- the last two digits give the air temperature in negative degrees Celsius.
example: 2309064, where 23 = 230°, 090 = 90 knots, 64 = -64°C
Route sector wind and temperature forecasts are available from Airservices Australia's:
• NAIPS Pilot Briefing Service under the Charts Directory link, where they are labelled as
RSWT 1/2/3 (eastern/central/western).
• AVFAX Service, where the codes are 81410-81413 (eastern), 81420-81423 (central) and
81430-81433 (western).
Receipt of a forecast for a particular validity time will automatically supersede any prior issues
for that time.
FURTHER INFORMATION
Example of RSWT
FORECAST ROUTE SECTOR WINDS AND TEMPERATURES - PAGE 1
BUREAU of METEOROLOGY - BRISBANE 03:52 UTC, 19/01/2011
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
ISSUE 190343 VALID 192100 - 200300
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
FL -ISA YMML/YSSY YSSY/YBBN YMML/YPAD YMML/YMHB YPAD/YPOD/YMHB
445 -56 2307559 2206059 2508561 2507058 2609061 2507558

385 -56 2309549 2207547 2509550 2407553 2510050 2508553
340 -52 2205546 2304542 2409541 2505049 2509541 2606048
300 -45 2303039 2402536 2405037 2604042 2506037 2604542
235 -32 2301025 2501023 2502524 2703526 2603024 2704026
185 -21 2301012 2401011 2802011 2702513 2802511 2803013
FL -ISA YMML/YMDG/YBBN YMML/YGTH/YWLG YSSY/YMCO/YMHB YSSY/YGTH/YPAD
445 -56 2308059 2206060 2408560 2306561 2306557 2405557 2307059 2407561
385 -56 2309548 2207547 2310049 2208048 2207550 2405554 2209048 2408549
340 -52 2207543 2206039 2309042 2208538 2303048 2603551 2207043 2409040
300 -45 2203538 2303535 2304538 2105532 2302040 2703043 2103037 2305535
235 -32 2201025 2501023 2402025 2002022 2201025 2603026 1801024 2202023
185 -21 2101012 2500512 2401012 1701011 2101012 2602514 1901012 2401011
FL -ISA YBBN/YBMK/YBCS YWLG/27S148E/YBPNYSSY/28S149E28S149E/YEML/YBTL
445 -56 2104063 1501566 2205062 1903564 2206560 2004563 1702565

385 -56 2204549 1701551 2206048 2103550 2208048 2105050 1902551
340 -52 2305038 1902038 2207038 2104538 2106540 2105538 2003038
300 -45 2404529 2202028 2106028 2204027 2204034 2205027 2202527
235 -32 2603017 2502014 2202020 2502516 2201023 2402017 2602514
185 -21 2501507 2502004 2100509 2401506 2100512 2401008 2302005
FL -ISA YBBN/25S148E/YBMAYBMA/YPDN YSSY/YTAM/YBMK YBCS/YBMA YBCS/YHID
445 -56 2105062 1703065 1003067 2206060 1904064 1302066 1203068

385 -56 2205549 1902551 1102052 2107548 2104050 1501551 1302052
340 -52 2206038 2002538 1001039 2106039 2204538 1601038 1501539
300 -45 2305030 2102027 1100529 2204033 2304527 2000528 1701029
235 -32 2502019 2502514 2600514 2401022 2603016 2501513 2401014
185 -21 2601009 2402006 2700504 2400511 2502006 2301004 2701504
FL -ISA YBBN/YSDU YSDU/VENEL/YPAD YSSY/APOMA APOMA/27S138E/YBAS
445 -56 2206060 2307061 2507562 2306061 2304063 2101564

385 -56 2207547 2308048 2508049 2207548 2405050 2402050
340 -52 2207038 2208539 2408539 2207040 2404038 2402038
300 -45 2304034 2105533 2306033 2105033 2304027 2201527
235 -32 2401523 2002023 2202023 2001522 2103015 2001513
185 -21 2500512 1701011 2401010 1701511 1901509 1801506
FL -ISA YMML/VENEL/YLEC YLEC/YBASYBAS/19S133E/YPDNYBBN/YWLG
445 -56 2408060 2406062 2402564 1102065 0903067 2206061

385 -56 2409549 2406549 2503550 1001051 0901552 2207048
340 -52 2309041 2406539 2503038 0900538 0801039 2207037
300 -45 2304537 2305530 2402528 1700028 0600529 2304532
235 -32 2302025 2102520 2102514 2200514 3200514 2402021
185 -21 2401011 1901510 1801506 1601004 3200504 2600511
© Commonwealth of Australia, 6 December 2011

TAF & METAR/SPECI Reference Card
This reference card contains selected information regarding TAF & METAR /SPECI
to help users gain a better appreciation of aerodrome forecasts and reports.
Sample TAF & TTF METAR Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) is a coded statement
of meteorological conditions expected for the
TAF YMML 171655Z 1718/1824 specified period of time in the airspace within 5
20005KT 9999 -SHRA SCT020 SCT040 nautical miles of the aerodrome reference point.
FM180100 11010KT 9999 -SHRA FEW030 SCT050
Meteorological Aerodrome Report (METAR) is
INTER 1723/1802 3000 SHRA BKN012
a routine aerodrome weather report issued at fixed
INTER 1812/1824 3000 SHRA BKN010
time intervals, usually half-hourly.
RMK
T 22 27 27 28 Q 1013 1013 1013 1012 Special Meteorological Report (SPECI) is a spe-
cial aerodrome weather report issued only when
TTF METAR YBBN 171800Z 19005KT 9999 FEW025 meteorological parameters meet specific criteria.
22/15 Q1013 Trend Forecast (TTF) is a three hour trend fore-
RMK RF00.0/001.0 cast appended to METAR/SPECI. It supersedes the
INTER 1900/2100 3000 SHRA BKN012 TAF for its period of validity.
Elements of TAF and TTF METAR/SPECI

Wind is given in the format dddssKT where ddd is In TAF, air temperature values are preceded by the
the mean direction in degrees True rounded to the letter T.
nearest 10 degrees and ss is the mean speed in knots. In METAR/SPECI, the air temperature and dewpoint
The maximum gust will be given after the letter G if temperatures are given in the format TT/TdTd, where
it is forecast or observed to exceed the mean by 10 T is the air temperature and Td is the dewpoint
knots or more, e.g. 33028G40KT gives a mean wind temperature, e.g. 22/15.
direction of 330 degrees True, with a mean speed of
28 knots and a maximum gust of 40 knots. QNH is given in hectopascals in a four figure group,
e.g. 1008, or 0998.
Visibility is given in metres, in a four-figure group QNH values are preceded by the letter Q.
(e.g. 0500 = 500m, 2000 = 2000m) with 9999 being
used to indicate visibility of 10 kilometres or more. Issue time for a TAF is given in the format ddhhmmZ.
In the example above, 171655Z indicates an issue
In METAR/SPECI, two groups may be reported when
time of 1655 UTC on the 17th day of the month.
visibility is not the same in different directions; the
prevailing visibility first, then the minimum visibility A TAF is normally issued one to two hours prior to the
and its direction (using one of the eight points of start of the validity period.
the compass) from the observing station, e.g. 8000
2000NE. Validity period for a TAF is given in the format ddhh/
ddhh. In the example above, 1718/1824 indicates a
Air temperature (and dewpoint temperature in validity of thirty hours from 1800 UTC on the 17th
METAR/SPECI) are given in degrees Celsius in a two- day of the month.
digit group, rounded to the nearest whole degree. Validity periods are generally 12, 18, 24 or 30 hours
Negative values are preceded by M (minus), e.g. M03. depending on location.
Weather Information Weather is included in a forecast
Did You Know? or report using the abbreviations
In TAF, the four temperature Prefix Weather Intensity in the table at left. Examples are:
and QNH values are point + Heavy BCFG for Fog Patches
forecasts for HH, HH+3, HH+6
no SHRA for moderate Showers
and HH+9 where HH is the prefix Moderate
of Rain
commencement of the TAF
– Light Intensity is indicated for
validity.
Code Weather Descriptor precipitation, dust storms,
These temperature and QNH
sandstorms and funnel clouds
forecasts are valid, in the case BC Patches
(tornados and water spouts), by
of the first value, for ninety BL Blowing
minutes after time HH, and for
prefixing the weather groups as
subsequent values, 90 mins DR Drifting shown in these examples:
each side of the time point. FZ Freezing +TSRA for thunderstorm
MI Shallow with heavy rain
DZ for moderate drizzle
PR Partial
-RA for light rain
Cloud Information SH Showers
Code Cloud Amount TS Thunderstorm Common Abbreviations
SKC Sky clear Code Weather
BECMG Becoming
FEW Few (1 to 2 oktas) Phenomena
BR Mist
CAVOK Cloud and visibility and
SCT Scattered (3 to 4 oktas)
weather ok
BKN Broken (5 to 7 oktas) DU Dust
FM From
OVC Overcast (8 oktas) DS Duststorm
NSC Nil significant cloud DZ Drizzle INTER Intermittent variations –
periods < 30 mins in a hour
FC Funnel cloud
Cloud amount is forecast or MOD Moderate
FG Fog
reported using the abbreviations
above. FU Smoke PROB30 30% chance for
GR Hail
forecast conditions to occur
Cloud information in TAF and
METAR/SPECI is given in the order GS Small hail/snow pellets PROB40 40% chance for
of lowest to highest in accordance forecast conditions to occur
HZ Haze
with the following rules: RMK (remark) Precedes
IC Ice crystals
1st group is the lowest layer information on temperatures and
PL Ice pellets
regardless of amount. 2nd group QNH, and if forecast, turbulence
is the next layer covering more PO Dust devil
SEV Severe
than two oktas (eighths of sky). RA Rain
3rd group is the next higher layer SA Sand
TEMPO Temporary variations –
covering more than four oktas. periods of 30 mins to < 60 mins
SG Snow grains
Extra groups - cumulonimbus Z Appended at the end of issue
SN Snow
(CB) and towering cumulus (TCU) and validity times to signify UTC
when not included in the above. SQ Squall (Coordinated Universal Time)
SS Sandstorm
NOTE: Cloud type is not given except More abbreviations can be found
for CB and TCU VA Volcanic ash in AIP.
The information in this publication is provided for reference only to assist in the
interpretation of TAF, METAR and SPECI. Comprehensive educational resources
can be found at www.bom.gov.au under Aviation Weather Services. For flight
planning purposes, users should refer to Airservices Australia’s Aeronautical
Information Publications (AIP).
© Commonwealth of Australia, 16 May 2011
WEATHER SERVICES
AVIATION
WEATHER ADVICE FOR YOUR SAFETY
Flying the Tropics
This pamphlet
provides a brief
overview of weather
over the Australian
Tropics (defined as
north of latitude
23.5 degrees South),
particularly as it
affects aviation. Weatherwise pilots keep in touch with the current and expected weather patterns by:
• obtaining the latest aviation observations, forecasts, warnings and charts from
the briefing system listed at the end of this pamphlet;
• telephoning the Bureau of Meteorology for elaborative briefing, when
appropriate; and
• paying attention to media weather presentations and reports.
Pilots also benefit from understanding the characteristics of particular weather

situations and systems which affect the area in which they operate. This pamphlet
discusses some of the hazardous weather elements and situations that may be
experienced in the Australian Tropics from an aviation perspective.
General Climate
Flying conditions over the Australian tropics vary considerably in time and space. Whilst good
flying weather conditions exist over the area for long periods, conditions do occur which
may necessitate significant deviations from planned tracks, or result in lengthy delays on the
ground. Tropical cyclones, deep monsoonal troughs, active thunderstorm zones and moist
onshore winds are all capable of producing hazardous flying conditions.
The Wet Season

Most of the hazardous aviation weather in the tropics occurs during the wet season, which
generally extends from October to April. It is a time of unstable atmospheric conditions due
to high humidity and temperatures.
FURTHER INFORMATION
www.bom.gov.au/aviation
Tropical cyclones and active monsoon troughs may produce heavy rainfall for prolonged
periods, squally winds and thunderstorms. The build-up to, and break periods within, the
monsoon are characterised by isolated afternoon and evening thunderstorms, although
occasionally the thunderstorms are frequent and may exist in lines which can extend to
hundreds of kilometres and travel westward for several days. You should pay attention to
forecasts and warnings and seek elaborative briefings if in any doubt.
Break periods within the wet season are characterised by a weak heat trough that can bring
afternoon and overnight thunderstorms.
The Dry Season

During the dry season, typically May to September, prevailing flying conditions are generally
good, however meteorological hazards to flying do occur. These include poor visibility in
smoke and haze from bushfires; coastal showers in onshore winds (particularly where they
are enhanced along the Great Dividing Range in northern Queensland); turbulence arising
from a low-level jet through central northern Australia; fog; and extensive cloud bands
which generally affect inland areas of central Australia.
The Transition Periods

The transition periods between the two distinct seasons are also known as the pre and post-
monsoon periods. The pre-monsoon period is also referred to as the build-up because of the
gradual increase of the convective cloud and humidity before the monsoon onset. It typically
extends from September to early November. The post-monsoon period is usually much
shorter and occurs mostly during April. During the transition periods, elements of either
the dry or wet seasons may be experienced. A weak heat trough often develops, bringing
afternoon and overnight thunderstorms.
Significant Weather Systems

Tropical Cyclones
The tropical cyclone season extends from November to April. Tropical cyclones are non-
frontal low pressure systems of synoptic scale developing over warm waters, with organised
convection and a maximum mean wind speed at the surface of at least 34 knots extending
more than half-way around the centre and persisting for at least six hours. Spiral rain-bands
are generally confined within a few hundred kilometres of the centre but may extend out
to 1000 kilometres from the centre. The weather associated with a cyclone’s coastal landfall
includes high winds, severe horizontal and vertical wind shear, heavy rainfall and associated
Tropical Cyclone Larry approaching the
low cloud and reduced visibility. This is generally confined to within a hundred kilometres
Queensland coast. of the coast as cyclones generally weaken rapidly on landfall; however in some cases they
can maintain cyclone intensity far inland. After landfall, the cyclone will quite often form an
extensive rain depression which presents very hazardous conditions for aviation.
Details of the extent, movement and trend of a particular tropical cyclone are contained in
Area Forecasts and SIGMET.
Any part of the northern Australian coastline can be affected by tropical cyclones. The
north-west coast of Western Australia is the area of highest overall frequency and severity.
The Monsoon
The onset of the monsoon brings a change from a diurnal isolated thunderstorm pattern
to one characterised by episodes of heavy rain from stratiform cloud (with associated lower
cloud and poor visibility), embedded thunderstorms and squally showers. On mean sea-level
pressure (MSLP) charts, a monsoon trough is usually evident. The trough separates a low-
level west to north-westerly flow (from equatorial regions to the north of the trough) from
relatively dry southeasterly flow (to the south of the trough). Major weather systems may
exist along the monsoon trough. Watch for a monsoon low, a system which has many of
the characteristics of tropical cyclones except for the extreme winds near the centre. These
lows usually bring extensive low cloud and reduced visibility in heavy rain.
Active periods of the monsoon occur, on average, two to three times each wet season, and
lasting one to two weeks. The first burst of the active monsoon in north and west Australia
often occurs in late December, and then in January in north Queensland. During the middle
of the wet season (January to March) the monsoon trough can move inland (possibly up to
a thousand kilometres or more) bringing heavy rain and low cloud to places such as Tennant
Creek. During the monsoon there can be periods of up to a week of gale force (at least 34
knots) westerly winds at exposed coastal locations. Squally rain showers can result in wind
gusts of up to 50 knots at places like Darwin, Weipa and Broome. Aerodrome Warnings for
gales are issued for Darwin, Cairns, Townsville, Mackay and Hamilton Island Airports.
Heat Trough
The heat trough is a semi-permanent feature across north and central Australia during the
transition periods and the break periods in the wet season. This trough separates the moist
and potentially unstable air mass in the north from dry and generally more stable conditions
in the south. The position of the trough can fluctuate depending on surges of mid-latitude
air. Weather on the heat trough is predominately afternoon and overnight thunderstorms.
MSLP chart showing active monsoon trough MSLP chart showing heat trough
Hazardous Phenomena
Cloud bands
The dry season regularly sees narrow elongated cloud bands develop in association with
atmospheric features at higher latitudes. Typically they extend from off the northwest coast
towards the southeast. The cloud is mostly stratiform at middle levels. These bands tend to
move slowly eastwards across the region, and may bring significant rainfall to tropical and
inland areas. When steady and significant rainfall does occur it is likely to be accompanied
by extensive low cloud and often followed by fog. Elevated areas such as Alice Springs are
very prone to extensive areas of low cloud in the southeast flow following a cloud band.
Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms are a very frequent and widespread hazard during the wet season. They are
common during the late afternoon and early evening, with a secondary peak in the early
morning.
The tops of tropical thunderstorm clouds reach much higher altitudes (often exceeding
45 000 feet) than those of temperate latitudes. They often spread out to form sheets of
altostratus and cirrostratus clouds late in their life cycle, bringing steady overnight rain and
low cloud persisting into the morning. As a thunderstorm is growing, updrafts in the core
Thunderstorm over Darwin, courtesy, can reach over 100 knots. These updrafts can exist alongside downdrafts of similar strength
Tourism NT
Average annual thunder-days

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 80
as rain starts to fall out of the storm, resulting in potential for severe turbulence and loss of
aircraft control if flying into such conditions.
Pilots may face lengthy diversions especially when the thunderstorms are part of a
broadscale synoptic feature. Some areas, such as the Kimberley, Arnhem Land, Cape York
Peninsula and the ranges adjacent to the north Queensland coast, are prone to lines of
thunderstorms which can often extend up to 200 kilometres in length (and occasionally as
much as 300-400 kilometres) and travel for several days. SIGMETs are issued for obscured,
embedded, frequent and squall line thunderstorms; and Aerodrome Warnings are issued for
selected airports if a significant thunderstorm is likely to pass over the airport. Darwin only
issues aerodrome warnings for thunderstorms if they are likely to have wind gusts in excess
of 42 knots.
Thunderstorms over inland Queensland, the Northern Territory and Western Australia
usually develop along the semi-permanent inland heat trough, with maximum development
generally occurring in mid-afternoon. The convective cloud bases can be very high
(sometimes up to 15 000 feet), with very severe downdraughts from the cloud base to the
surface. For this reason flights should never be conducted under or through precipitation
(including virga) from towering cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds.
Thunderstorms in the transition periods tend to be more isolated than during the wet
season. Keep in mind that these frequently have high bases, flying below which may result
in strong downdrafts being encountered.
One final hazard associated with tropical thunderstorms is large hail. Above the freezing
level hail size can be significant (tennis ball size) due to high precipitable water content
and plenty of time for hail growth. Forecasts will warn if hail is an expected hazard with
thunderstorms.
The peak frequency of thunderstorms is in the vicinity of Darwin with over eighty thunder-
days per year. Thunderstorm frequency decreases in the southern parts of the tropics
except over inland Western Australia. There is a low frequency of thunderstorms in the very
wet section of the Queensland coast between Cooktown and south of Innisfail due to the
combination of the orographic influences driving rainfall and the stability of the southeast
trade winds for much of the year.
Downbursts
The outflow from a storm’s downdraft will occasionally produce winds of destructive force
Initial Impact
and shear which can present a very serious hazard to aircraft operations at low altitudes
and on the ground.
When precipitation falls into drier air inside or below a thunderstorm, it immediately begins
evaporating. This evaporation cools the surrounding air, increasing its density, causing it to
accelerate downwards. This concentrated downdraft is called a downburst, which typically
lasts five to fifteen minutes, and is of such high speed that it can cause damage on, or near,
the ground.
Outspread Stage The term microburst is used to describe a downburst which causes damage over an area
with horizontal dimensions of less than four kilometres.
Any convection in the atmosphere presents the potential for downbursts. They may be
associated with heavy convective precipitation or there may be little or no rain reaching the
surface (a dry downburst).
Downburst winds originate from the cloud base and diverge when they make contact with
the ground. The rapid change in wind speed and direction associated with downbursts
poses a threat to aircraft during take-off and landing phases, during which an aircraft
Schematic of a downburst
will typically first encounter a strong headwind, then a downdraft which is the vertically
descending section of the downburst, and finally a region of strong tailwind. If a pilot was
to over-compensate for the lift experienced in the headwind, a dangerous drop in altitude
may occur when the lift disappears in the downdraft and tailwind regions.
Recent studies with Doppler radar in Darwin indicate the frequency of downbursts is
relatively high during the wet season and the transition periods. It is reasonable to assume
this relatively high frequency of downbursts applies right across the tropical areas of
Australia at these times, when convectively unstable conditions prevail. Because of the short
life span of downbursts and their limited horizontal extent, it is not possible to forecast their
occurrence. It is imperative therefore that pilots be aware of any clues, visual or otherwise,
that may suggest the potential for downbursts upon departure or approach. Some clues to
look for include:
• blowing dust, particularly if it has a circular pattern.
• virga (precipitation not reaching the ground), particularly if the cloud base is high and the
sub-cloud layer hot and relatively dry.
• precipitation from convective cloud, particularly if a curling outflow is evident near the
surface.
• reports of hazardous wind shear from other aircraft operating in the area.
• unusual vertical airspeed fluctuations during take-off or final stages of landing.
Low Cloud and Showers

Virtually any part of the tropical coast and nearby ranges may experience persistent low
cloud in moist onshore winds. Pilots planning visual flights should take care to relate
forecast cloud base to lowest safe altitude, especially where airspace restrictions apply. Moist
onshore winds often produce frequent shower activity with the main cloud base around
2000 ft. Significant reductions in cloud base and visibility will occur in heavy showers,
compounding the difficulty of flying in the high volume traffic along the coast.
During the cooler months, onshore winds consistently push moisture into the coast,
particularly along the Queensland coast where the southeast trade winds are prevalent.
The inflow of moisture from these onshore winds often results in diurnal showers and low
Heavy shower on Melville Island, cloud, peaking overnight and morning then weakening during the afternoon. Scattered
Northern Territory, photograph by Mike cumulus cloud forms around the coast in the trade winds on most days; however strong
Rosel
and deep trades produce prolonged poor flying conditions especially where the ranges are
close to the coast.
During an active monsoon where the westerly winds are near gale force, fast moving squally
showers may temporarily reduce visibility and produce severe wind gusts.
Rain Depressions
Rain depressions that have formed from tropical cyclones, or are low-pressure systems over
land embedded in the monsoon trough, may be associated with extensive areas of low
cloud, precipitation, reduced visibility and turbulent flying conditions. The low cloud may
persist for twenty four hours or so after the rain has stopped, especially near a decaying
trough. In all these cases, carefully consider the lowest safe altitude before attempting to fly
below a low cloud base, as inland areas may not always be as flat as first appears.
Volcanic Ash
Although a fairly rare possibility, there is potential for a volcanic ash cloud, which can cause
significant damage to aircraft, to drift into the Australian tropics from Indonesia, Papua New
Guinea or South America. Volcanic Ash Advisories and SIGMETs will warn of volcanic ash.
Smoke and Haze

Smoke and haze from bushfires are common during the dry season and frequently create
navigational difficulties for VFR pilots. It is possible to encounter a reduction in horizontal
and angular visibility to less than ten kilometres, and sometimes a reduction to two
kilometres. If a low-level temperature inversion is trapping smoke in the underlying cooler
Sarychev Volcano, Kuril Islands, 2009, air, flight above the inversion usually results in better horizontal visibility.
courtesy of NASA
Duststorms
Duststorms are most frequent in winter in eastern parts of the tropics, tending to occur
more toward late spring and summer in western parts. They are a relatively infrequent
phenomenon, becoming more frequent in drought years when they can occur at any time.
Duststorms can reduce visibility dramatically over a wide area, generally of the order of six
to eight kilometres. Occasionally duststorms may reduce visibility to a few hundred metres.
Isolated duststorms may be associated with intensive heating, fresh winds, and
downdraughts from thunderstorms. However duststorms covering huge areas appear as a
wall-like boundary in the desert areas of central Australia. They are usually linked to cold
fronts over southern Australia. Elsewhere they may be associated with tropical cyclones that
penetrate well inland, or with trade wind surges.
Dust storm, Moombidary Station, near
Hungerford, Queensland, photograph Dust Devils
by Helen Clifford
Dust devils are visible as wind vortices lifting dust from the surface with diameters usually
less than one hundred metres, but can extend up to a few thousand feet. They are a
common occurrence throughout inland Australia, especially during the warmer months, and
are dangerous to aircraft during take-off and landing.
Low-level Jet Stream

Low-level jet streams frequently form in tropical inland parts of central Australia in the early
morning in winter and persist until mid-morning. They occur mainly below 3000 feet above
ground level when winds are calm, or very light, at the surface. Typical wind speeds in the
jet may be 25 knots, although up to 50 knots may be experienced. The low-level jet stream
often brings hazardous low-level wind shears. Tennant Creek, Mount Isa, Camooweal,
Kununurra and Halls Creek are particularly prone locations.
Thermal and Mechanical Turbulence

During the summer months temperatures in central Australia are frequently in the high 30s
to low 40s degrees Celsius. This heating produces convective thermals during the daytime,
resulting in moderate to occasionally severe (extremely uncomfortable) flying conditions
below 15 000 feet.
Mechanical turbulence can result from strong winds at ridge top level. The McDonnell
ranges in central Australia is one feature which frequently causes turbulent conditions.
A strong northerly wind in spring is one such occasion where Alice Springs airport will
experience moderate to occasionally severe turbulence.
Fog
Fogs in tropical Australia are most common near the coast in the dry season. Fogs are
reported from coastal stations in Western Australia (e.g. Broome and Port Hedland) about
fifteen times a year. Fogs also occur in north Queensland, more commonly about the coast
and during the cooler months. The number of fogs occurring is largely dependant on the
airport location. Fogs can be expected at Rockhampton more than thirty times each year
while at Cairns they are very rare. Radiation fogs forming in tropical areas are often shallow
and do not significantly affect aviation operations. A few times each year, sea fogs form
along the coast and persist for much of the day. Sea fogs are a regular occurrence during
the dry and transition seasons about the Gulf of Carpentaria coast and frequently affect
aerodromes such as Ngukurr, Borroloola and McArthur River Mine. Fogs and low stratus
Sun shines through fog on the Great also occur about coastal valleys in the Northern Territory’s top end during the dry season,
Northern Highway, east of Broome, occasionally extending as far inland as Tindal.
photograph by Mike Rosel
During the cooler months, low stratus or fog may be a problem in the days following rain,
especially in the first couple of hours after sunrise. Although these fogs are generally only a
few hundred feet deep, a runway visible on base leg approach can disappear on final due to
reduced slant visibility.
© Commonwealth of Australia, 5 October 2011

WEATHER SERVICES
AVIATION
AREA FORECASTS
Area Forecasts
The Area Forecast system is designed primarily to meet the needs of pilots of general
aviation. The system provides for the routine issue of forecasts for designated areas and the
prompt issue of amendments when prescribed criteria are satisfied. Forecasts are issued for
the numbered areas shown in the map below.
The Area Forecast

system is designed
primarily to meet the
needs of pilots of
general aviation.
More detail of the area forecast zones is contained in the Airservices Australia publication
Planning Chart Australia (PCA).
There may be variations in commencement of validity between different regions and

between those times when daylight saving is or is not operating. However the following
principles apply:
• the standard validity period is twelve hours but this may vary from state to state.
• an Area Forecast covering daylight hours will be available as soon as practicable in the
morning.
• Area Forecasts are not prepared for those times when air traffic volume is so low as not to
justify routine issues. In these cases a route forecast will service any individual flights.
• Area Forecasts will generally be available a minimum of one hour before commencement
FURTHER INFORMATION
Aviation Weather Services of validity.
Message Structure
Message Identifier Message Identifier
The forecast is identified as AREA FORECAST unless the forecast is an amendment in which
Validity Period
case it will be identified AMEND AREA FORECAST. In amended forecasts, any amended
Area Number
section will be annotated with AMD preceding the section heading.
Overview
Validity Period
Subdivisions
The validity period is written DDHHMM TO DDHHMM, where DD is the day of the month
Winds & Temperatures and HHMM is the time in hours and minutes UTC.
Cloud
Area Number
Weather The relevant forecast zone is specified by an area forecast number. The zones are given
Visibility in detail on Airservices Australia’s Planning Chart Australia (PCA). Note that Areas 24, 87
Freezing Level and 88 are only designated for the purpose of Area QNH. Any flights in these areas can be
Icing
provided with a route forecast.
Turbulence Overview
Critical Locations The overview will highlight any conditions which may inhibit safe operations for pilots
flying under visual flight rules, and will make reference, where necessary, to any spatial and
Remarks
temporal variations. It will assist the pilot in making the following types of decisions:
• Are the meteorological conditions Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC), marginal,
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) or too poor for flying?
• Is it better to plan for a coastal or inland track?
Cloud amount is given using the • If bad weather is encountered, what is the contingency plan? - Return? Change altitude?
following abbreviations:
Change heading? Land immediately?
Code Cloud Amount
Subdivisions
FEW Few (1 to 2 oktas)
Area forecasts may be divided into spatial, temporal or weather-related subdivisions. Spatial
SCT Scattered (3 to 4
subdivisions are given using PCA locations or lat/lon coordinates.
oktas)
BKN Broken (5 to 7 oktas) Winds and Temperatures
OVC Overcast (8 oktas)
Upper level winds are given for 2000 (or 3000 in elevated regions), 5000, 7000, 10 000,
14 000 and 18 500 feet. The expected mean wind direction is given in three figures to the
...except for cumulonimbus and nearest ten degrees True, followed by a solidus (/), followed by the mean wind speed in
towering cumulus, for which
two figures to the nearest five knots, e.g. 290/40. CALM and VRB (variable) are used when
amount is described as:
appropriate. A REMARKS section may be included below the WIND section to provide further
Code Cloud Amount
information.
ISOL Isolated
Upper level temperatures are given for 10 000, 14 000 and 18 500 feet. These are given in
OCNL Occasional (well whole degrees Celsius, following the forecast of the upper wind for the level concerned.
separated)
e.g. 290/40 PS08, 300/50 ZERO, 360/10 MS10. The abbreviation PS is used for positive
FRQ Frequent (little or no temperatures, and MS (minus) is used for negative temperatures.
separation)
Cloud
EMBD Embedded (in layers
of other cloud) The inclusion of cloud is restricted to:
• any cumulonimbus (CB) or towering cumulus (TCU)
Cloud type is given using the • any cloud with a base at or below 5000 feet above the highest terrain in the area covered
following abbreviations: by the forecast
Code Cloud Type • any broken or overcast cloud with base at or below 20 000 feet above mean sea level
(MSL)
CU Cumulus
• any cloud associated with any forecast precipitation, moderate or severe icing or moderate
SC Stratocumulus or severe turbulence.
CB Cumulonimbus
Cloud amount and type are given using the abbreviations in the tables on the left.
TCU Towering cumulus
If no, or no significant, cloud is expected throughout the area or subdivision, the format used
ST Stratus
is NIL or NIL SIGNIFICANT.
AS Altostratus
When CU and SC, or AC and AS, occur together at similar heights, they are combined, i.e.
AC Altocumulus CU/SC or AC/AS.
NS Nimbostratus
Cloud base and tops are given in feet above MSL.
Abbreviations and Codes Weather
Used in Area Forecasts Forecast weather is given using the abbreviations and codes in the tables on the left. If no,
Description or no significant, weather is expected throughout the area or subdivision, the format used is
AC Altocumulus NIL or NIL SIGNIFICANT.
AC/AS Altocumulus and Visibility

Altostratus with Horizontal visibility is given in metres to the nearest 100 metres up to and including 5000
bases at the same metres, and in whole kilometers above that value. Forecast visibilities of 50 metres or less
level are given as ZERO. The forecast value is followed by the units used e.g. 8KM or 1000M.
AS Altostratus Significant variations of visibility are included.
AMD Amendment
If the visibility is forecast to be above 10 kilometres, the words UNRESTRICTED or GOOD are
BKN Broken used.
CAVOK Cloud and visibility
Significant vertical variations of horizontal visibility will be given. Information is supplied on
and weather ok.
the depth of any layers affected by drizzle, haze and duststorms.
CB Cumulonimbus
CU Cumulus Freezing Level
CU/SC Cumulus and Freezing level is the height in feet above MSL of zero degrees Celsius. Reference is made
Stratocumulus with to any variations in height greater than 1000 feet, and to the occurrence of more than one
bases at the same freezing level.
level
Icing
DZ Drizzle This section provides information on the expected occurrence of moderate or severe icing in
EMBD Embedded precipitation or cloud including convective cloud.
FEW Few
The height in feet above MSL of the bottom and top of the layer is given as, for example,
FG Fog
MOD IN RA 5000/8000.
FM From (only used in
When the layer of icing is expected to extend above 20 000 feet, descriptions such as MOD
Critical Locations
ABOVE 14000 are used.
section)
FRQ Frequent Turbulence
GR Hail This section provides information on moderate or severe turbulence including turbulence
GS Small Hail associated with convective cloud.
INTER Intermittent The height above MSL of the bottom and top of any layer(s) is given as, for example, MOD
variations (only used
IN CLOUD 12000/16000
in Critical section
Locations) When the turbulence is expected to extend to ground level, descriptions such as BELOW
ISOL Isolated 8000 are used.
MOD Moderate When the turbulence is expected to be confined to clouds, descriptions such as MOD IN
NS Nimbostratus CLOUD BELOW 8000 are used.
OCNL Occasional When the turbulence is expected to extend above 20 000 feet, descriptions such as SEV
OVC Overcast ABOVE 15000 are used.
RA Rain
SC Stratocumulus Critical Locations
These are locations such as gaps in mountain ranges which are frequently used by general
SCT Scattered
aviation aircraft.
SEV Severe
SH Shower Critical location forecasts are appended to Area Forecasts for Bowral and Mt Victoria (NSW)
SN Snow on AREA 21, Mt Victoria and Murrurundi (NSW) on AREA 20, and Kilmore Gap (Vic) on
AREA 30.
ST Stratus
TCU Towering Cumulus Critical location forecasts are written in a mixture of plain language and TAF format making
TEMPO Temporary variations reference as necessary to cloud, visibility and weather.
(only used in Critical CAVOK is used to indicate visibility greater than 10 KM, cloud ceiling above 5000 FT above
Locations section)
ground level and nil significant weather.
TS Thunderstorm
Z Code for UTC Remarks
(universal time) This section will include any relevant information not included elsewhere in the forecast.
Example
AMEND AREA FORECAST 071700 TO 080500 AREA 21
OVERVIEW:
LOW CLOUD, DRIZZLE AND SCATTERED FOG W OF MVI/YSCB/YCOM TILL 03Z.
ISOLATED FOGS REMAINDER TIL 01Z
SUBDIVISIONS:
A: W OF MVI/YSCB/YCOM
B: REMAINDER
WIND:
2000 5000 7000 1000 1400 18500
280/15 290/15 280/10 300/15 MS03 300/20 MS09 300/25 MS20
AMD CLOUD:
A: BKN ST 2000/5000 TILL 03Z. BKN CU 3000/700 ISOL TOPS TO 1300
B: SCT CU/SC 2500/5000 COAST, INCREASING TO 5000/7000 AFTER 02Z.
AMD WEATHER
A: DZ, FG TILL 03Z
B: FG TILL 01Z
VISIBILITY:
3000M IN DZ, 500M IN FOG
FREEZING LEVEL:
5000FT
ICING:
MOD IN LARGE CU 5000/13000 FT
TURBULENCE:
MOD IN LARGE CU
CRITICAL LOCATIONS (HEIGHT ABOVE MSL)

MT VICTORIA: BKN ST 3700 (CLOUD ON GROUND)
BOWRAL: 9999 SCT SC 5000
REMARKS:
FOR CLARIFICATION OF METEOROLOGICAL ISSUES CALL 02 9296 1527.

>
>
>
WEATHER SERVICES
AVIATION
SIGMET
SIGMET
A SIGMET is a warning issued to provide urgent advice to aircraft of the actual or expected
occurrence, in areas over which meteorological watch is being maintained, of weather
phenomena that are potentially hazardous. A SIGMET will contain information on one of the
following phenomena:
Code Description
OBSC TS Obscured thunderstorms

EMBD TS Embedded thunderstorms
FRQ TS Frequent thunderstorms
Pilots in command of SQL TS Squall line thunderstorms
aircraft encountering OBSC TSGR Obscured thunderstorms with hail
any phenomenon in
EMBD TSGR Embedded thunderstorms with hail
this table not notified
FRQ TSGR Frequent thunderstorms with hail
by SIGMET must
report details of the SQL TSGR Squall line thunderstorms with hail
phenomenon in an TC Tropical cyclone
AIREP SPECIAL SEV TURB Severe turbulence
SEV ICE Severe icing
SEV ICE FZRA Severe icing due to freezing rain

SEV MTW Severe mountain wave
HVY DS Heavy duststorm
HVY SS Heavy sandstorm
VA Volcanic ash
RDOACT CLD Radioactive cloud
A SIGMET will provide information on the location, extent, intensity and expected evolution
of the specified phenomenon.
SIGMETs for thunderstorms are only issued when they are:
• obscured (OBSC) by haze or smoke

• embedded (EMBD) within cloud layers
• frequent (FRQ), i.e. with little or no separation between clouds and covering more than
75% of the area affected
• squall line (SQL) thunderstorms along a line of about 100 nautical miles or more in length,
with little or no separation between clouds
SIGMET for thunderstorms do not include reference to cumulonimbus cloud (CB) or

associated icing and turbulence as these are implied as occurring.
FURTHER INFORMATION
SIGMET for tropical cyclones include cumulonimbus but not associated icing and turbulence
as these are implied as occurring.
WCAU01 APRF 180217

Responsibility for the issuance of SIGMET within
YMMM SIGMET PH01 VALID the Australian Flight Information Regions
180215/180815 YPRF- SIGMETs for volcanic ash are the responsibility of the Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre, Darwin.
YMMM MELBOURNE FIR TC
SIGMETs for tropical cyclones are the responsibility of the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centres
ILSA OBS AT 0000Z S1330
in Perth, Darwin and Brisbane.
E11324 CB TOP FL500 WI
120NM OF SIGMETs for turbulence and icing above FL185 are the responsibility of the Aviation Weather
CENTRE MOV WSW 17KT Centre, Melbourne.
INTSF FCST 0815Z TC CENTRE SIGMET for all other phenomena are the responsibility of the Meteorological Watch Offices
S1418 E11036 located in Perth, Darwin, Adelaide, Hobart, Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane and Cairns.
STS:NEW
SIGMET Structure
WVAU01 ADRM 200100
YBBB SIGMET BT04 VALID
200100/200700 YPDM-
YBBB BRISBANE FIR VA
ERUPTION LOC S0416 E15212
VA CLD OBS AT 200100Z
A100/180 APRX 120NM BY
40NM S1130 E14530 - S1330
E14900 - S1030 E15030
- S0830 E14700 - S1130
E14430 MOV SW 20KT FCST
0700Z VA CLD APRX S110
E144530 - S1230 E14930
Bulletin Identification
- S1050 E15130 - S0800
• WCAU01 for SIGMET for tropical cyclones
E14700 - S1130 E14400
• WVAU01 for SIGMET for volcanic ash cloud
STS:REV SIGMET BT03
• WSAU21 for SIGMET for other phenomena
191900/200100
Originating Office (WMO Location Indicator)

The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) location indicators for Australian
WSAU21 AMMC 180357 Meteorological Watch Offices are:
YMMM SIGMET MM01 VALID APRM Adelaide
180439/180839 YMMC-
APRF Perth
YMMM MELBOURNE FIR SEV
ABRF Brisbane
TURB FCST WI S3200 E12800 -
S3200 E13000 - S4700 E13600 ASRF Sydney
- S4700 E13400 FL260/400 ADRM Darwin
MOV E 25KT NC AMRF Melbourne
STS:NEW AMHF Hobart
ABCS Cairns
AMMC Aviation Weather Centre Melbourne
Note: These differ from the ICAO indicators

(beginning with Y) used elsewhere in the message.
SIGMET Abbreviations Issue Date/Time
Issue date/time is given in UTC in the form DDHHMM, where DD is day of month, and
A Altitude
HHMM is time in hours and minutes.
ABV Above
APRX Approximately Flight Information Region
BLW Below Gives the abbreviation for the FIR (YMMM or YBBB) in which the phenomenon is located.
CLD Cloud
Identifier
CNL Cancel
The message identifier is SIGMET.
DS Dust storm
E East or eastern
longitude Daily Sequence Number
EMBD Embedded The four-character sequence number consists of:
FCST Forecast • a two-letter designator to indicate the general location of the event (as given in the two
FIR Flight Information maps below), and
Region • a two-digit number, giving the sequence number of SIGMETs issued by the relevant office,
FL Flight level within the given FIR (Brisbane or Melbourne) since 0000 UTC.
FRQ Frequent
FZRA Freezing rain The two-letter designators, and their associated geographical extent, for low-level (below
GR Hail FL185) SIGMET including tropical cyclones are:
HVY Heavy
ICE Icing
INTSF Intensifying
KT Knots
LOC Location
MOV Moving
MT Mount
N North or northern
latitude
NC No Change (in
intensity)
NM Nautical Miles
OBS Observed
OBSC Obscured
RDOACT Radioactive cloud
CLD
REV Review
S South or southern
latitude
The two-letter designators, and their general associated geographical extent, for volcanic
SEV Severe
ash and high-level (above FL185) icing and turbulence SIGMET are:
SQL Squall line
SS Sand storm
STNR Stationary
STS Status
TC Tropical cyclone
TOP Cloud Top
TS Thunderstorm
TURB Turbulence
VA Volcanic ash
W West or western
longitude
WI Within (area)
WKN Weakening
(intensity)
Z Code for UTC
(Universal Time
Coordinated)
Originating Office (ICAO Location Indicator)
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) location indicators for Australian
Meteorological Watch Offices are:
YPRM Adelaide
YPRM Perth
YBRF Brisbane
YSRF Sydney
YPDM Darwin
YMRF Melbourne
YMHF Hobart
YBCS Cairns
YMMC Aviation Weather Centre Melbourne
Flight Information Region

This gives the abbreviation and full name for the FIR in which the phenomenon is located.
Meteorological Information
This section includes:
• type of phenomenon
• observed or forecast
• location, both horizontal and vertical extent
• movement or expected movement
• expected change in intensity
• SIGMET for tropical cyclone and volcanic ash cloud include a forecast position for the end
of the validity period
SIGMET for tropical cyclones do not include reference to cumulonimbus cloud (CB) or
associated icing and turbulence as these are implied as occurring.
Cancel SIGMET
WSAU21 AMMC 180720 If during the validity period of a SIGMET, the phenomenon for which the SIGMET is no
YMMM SIGMET MM02 VALID longer occurring or is no longer expected, the SIGMET is cancelled by issuing a SIGMET with
180720/180839 YMMC- the abbreviation CNL in lieu of meteorological information. CNL is also included on the
YMMM MELBOURNE status line.
FIR CNL SIGMET MM01
SIGMET Status
180439/180839
The status line indicates whether the SIGMET is:
STS:CNL SIGMET MM01
180439/180839
• NEW - the SIGMET is for a new phenomenon.
• REV - the SIGMET reviews an earlier SIGMET for the phenomenon.
• CNL - the SIGMET cancels a current SIGMET.

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BUREAU OF METEOROLOGY

AVIATION WEATHER PRODUCTS