LECTURER: ENGR.

UGO OHAERI

• COURSE TITLE: DIGITAL COMMUNICATION1

• CODE: EEE 325
• LECTURE MATERIALS BATCH 3
Frequency Spectrum of AM Wave
Lower side frequency – (wc – wm)/2
Upper side frequency – (wc +wm)/2
In Amplitude modulation (AM), information or message is contained or residence in the sidebands , and not on the
carrier
 Frequency modulation

• In telecommunications and signal processing,

frequency modulation (FM) is the encoding of
information in a carrier wave by varying the
instantaneous frequency of the wave. This
contrasts with amplitude modulation, in which
the amplitude of the carrier wave varies, while
the frequency remains constant.
• Digital data can be encoded and transmitted via
FM by shifting the carrier's frequency among a
predefined set of frequencies representing digits
- for example one frequency can represent a
binary 1 and a second can represent binary 0.
This modulation technique is known as
frequency-shift keying (FSK). FSK is widely used in
modems and fax modems, and can also be used
to send Morse code. Radioteletype also uses FSK.
 Fourier Synthesis of Periodic Waveforms

• According to the important theorem formulated by the French

mathematician Jean Baptiste Joseph Baron Fourier, any periodic function,
no matter how trivial or complex, can be expressed in terms of converging
series of combinations of sines and/or cosines, known as Fourier series.
Therefore, any periodic signal is a sum of discrete sinusoidal components
• The Fourier theorem is fairly general and also applies to periodic functions
that have discontinuities and cannot be represented by a single analytical
expression. For a periodic function f(x), provided that the following
conditions are satisfied :
• (a) f(x) is defined and single-valued except (perhaps) at a finite number in
(-T, T),
• (b) f(x) is periodic outside (-T, T) with period 2T,
• (c) f(x) and f΄(x) are piecewise continuous in (-T, T), then f(x) can be
expressed by the
Although the calculation of a0, a1, b1, a2, b2, … is a mathematically
straightforward process, it may become rather tedious depending on the
complexity and the discontinuities of f(x). The Fourier theorem is particularly
useful in scientific instrumentation, where f(x) functions may represent actual
periodic signals f(t). Some simple examples of Fourier series are those of
square, triangular and sawtooth waveforms:
Square waveform
 Sampling (signal processing)

• In signal processing, sampling is the reduction

of a continuous signal to a discrete signal. A
common example is the conversion of a sound
wave (a continuous signal) to a sequence of
samples (a discrete-time signal).
• A sample is a value or set of values at a point
in time and/or space.
• A sampler is a subsystem or operation that
extracts samples from a continuous signal.
Signal sampling representation. The continuous signal is
represented with a green colored line while the discrete
samples are indicated by the blue vertical lines
 ANALOG TO DIGITAL SIGNAL CONVERSION (ADC)

PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM)

Pulse-code modulation (PCM) is a method used to digitally represent

sampled analog signals. It is the standard form of digital audio in
computers, Compact Discs, digital telephony and other digital audio
applications. In a PCM stream, the amplitude of the analog signal is
sampled regularly at uniform intervals, and each sample is quantized to
the nearest value within a range of digital steps.
 pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)

• Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) is the

transmission of data by varying the amplitude
s ( voltage or power levels) of the individual
pulses in a regularly timed sequence of
electrical or electromagnetic pulses. The
number of possible pulse amplitudes can be
infinite (in the case of analog PAM).