144 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY AND BIOCHEMISTRY NOTES soe coe ee ces met ak oe carnal tema SEs estan Woon oi po accra orca hence team he sn ag. Seung rar ah pate Sree amt ny ec) ra that consist organic togens), their number is much '§ due tothe unique versatity 1. head-to-head overtay formation. by ato orbtas (6, p, andor nyc eas, sp, sp aed sp) ce 2. akde-to-side overtap - leading to (1) tond formation by and d orbitals only 1p — leading to sigma (0) bond Knowledge ofthe orbitals used in bond formation is needed to ‘ently the types of bonds formed and the cation of ne pais of electrons (any). (CHARACTERISTICS OF A COVALENT BOND 1, Polarity ~ results when two atoms of diferent electronegatives (249 form a covalent bond such thatthe electrons are not equally ‘Shared between them eg H - Goo Hea ue — +a dipole moment results from the partial positivity and pari negativity of a polar covalent bond molecule with no net dipole moment is a nonpolar molecule; ‘2 molecule with ant dipole moment @ polar molecule eg. C-F > C-C > C-B > C-1 alts ato suc thing 25 bond poaty (even the to atoms held by the bond are the same) due to the difference in byeitaton between eto atoms suey 95 the, Sp ad 92-5 hybrid orbitals resulting to. electron-withdrawing property ‘due tothe greater s- character of one ofthe atoms. (€9. H-C=C-CH, > CH) CH ~ CH > CHa CH: ~ Or 2. Band Length — the average distance separating the nucel of bonded atoms bond length decreases with decreasing atomic radlus/size: Car > c-C > C= ~ bond length decreases with increasing polarities: C-c > C-N > C-0. > C-F ‘bond length decreases with Increasing s character of the hybrid orbitals: HCHe-CH-CHy > H-CHCHCHs > H-CoC-CHy : ‘bond length decreases with increasing n bond electron density: HiC-CHy > HaC= CH; > HC * CH 3. Bond Energy/'Strength - the energy needed to dsrupt a ‘valent bond (in 1/ mol) ~ Bond suengt Increases wih increasing poy: | Cor sca) is Goh Ce ~ bond strength increases wit increasing s character ofthe tbr ora > api sp > sp?—spt > sp- spt > Sp-Sp? Scat all aiibccala ns cman deny: Cac ee | ect 198 kcal 163 kcal ‘sBhcat STRUCTURAL EFFECTS ~ show how electrons are distibuted in ‘organic molecules and how they affect the physical and chemkal Properties of the mokule 1. mvelectron delocalization or resonance this concept generally applies to conjugated systems and & used to explain strengthening and shortening of bonds, ‘huceophitcty/electrophitty of ste, and thermodynamic stably 2. inductive effects results in the distortion of electron distribution due to the c’ffec trough sigma bond/s by strong electron-donating (EDG) or electron- withdrawing (EWG) atoms/ group of atoms ~ strong EOG which release electrons by resonance effect include: “NM, “NHR and -NRo ‘moderate EDG whose nonbonding electron pals are less free Include: -NE(C=O)R, -NR(C=O)R, -OH and -OR - other EDG which release electrons by hyperconjugatve effect ‘elude: “CH, CHR, CHR, CR) and -Cats (the phenyl ring) = in organic compounds, EDG makes the electron pait more ‘avaliable, leading to ENHANCED BASICITY ~ strong EWG are due to electronegative atoms/ group of atoms: INO», -Ok (where X= F, CL Br, 1). + Moderate EWG include: “C=N, -(C=0}0H, (C=0)0R, “{C=O)h, -(C=O)R, -SO3H weak EWG include the hakdes: -F,-Cl,-Br,-1 in organic compounds, WG enhance both the positivity of H {and the dispersal ofthe negative charge (upon. removal of the protonic H atom) stabilizing the conjugate base thus leading to ENHANCED ACIDITY 3. Sterle effects, = the presence of bulky substituents may result inthe crowding of other substituents or atoms that may lead to weakening of bonds leading to acceleration of bond cleavage steric effect near an acdc group favers the removal of protons regardless of whether the groups present are EDG or EWG (ie. ENHANCED ACIDITY) srk effect near the lone par of electrons makes them less ‘accessible or avaliable for donation, thus DECREASING BASICITY 41 Intra: and Intermolecular Forces of Attraction (IMF) boing and meting substances oh supine casting between spats “onthe ter tard, dsoliton invctves breaking of IMF between smiar molsles AND forming of fs betwen dls mec (okie and sohven) =e beling point (1) ofan oan cmpoun afte by sever factors: 3 Te nreaces wih creasing moteur ze (duet ger suace oes) Ta nrease ih decrease ranching (ranching decreases molec sac area) €.Tulereats wit erating poary of te eels (ston dpe dipole Ir 4. Teinreases wth deresing molecular sy Ts creases wi ess inramoter Soe {Oi mn we avery the sy ofan organ compound m wate feted ‘several factors: ae . td ” 2. Rinceases with decreasing carton chan . it increases with trenching” chan lent €. increases wth ness capacty to frm Inmermotecular H-bonding pa LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB - NMAT REVIEWERee or a scent ne enc sro a iret eee Taken nie compounds may be cssifed into aliphatic and aromatic commence ou ompounes 1. ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONS [KALKANES and CYCLOALKANES- contains on bonds besides the C-H bonds WCC single TDPAC NAME: (substRveNs) + rock + -ane Unear: also c aS metioss represented as Cicely ethane — CicrO Propane —_ ORCAS butane —— UCHCHCH: CH pentane a CHOLCROLCEOH, hexane ee Physical Properties: ‘Alkanes are nonpolar molecules. The C-H bond can be considered a nonpolar bond due to the almost equal EN of H and {2.1 and 2.5 respectively). Alkanes are in the liquid state due to van der Waals attractive forces. Branching decreases the surface area of alkanes and results to lesser van der Waals interaction and ‘tus lowers the leading to lower boling point. ‘Alkanes because of thelr weak intermolecular forces (IMF) can ‘only be dissolved by similar nonpolar solvents with weak IMF of atvactn. They are thus insoluble in water which possess strong IMF of atraction between them molecules. Chemical Properties. ‘Alkanes do not react with bases nor with acids because it has no atom attached to an EN atom ike oxygen and does not have an electron pair for donation. But it can easily catch fire, by the ‘Combustion reaction process: Ch + 20; + CO) #20 ‘This involves the rupture of C-H bonds by homolysis to form free ‘dials, Halogenation is another similar process to give ‘onchalogenated products: oe a, ca + HO The order of reacts is: tertiary (3°) > Secondary (2°) > primary (1°) > methane CH H 7 ie 1 1 I HsC-CH HsC-C-H BCH ea 1 1 H oh CH H 'B. ALKENES — contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond [Physica Properties: Aliepes are relatively nonpolar molecules, However, in he Desence of ay substituents Ike the methyl OUP WER S 2 aroup, the bond electrons ae igh {feting a sight polarization. Electronegative atoms ke he ‘so affect the dipole moment, this time by wi hom the n-bond. ikeres or rer dipole ren meyer ame wah oe Gusture with zero dipole moment reflects its nner 5 {wre beter and tighter packing n the soll Y= ‘Raster wth more efficent IMF. Alkenes 27© Tonpolarsobvents and insoluble in polar soNeNtS- 145, ‘Chemical Properties The reactions of alkenes are mainly centered on the n bond which a site of high electron densty. They can therefore be Considered 3s nucleophiles (seeking @ positively-charged center, symbolized as Nu) and the attacking reagents as eectropiies (seeking a negatively-charged center, symbolzed as E"). One of the ‘most common reactions of alkenes 1s eatalytic hydrogenation Paee CH=CH + H+ CCHS Electrophilic addition on alkenes is governed by Markovnikov’'s ‘rule, which says that the hydrogen of an attacking €° will add 0 the alkene carbon containing the greater number of H substituents, ALKYNES ~ contain atleast one carbon-carbon triple bond TUPAC NAME: (substituents) + root + -yne Linear: also represented as HC=CH ethyne = HC=C-CH, Propyne Ye HC-CCH:CHs —I-butyne. 222 TERMINAL HaCGC-CHy —2-butyne | —“S=-—~ INTERNAL Physical Properties: ‘Allynes have similar boiling and meting points to those of Corresponding alkenes. They are soluble in nonpolar solvents but more Soluble in water than alkenes or alkanes. ‘Chemical Properties Allynes are reduced (le. lower bond order) via the folowing reactions. Terminal alkynes are also characterized by acidity of the H atom. TI. AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS ‘Aromatic hydrocarbons are cycle conjugated hydrocarbons which ‘are special stablized and react by substitution instead of addition, According to Miickel’s Rule, a compound is aromatic if satisfies all of the following: (1) it is planar, (2) fully conjugated, (3) ‘monocycic and (4) has (4n+2) electrons where n = 0, 1,2, 3, ext, ‘Application of this rule to reveals that the following are examples of aromatic compounds: : ao O A Ne, benzene —_cyclopropenyl cyclopentadienyl —tropylium oe oe ee TUPAC name: Common names of frequently occurring parent compounds such as benzene ae also consiered IUPAC names, For movoautatoney benzene derivatives: (substituent) + benzene. For disubstituted benzene derivatives: positions of substituents relative to parent functional group are indicated by numbers. When the benzene ring 's @ substituent instead, the prefoc phenyl is used to Indicate It presence. for commen names, the postions of substuents relative to the parent functional group are nceated by the pees ote, (ohne a eee atoms on the ring, meta- (m-) for groups Separated by one C stom and pare (ofr groupe arn directly opposite each other, eee ca Physical Properties: Benzene is not as polar as the alkenes, and '5 soluble in relatively nonpolar to moderately polar solvents hexane, eter, chloroform and ety acca,” POR FARNEAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWER 1ee nan Sporn a +c The orientation of futher substitution reactions of subst benzene derhatives are also affected by the groups alent > attached to the phenyl ring. All EDG from wecp ‘eactWating halides are meta- directors. Th withdraw by inductive effect can also denot resonance effect and are thus ortho- and halides though they te electrons by para- directors TIL ALKYL HALIDES — halogenated derwvatives of alkanes with the general formula GaHin:X. Alkyl halides are usualy prepored by halogenations of alkanes, alkenes or alkynes. a Ta nmap on ser 9c x i at es oe Hee a hon po ar rey inact otra coe R-I > R-Br > HO > R-Cl > R-F aii ae ve Stas 9 Sa aa oh wb uta eh er, a are a R-F as are Ta MET cner endo mci sen HX i ~C-C- 4+ iat IV. ALCOHOLS and PHENOLS - hydrocarbon compounds with at least one of its hydrogens replaced by a hydroxyl group, and phenyl art peer home Ieee nate) tS anes este Primary (1°): CHsCH;CH.CH.OH -H~OH b+ 8 Be ——> >C=C< + HB: +X {butanol (or n-butyl alcohol) 2-butanol (or 2-buty! alcohol) 3-methyl-, ‘4-pentadiol Tertary (3°): OH “Ye 3,4-dimethy+-3-hexanol OH ay an 2-ethyl-3-methyl-1-penten-3-o1 146 Physical Properties: Alcohols have relatvely higher boting points than corresponding hhydrocarbons ‘because they are involved in intermolecular H* bonding. Since H-bonding is also possible with water, low- molecular ‘weight akohols (1. with C:OH rato below 5) are soluble in water. ‘Alcohols with more than one hydroxyl group may be involved if intra- and intermolecular H-bonding, Chemical ; Gena, ao re moe ac than terminal ayes bot ss acidic than water, withthe decreasing acty going from 1° to akohos. Phenol’ are much more aciic than alcohols, and even more ack than water because of the large stabilzation of the plhenolate anion. EWG on the ortho- and pare postions especially enhance is acid, ost ofthe reactions of alcohols consist oftheir conversions into ‘aldehydes (witha special reagent called pyridinium chiorochromate, FCO) oF carboxylic acs (from 1° alcohols), or ketones (om 2° acohols) with exdzing agents such a= chromic ack! (HsCrO.), MnO. and KC in ae ° r RCHOH ———* RCH aldenydes ° a RCHOH ———*RC-OH carboxylic acids ° u RCHOH ———*RR ketones V. ETHERS - contain two hydrocarbon groups attached to a central ‘oxygen atom, R-O-R" TUPAC NAME: (substituents + -o¥y- + parent chain) Ethers may also be commonly named as alkyl groupt + alkyl ‘group? + ether. Physical Properties: Ethers contain polar C ~ © bonds are therefore more polar than ‘alkanes. Ethers have higher boling_ points than’ corresponding. alkanes and alkenes, but much lower than alcohols dve to Steen Of H-bonding, They are, however, as solible in water as alcohols of the same molecular weight. AS the alkyl groups of the ether Increase In siz, the ether becomes relately more nonpolar, ‘Chemical Properties: ‘The oxygen of ethers has free ele ‘donors of Lewis acis. Protonation of =O bond and result in the partial be @ good site for nudeophilic at readily abstracted by fre radicals. H t10n pairs avallable for proton this oxygen will weaken the C Positivity of the a = C which will tack. The u-H atoms are also Low ~£- 9 wee A VI. AMINES ~ nitrogen-containing organic compounds that can be considered as alkyl or ar! (ali Pe iphatic or aromatic) derivatives of ammonia, NH. Since ammonia contains three hydrogen atoms, there are three dasses of amines, 1° amines, characterized by an -NH Group attached to one ‘aky/ aryl group RINH: 2 amines, characterized by an aby ery! groups 1 co 1 NH group attached to two LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEWERAN: amines, characterized by full substitution ofall atoms ale! ary groups, toms by TUPAC NAME: (Substituents) + root + ‘Amines can also be commonly nam before the name of the parent chain suffix -amine fed by placing the prefix amino Primary: methylamine (also aminomethane) CHINE: cyclohexylamine O . benzylamine OX) naan H Tertiary: HC —N — CH; N,N, N+rimethylamine Ch Hy l €y- N — CH.CCHs Wamethyl-/(2,2-dimethyl) t t butyl-A-phenylamine oy CH:CHa Physical Properties: ‘Amines are moderately polar compounds due to thelr C — N ‘bond. In addition to this, the possibilty of H-bonding (for 1° and 2: ‘amines only) causes amines to have higher boling points than alkanes of simitar molecular weight. They have, however, lower boiling points than corresponding alcohols (stronger H-bonds due to ‘ore EN O atoms). All classes of amines can form H-bonds with ‘water such that all low-molecular weight amines are very soluble in water. ‘Chemical Properties: ‘Amines can act as Lewis bases due to the lone pair on N. However, the tend in basicity depends on the medium. In the ‘aueous phase, 3° < 2° < 1° < NH; because the bulky and nonpolar ‘kyVaryt groups on Substituted amines hinder access to the lone Bair, besides decreasing solvation of the amine. However in the gas phase, the trend is reversed because the alky! groups can now ‘enhance the amine’s basicity by inductive effect (EDG). ‘The te clases of amines can form sats with mineral acs: CHCHNH, + HCL ————> CHsCH.NH:CL whose VIL CARBONYL COMPOUNDS — a family of compounds Hemi! properties are predominated by the reactvty_ of the {Brboryt mevety, a C atom doubly bonded to an O atom. Carvony! ‘are ako characterized by the ackity of the acH (even ‘hough vonded to C) 147 A. ALDEHYDES and KETONES “aldehydes are organic compounds that are characterized by the formula ° 1 R-C-H ketones have the remaining hydrogen substituted with the general formula 0 " R-C-R Physical Properties: Akjehydes and ketones have lower boling points than Corresponding alcohols, since they do not participate in H-bonding With similar molecules. However, they have higher boling points that corresponding ethers and alkanes because of the more polar ‘carbonyl group. Aldehydes and ketones are as soluble as their alcohol counterparts since they can form H-bonds with water. The ‘same solubilty restriction (.e. C:0 ratio should be less than 5) holds. ‘Chemical Properti Most of these compounds’ reactions involve simple nucleophilic <2ckition to the carbony! bond wherein the C—O bond is reduced 19 2 single bond: Aldehydes and ketones also undergo oxidation with KMnOs, HxCrO4 and K:Cr20; into carboxylic acids: ° ° RCH ei. RC-OH . Ovw = Ch . B. CARBOXYLIC ACIDS and DERIVATIVES — organic compounds containing a hydroxyl group attached tos carbonyl C, © i ~C-oH TUPAC NAME: (substuens) + oot + suf “oF + word a ‘The carbonyl assgned as CX of the parent chai, They mi ao be eed wih common names such a Tose cer ae Belt an‘capoc ac (found nants bee a acetic acid. Examples are phenyl acetic acid and timethyt acct LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWER° 7 1 CHC OH C-oH ustations: GCHCOOH ropanoic acid , (also methyl acetic aciay 2,2-dimethyipropanoic acd henylethanoic acid \ong- ROOONA’ | + HO The presence of EWG on the R substituent enhances the acidity of Carbaxyfc acids because of dispersion of electron density and onsequent stabitzation of the COO" group. On the other hand, fubdsttuents on the a-C (a-branched acids) are usually les {han the unbranched ackis since thelr ~ COO’ groups are shelled from solvent molecules and cannot be stabilized by solvat effective SER ante ray coat ee = |. Formation of ESTERS (esterification) reaction with skohols In the presence ofan ai catalyst Wer "aes are LEARNFAST RI 148, ° ° 1 0 RC-OH+ R’-OH = —sRC-oR' + OH 9 " OH roncHon S= boner + one Oo ° a Pas . ~ +CHOH <— sy + OH: tT om l OMe TUPAC NAME: (substituents) + parent chain + suffix -cate ‘The chain to which the carbonyl group belongs is considered as the Brent chain, with the carbonyl Cas Ci, The other group R’ ‘attached to O i considered as the substituent, with the O- linked asci, ethyl ethanoate (also called ethyl acetate) 2-bromo-1,2-cimethylethyl 4-ethyl-3-methyloctanoate Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acid Derivativ Esters, anhydrides and acyl chlorides do not form H-bonds with themselves untke carboxybe acids and alcohols. ‘They, therefore, have lower boting points than carboxylic acids and. sleohots for Comparable molecular weight. Their boiling points are similar to those of akichydes and ketones of corresponding molecular weight, ‘They are soluble in water as long as they have 5 C oF less because of H-bonding for the esters; and because of reaction with water (hydrolysis) leading tothe formation of carboxy acids forthe acyl Chlorides and anhydrides. ‘Amides can form H-bonds with themselves and thus have high boiling points as well as melting points, The MA-dlsunstitntod ‘amides, however, do not form H-bonds with themselves, and therefore have lower boiling and melting points. Amides with § C or less are soluble in water due to formation of H-bonds between solute and solvent, ‘Chemical Properties of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives: ‘The reactons undergone by these familes of compounds are ‘predominantly centered on the partially posite carbonyl carbon being attacked by nucleophiles, ‘The relative reactivities of the carbonyl compounds is in the order VIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEWER° ° ° ° c 1 Hoon 1 i ac-Cl > RC-O-CR’ > RC_oR y RC~ NH most reactive least reactive ‘he relative reactivity depends on wibdrawing effect of a group -X reat ablty of -X a5 a leaving group, and (acne sc and steric effect of the R-group, Nuch a oe csctren pe readily if the incoming group (Nos be leaving group (-X) or if the fina VII. ISOMERS ~ refer to different same condensed chemical formula of atoms) but having diferent arangement the atoms it compounds that have the (Ley same number and identity attachment” and/or spatial ISOMERS, [7 ‘Structural or Stereoisomers Constitutional Isomers ae Chain Functional Optical Positional Conformational ‘Geometric A. Constitutional/Structural — differ in the actual bonding arrangement of atoms 1. Chain ~ differ in the attachment of alkyl groups and is exhibited by alkanes. e.g. the condensed formula CM may actually be a linear or branched alkane o We 9 CH 4 2. Positional ~ differ in the position of substituents and/or mult bonds e.g. the condensed structural formula CeHix may be any of the folowing oh Cy ' I HC-C-CH:CH OfiCHa -C- hcs ' CHICHCH:CH.CHs Hy H 2,2-dimethylbutane 3-methylpentane CHa 1 HiC - C- CHAH:CHs 1 H 2-methyipentane & Stereoisomers - same bonding of atoms that only differ In (her spatial aistrbution ' so Cenfermatonas — comecet_ by single Oy rats. tor rove compounds te brane, OH, iy tooking through the bond hokiing ‘ms (a bold): 4 4 CHa 7 H H 9. for cycic compounds like cyclohexane, Cet, AK chair boat half-chair 2. Geometric - requires the presence of structural rigidity as in ‘double bonds and planar cyclic structures e.g in alkenes, Hic, CH Hic, x ~ a 7 ie =¢ =c a a H H H CH is-2-butene trans-2-outene H H 4 & er F Br H cs-1-bromo- trans-t-bromo- 2-fluorocyclobutane: 2-fluorocyclobutane 3. Optical “requires the presence of a chiral C atom andor the absence of a plane of symmetry 2 chiral Cis one which has four different groups attached to it « the dextrorotatory (or 0) isomer rotates plane-poterzed tight to the right = the levorotatory (or 4) isomer rotates plane: polarized fight to the ret = most compounds with of racemic mbcures ~ (Le. with equal amounts of D-and £- forms) Ptcal activity are usually obtained as 4 W i i Ch c AY dae AEN é | a a miror brociessray 1. Carbohydrates are potydraxy akienydes and ketones (called aldose and ketose) or, compounds yielding these substances upon hydrovsis; they Include sugars, starches and cellulose, LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEWER2. Carbohydrates can be monosaccharides, (containing one suger unt) or polysaccharides (containing two or more unite), thors eniaining to units are often caled disaccharides, "'S) MS. + MS, + energy = ———_+. ps, (Cehydration synthesis involving removal of water) hydrolysis os. ———> ws.em, Lactose. ——> glucose + galactose Maltese. ——® 2 glucose suxr0se ——t glucose (CeHi:Os) + fructose (CeHin0s) S. + energy 3. Glucose Is one of the most common monosaccharides; itis ‘the sugar found in the blood and hence is often referred to ae blood sugar. (alo known as dextrose oF grape sugar) 4. Sucrose: (table sugar) most common disaccharides; it consists of a glucose unit and a fructose unit. 5. Starch (an important nutrient for man) is polysaccharide made up of many glucose units, ‘2. starch: storage carbohydrate found in plants glycogen: storage carbohydrate of animals C oxulose: insoluble CHO abundant in the tough outer wall of lant ces. In humans, cellulose does not serve as food materials but only serve as a source of roughage 6, Carbohydrates are formed from CO,, 1:0 and chlorophyll, in the presence of sunlight, by the process of photosynthesis, chlorophyfl: sunlight 6 C02 + 6 H:0 ——————> G10 + 6 O2 7. Hydrolysis of a polysaccharide yields the monosaccharides that ‘8 made up of. 8. Carbohydrates undergo fermentation to produce alcohols. ‘and maltose will ferment with yeast but not lactose. 9. Reducing sugars are identified by becoming oxidized by Cu?* (which is reduced and hence blue color disappears) in the FERLING’S and Benedict's tests. Manose and tactose show reducing properties except sucrose. Polysaccharides: (-) tests for reducing sugars. 10, Proteins are the main constituents of living cels. They aro ‘made up of amino acids (acids that contain the amine group as well 5 the carboxy! group) linked through the nitrogen atom to form very large molecules with molecular weights as high as 50 millon, 11, Al the amino acids that have been ‘sated from proteins are alpha amino acids and hence have the general formula however, they can atso have another r i k= Gi — Cott; -Nth or -COOH as part of the R group. ‘Aso, the R group can contain an -OH group S atoms, and It can be ‘aliphatic or aromatic. 12, The essential amino acids are those required by man but ‘Gnnot be synthesized by the body. 13. The amino acids in a protein are joined together through the frogen atom on ene amino acid and te carboxy! group on ‘nother, to form a peptide linkage. Hence proteins are Sometimes called polypeptides. _ 34. The tand 1 of amino acids in a protein determine: siete enstie Sis ‘thin the molecule determines the secondary structure. rasa cae 150 ‘molecule, and the quaternary structure refers to interaction, between protein molecules. 15, Since proteins contain both an amine group (-NH:, which & bbasie) and the acid or carboxyl (-COOH) also form a type of double ‘on, caled a Zwitterion. The pH value where its neutral is called the isoelectric point. 16. Proteins undergo hydrolysis to yield the amino acids that the protein is composed of; shey can be denatured by heat, acd, ‘base, or alcohol, This breaks the hydrogen bonds and thus changes the structure and reactivity of the protein. 17. Proteins can be simple (only contain amino acids) oF Conjugated protein (contain phosphoric acid, carbohydrates, or ‘nucleic acids). They can be classified according to thelr function as enzymes, hormones, antibodies, structural (in skin, hair and so on), contractile (in skeletal muscies), or blood proteins. 18. Lipids are fatike substances that are esters, acids or alcohols, Fats, oils and waxes a.e example of lipids. 19, Fatty acids are long chain monocarboxylic acids that can be Saturated or unsaturated. 20. Fats and oils are esters of glycerol and fatty acids; all R {groups (from the acids) are the same in a simple glyceride, and they are diferent in a mbxed glyceride. Fats have saturated R Group ‘and of the R_ groups coatain multiple bonds; an oll can be converted to a fat by hydrogenating it to form saturated R groups. 21. The number of double bonds in a fat or oll can be determined by the fodine number, which tals how many grams of iodine will react with 100 grams of fat or ol. The saponification number is, Used to determine the molecular weight of a fat; by measuring the ‘number of miligrams of KOH that wil react with one gram of fa, to form a soap (an alkali metal sat of a fatty ack). 22, Waxes are esters of high molecular weight monohydreary alconok. 23, Simple lipids are esters of fatty acids; compound lipids. Contain other groups (such as phosphoric acid, carbohydrates, and nitrogen compounds) along with the acid and alcohol; derived lipids are obtained by the hydrolysis of simple or compound pis = for example, fatty acids and sterols (high molecular weight cyclic alcohols ~ such as cholesterol) are derived lipids, 24 Most enaymes are poets and wilder a the rescons of prot, Te eneynes Inthe body funcion Des abou AO, Tempeatures above ot tow body temperature wil dace he Det of eres Coch eaymes has 3 certain pla ahiek finton best hn Increase in the amount of enzyme will increase the ‘ate of reaction. An increase tn the athount of sobeeees oat Increase the rate of reactions Compounds that lherene the acvty of an enzyme are coed activators. Compounds. Yat itetere wit the’ aes Sod ereyme are aed Inhibitors nome cna on acne ste” tat bags wo the state w form an eneyne subsoate complex. Tas ‘compan ene products and regenerates the enzyme. gal a Hany enzyes cota two pars 3 prota and a non part. The protein part of an enzyme is called the tien Some enaymes rege the presence off abso ted a coenzyme telore they ean oc eecvey, Costaynes heey Contain the B vans or compounds derwea tom be wena Under the ole eystem of naming enzymes be beste as sek mentioned, the newer system indeates the suberse bees under this fstem end nase, LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWER0 sustates), hydrolases when catayze hyde, wars) vases (WNC catalyre He removal of groups ten es by. means other than nydrohsey the imerconverson of a tar {fash catalyze the coupling of two con hate bonds). some hydrobtlc enzymes are found in the jysosomes The crop ako ‘contains mane: “te Soatual ‘and functional units contain most a the ogee tyne and are deepy volved inthe elecvon taeeos eee daataton reaction. The mitochondia asa produce he yee bet source of energy. Aomal plasma enzyme concentrations aie of cial sgpfcance Inthe diagnosis of certain ceases "snymes are enzymes with the same function but sight reer structural features. Abosterc enzymes are key metabolic enzymes whose activity can bechanged by molecules other than the substrate, my “ymagens are the precursors of enzymes, 25, Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts for the bio-chemical ‘mactons take place in the body. There is a specific one for each ‘exdton, Without these, the biochemical reaction will not take place fast enough to sustain ie, 2%, The main constituent of genes and viruses in the body are twdeorproteins, which consist of proteins and nucleic acis. These are two classes of nucleic ackis ~ ribonucleic acids, RNA and deoxyribonucleic acids, DNA. These are responsibie for the (gaelic code; transfer RNA’s (tRNA) select specific amino acids frm a cel and transfer them to messenger RNA'S (MRNA), which ‘arsmit the genetic code from the DNA in protein synthesis, 2. Food taken into the body first undergoes digestion. which ‘weaks up the complex molecules into simple ones, and then metabolism, in which the digested food undergoes chemical ‘Ganges in the tissues. There are two types of metabolism ~ @tabolism produces energy from the nutrients and anabolism fiber stores the nutrients or produces protelns and other ‘ubstances from them, 28. Carbohydrates, which usually consumed as starches, are one of te main sources of energy Inthe body. By a stes of Processes are converted to glucose and either used to produce energy (rforming carbon dioxide and water, plus energy, in the Krebs or ‘cid cycle) or stored for later use. ‘3. .n the metabolism of proteins, they are hydrolyzed to amino So mouaseoe woes S.thmonia, carbon ciowide and water with the production of ‘Bey. The ammonia, which is toxic, is removed by converting, Fe SRL te Iver. In adults there i @ nitrogen balance between the ‘ROunt taken in and amount excreted; however in children "atthe case since some is used in tissue bulking 22 Fats and ois are exzed to produce energy in the body, being {Be der sours than carbonates Fats can abo be sored {Ee body; these not only serve as a source of reserve “Sausion te boy organs. _ Te food ytes, proteins, fats, we eat consists of carbohydrates, = (Brea, water, and vitamins (compounds that are essential 0 2 but cannot be synthesized by te organism) ZR Mutients can be cassined as according to the folowing tions, > LEARNFAST REVI 151 * proteins, calcium, and phosphorus are used elements such’ as sodium, potassium, _chorine, ‘magnesium, sulfur and iron are necessary, along with traces of copper, cobalt, iodine, zinc, molybdenum, and Auorne 3. Drugs fall into two categories: pharmacodynamic agents, which alter body functions by acting on the nervous system and Chemotherapeutic agents, which destroy organtsms that are harmful to the body, ‘Additional Notes in Proteins CCoboidal Nature: Proteins form colloidal dispersions with wat Being ‘collotal, protein wil pass thru iter paper but not membrane. Proteins present in the bloodstream ‘cannot pass through the capilares and should remain In the blood. Since Proteins cannot pass through membranes, there should be no Protein material present in the urine. The présence of protein in the Urine indicates damage to the membranes in the kidneys-possibly nephritis. Denaturation of a protein refers to the unfolding and rearrangement Of the secondary and terbary structures of a protein without breaking the peptide bonds. A protein that is denatured loses It Diologc activity. Reversible denaturation accurs when the conditions for denaturation are mild, the protein can be restored to the original conformation by carefuly reversing the conditions that caused their ‘denaturation. ‘Reagents that cause denaturation 1. Alcohol coagulates (precipitates) all types of proteins except prolamines. 70% alcohol i used as disinfectant because its ability to coagulate the protein present in bacteria. Alcohol denatures proteins by forming H-bonds that complete with the naturally ‘curing H-bonds in the protein, 2, Saks of heavy metals such as mercuric chioride or siver nitrate, precipitate proteins. The antidote for mercuric chiore when these poisons are taken itemaly is egg white, The heavy metal will react ‘withthe egg white and precipitate out. (The egg whit colOKd has a charge opposite to that of the heavy metal ion and so attracts i), ‘The precipitate thus formed must be removed from the stomach by, ‘an emetic or the stomach wil, digest the egg white and return the: Poisonous material to the system, 3, Heat. Gentle heating causes reversible denaturation of protein, ‘whereas vigorous heating. causes iteversibie denaturation by - NH RNH Amine -amine amino- Ethylamine. CHs-0-CH2-CHs ROR Ether “Y ~ ylether = Ethylmethyl ether 7 (CHs-CH=CH2 C=C Alkene ene Propene ZN ‘CH CHECH -C=C- Alkyne -yne Propyne : = (CH>-CHs-NOz NO; Nitro Nitroethane fluoro-, chloro, CH-CH.Br RX Halide bromo-, iodo- Bromoethane CH | 1 | R Radical ye CHs-CH-CHs | Methylpropane LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWER 153