What is Prolog?

 Prolog stands for Programming in logic. It is used in artificial

intelligence programming.
 Prolog is a declarative programming language. 
For example: While implementing the solution for a given problem, instead of
specifying the ways to achieve a certain goal in a specific situation, user needs
to specify about the situation (rules and facts) and the goal (query). After
these stages, Prolog interpreter derives the solution.
 Prolog is useful in AI, NLP, databases but useless in other areas such as
graphics or numerical algorithms.
Prolog facts
 A fact is something that seems to be true.
For example: It's raining.
 In Prolog, facts are used to form the statements. Facts consist of a
specific item or relation between two or more items.
How to convert English to prolog facts using facts and rules?
It is very simple to convert English sentence into Prolog facts. Some examples
are explained in the following table.

English Statements Prolog Facts

Dog is barking barking(dog)

Jaya likes food if it is delicious. likes( Jaya, Food):-delicious(Food)

In the above table, the statement 'Dog is barking' is a fact, while the

statement 'Jaya likes food if it is delicious' is called rule. In this statement,
variable like 'Food' has a first letter in capital, because its value came from
previous fact. The symbol ':-' is used to denote that “Jaya likes delicious food”.

Arithmetic Operations in Prolog

 Prolog provides the facility for arithmetic operations.
 As per the requirement of the user, arithmetic operations can be divided
into some special purpose integer predicates and a series of general predicates
for integer, floating point and rational arithmetic.
 The general arithmetic predicates are handled by the expressions.
 An expression is either a function or a simple number.
 Prolog arithmetic is slightly different than other programming languages.
For example:
?- X is  2 + 1.
X=3?
yes
In the above example, 'is' is used as a special predefined operator. 

The basic arithmetic operators are given in the following table:

Sr. No Operator Explanation

1 X+Y The sum of 'X' and 'Y'

2 X-Y the difference of 'X' and 'Y'

3 X*Y The product of 'X' and 'Y'

4 X/Y The quotient of 'X' and 'Y'

5 X^Y 'X' to the power of 'Y'

6 -X Negation of 'X'

7 abs(X) Absolute value of 'X'

8 sqrt(X) The square root of X

9 sin(X) The sine of X

10 cos(X) The cos of X

Operator precedence
 If there is more than one operator in the arithmetic expression such as A-
B*C+D, then the prolog decides an order in which the operator should be
applied.
 Prolog gives numerical value for each operator, operators with high
precedence like '*' and '/' are applied before operators with relatively low
precedence values like '+' and '-'.
 Operator with same precedence value ('*' or '/') and ('+' or '-') should be
applied from left to right.
 So, the expression A-B*C+D can be written as A-(B*C)+D
Matching and Unification in Prolog
Definition: The two terms are said to be matched, if they are equal or if they
consist of variables representing the resulting equal terms.
Prolog matches expressions in structural way. So,
?- 3 + 2= 5
no
Note: In prolog '=' means matches with.

Consider the following example,?- X + 3 =  2 * Y

But the following expressions will match because they have same structure.

Expression 1:
?- X + Y = 2 + 3 
X=2
Y=3

Expression 2:
?- 2 + Y = X + 3
X=2
Y=3

Prolog Lists:
 Lists are the finite sequence of elements.
 Prolog uses […] to build a list.
 The notation [X|Y] represents that the first element is X and second
element is Y (X is head and Y is tail).
 Prolog has some special notation for lists:
I) [a]          [honda, maruti, renault]
ii) [a,b,c)    [pen, pencil, notebook]
iii) []  represents the empty list.
Example 1: Pattern Matching in Lists
?- [a,b] = [a,X]
X=b
but:
?- [a,b] = [X]
no

Example 2: 
Consider the following lists:
[a, b, c, d, e, f, g]
[apple, pear, bananas, breadfruit]
[ ] this is an empty list
Now, consider some comparisons of lists: 
[a,b,c] matches with [Head|Tail] resulting in Head=a and Tail=[b,c] 
[a] matches with [H|T] resulting in H=a and T=[] 
[a,b,c] matches with [a|T] resulting in T=[b,c] 
[a,b,c] doesn't match with [b|T] 
[] doesn't match with [H|T] 
[] match with []. Hence, two empty lists get matched with each other.

Backtracking in Prolog

What is backtracking?
If a person reaches a point where a goal cannot be matched, so he can come
back (backtrack) to the last spot, where the choice of matching a specific fact or
rule was formed. If this process fails, a person again goes to the nearest
previous place where a choice was made. So, this procedure is followed until the
goal is achieved.
 Example: 
Consider the following facts,
bird(type (sparrow) name (steve)))
bird(type (penguin) name (sweety)))
bird(type (penguin)name (jones)))

consider the following query:

?- bird(type (penguin)name(X)

So, prolog will try to match the first query, but this query will not match
because sparrow doesn't match with penguin. Then, it will try to find next
query  to match the fact and succeed with X = sweety. Later, if the query or
subgoals are failed, it will go to the saved option and look for more solutions.
For example: X = jones

Genetic Learning
Genetic algorithms are the parts of evolutionary computing and are
implemented as a computer simulation.

What is biological evolution?

 Every organism has a set of rules which describes, how that organism is
built, and encoded in the genes of an organism.
 The chromosomes contain hundreds to thousands of genes.
 Features of the organisms depend on the genes and they have several
settings. For example: hair color gene may be brown or black.
 The genes and their settings are referred to as a genotype of an
organism.
 When two organisms mate, they share their genes, so that the offspring
gets half genes from one parent and half genes from the other parent. Hence,
this process is called crossover.
 It is possible that gene is mutated in the organism as a completely new
feature.
 The genetic algorithm follows the process of nature to solve the problems
such as selection, crossover, mutation, and acceptance for evolution.
Following are the steps of genetic algorithm:

Step 1: Generate random population of 'n' chromosomes.

Step 2: Evaluate the fitness f(x) of each chromosome 'x' present in the
population.  
Step 3: Follow these steps to create a new population:
        a) Selection: From population, select two parents fitness according to
their fitness.
        b) Crossover: Perform crossover using  properties of crossover to form a
new offspring. 
        c) Mutation: Mutate the offspring at each position in chromosome.
        d) Accept: Place a new offspring in the new population.
Step 4: Replace: Use new generated population to run an algorithm.
Step 5: Test and Stop, if end condition is satisfied and return the best solution
in the current population.
Step 6: Go to step 2.
Prolog examples
From the webpage download example1.pl
All statements end with a fullstop and if there are more than one answer to a question and the system is
waiting for answer enter ; to get next results, when there is no more the system will say No.
Facts are put into a database in the form of Predicates for example likes(john,meg).  means john likes
meg. You do need to include the fullstop at the end.
 
We can create rules in the form the conclusions IF premises is true using :-  someone likes wine if that
some is a friend of Graham which in Prolog will be written as
Like(X,wine) :-friend(X, Graham).

Example code

%example taken from pg 90 Callan (2005)

likes(john,mary). % john likes mary

likes(john,meg). %john likes meg
likes(david,mary). %david likes mary
likes(mary,david). %mary like david
likes(mary,X):- likes(X,mary).
loves(mary,Y):- likes(Y,mary),likes(mary,Y).

.
Task 1
 Open SWI-Prolog and Load example1.pl or open SWI-Prolog--> new -->type in the code under
Example code above.
 FileConsultexample1.pl
 Press return.
Task 2.
Try the following questions:-
 likes(john,X).
 likes(X,mary).
 
Task 3.
Add this rule
likes(mary,Y): -   likes(Y,mary).
 
Task 4
Create a new Prolog program using Filenew (put in your area).
%example taken from pg 90 Callan (2005)
 
 
likes(john,mary). % john likes mary
likes(john,meg). %john likes meg
likes(david,mary). %david likes mary
likes(mary,david). %mary like david
 
likes(mary,X):- likes(X,mary).
loves(mary,Y):- likes(Y,mary),likes(mary,X).
 
Task 5
Create a new Prolog program using Filenew (put in your area). Enter the program below. This is an
example of how Prolog can be used for networking applications.  The application below finds a path
from one node to another, by following the ‘edges’ between the nodes.

edge(1, 2).
edge(1, 3).
edge(2, 3).
 edge(2, 4).
edge(3, 4).
Edge(4, 5).
 
path(Start, End):- edge(Start, End),write(Start),write(End).
path(Start, End):- write(Start),edge(Start, Temp), path(Temp, End).
5.1 In Prolog click on Consult to test this system:
i) path(1, 5). Test if there is a path from node 1 to node 5. Prints out the path and puts yes if there is a
path.
ii) Add some nodes and try to find paths through the network.
 
Task 5
Create a new Prolog program using Filenew (put in your area). Enter the program below.
mother(sarah, jane).%sarah is the mother of jane
father(tom, jane).
mother(victoria, sarah).
father(henry, sarah).
mother(victoria, ben).
descendant(X,Y):- parent(Y,X).
descendant(X,Y):- parent(Y,Z), parent(Z,X).
parent(X,Y):- father(X,Y).
parent(X,Y):- mother(X,Y).
brother(X,Y):- mother(Z,X),mother(Z,Y).
6.1 Find if jane is a descendant of Victoria.
 
The following are for if you want a little more of a challenge (ok, a lot more of a challenge).
6.2 Make sarah the mother of someone, and then test who that person is a descendant of.  You might
need to write the descendant rules to cope with this.
6.3 Create a rule that defines a father can be define if they 

What is Prolog?

 Prolog stands for Programming in logic. It is used in artificial

intelligence programming.
 Prolog is a declarative programming language. 
For example: While implementing the solution for a given problem, instead of
specifying the ways to achieve a certain goal in a specific situation, user needs
to specify about the situation (rules and facts) and the goal (query). After
these stages, Prolog interpreter derives the solution.
 Prolog is useful in AI, NLP, databases but useless in other areas such as
graphics or numerical algorithms.
Prolog facts
 A fact is something that seems to be true.
For example: It's raining.
 In Prolog, facts are used to form the statements. Facts consist of a
specific item or relation between two or more items.
How to convert English to prolog facts using facts and rules?
It is very simple to convert English sentence into Prolog facts. Some examples
are explained in the following table.

English Statements Prolog Facts

Dog is barking barking(dog)

Jaya likes food if it is delicious. likes( Jaya, Food):-delicious(Food)

In the above table, the statement 'Dog is barking' is a fact, while the

statement 'Jaya likes food if it is delicious' is called rule. In this statement,
variable like 'Food' has a first letter in capital, because its value came from
previous fact. The symbol ':-' is used to denote that “Jaya likes delicious food”.

Arithmetic Operations in Prolog

 Prolog provides the facility for arithmetic operations.
 As per the requirement of the user, arithmetic operations can be divided
into some special purpose integer predicates and a series of general predicates
for integer, floating point and rational arithmetic.
 The general arithmetic predicates are handled by the expressions.
 An expression is either a function or a simple number.
 Prolog arithmetic is slightly different than other programming languages.
For example:
?- X is  2 + 1.
X=3?
yes
In the above example, 'is' is used as a special predefined operator. 

The basic arithmetic operators are given in the following table:

 Sr. No Operator Explanation

1 X+Y The sum of 'X' and 'Y'

2 X-Y the difference of 'X' and 'Y'

3 X*Y The product of 'X' and 'Y'

4 X/Y The quotient of 'X' and 'Y'

5 X^Y 'X' to the power of 'Y'

6 -X Negation of 'X'

7 abs(X) Absolute value of 'X'

8 sqrt(X) The square root of X

9 sin(X) The sine of X

10 cos(X) The cos of X

Operator precedence
 If there is more than one operator in the arithmetic expression such as A-
B*C+D, then the prolog decides an order in which the operator should be
applied.
 Prolog gives numerical value for each operator, operators with high
precedence like '*' and '/' are applied before operators with relatively low
precedence values like '+' and '-'.
 Operator with same precedence value ('*' or '/') and ('+' or '-') should be
applied from left to right.
 So, the expression A-B*C+D can be written as A-(B*C)+D
Matching and Unification in Prolog
Definition: The two terms are said to be matched, if they are equal or if they
consist of variables representing the resulting equal terms.
Prolog matches expressions in structural way. So,
?- 3 + 2= 5
no
Note: In prolog '=' means matches with.

Consider the following example,?- X + 3 =  2 * Y

 But the following expressions will match because they have same structure.

Expression 1:
?- X + Y = 2 + 3 
X=2
Y=3

Expression 2:
?- 2 + Y = X + 3
X=2
Y=3

Prolog Lists:
 Lists are the finite sequence of elements.
 Prolog uses […] to build a list.
 The notation [X|Y] represents that the first element is X and second
element is Y (X is head and Y is tail).
 Prolog has some special notation for lists:
I) [a]          [honda, maruti, renault]
ii) [a,b,c)    [pen, pencil, notebook]
iii) []  represents the empty list.
Example 1: Pattern Matching in Lists
?- [a,b] = [a,X]
X=b
but:
?- [a,b] = [X]
no

Example 2: 
Consider the following lists:
[a, b, c, d, e, f, g]
[apple, pear, bananas, breadfruit]
[ ] this is an empty list
Now, consider some comparisons of lists: 
[a,b,c] matches with [Head|Tail] resulting in Head=a and Tail=[b,c] 
[a] matches with [H|T] resulting in H=a and T=[] 
[a,b,c] matches with [a|T] resulting in T=[b,c] 
[a,b,c] doesn't match with [b|T] 
[] doesn't match with [H|T] 
[] match with []. Hence, two empty lists get matched with each other.

Backtracking in Prolog

What is backtracking?
If a person reaches a point where a goal cannot be matched, so he can come
back (backtrack) to the last spot, where the choice of matching a specific fact or
rule was formed. If this process fails, a person again goes to the nearest
previous place where a choice was made. So, this procedure is followed until the
goal is achieved.

Example: 
Consider the following facts,
bird(type (sparrow) name (steve)))
bird(type (penguin) name (sweety)))
bird(type (penguin)name (jones)))

consider the following query:

?- bird(type (penguin)name(X)

So, prolog will try to match the first query, but this query will not match
because sparrow doesn't match with penguin. Then, it will try to find next
query  to match the fact and succeed with X = sweety. Later, if the query or
subgoals are failed, it will go to the saved option and look for more solutions.
For example: X = jones
 Genetic Learning
Genetic algorithms are the parts of evolutionary computing and are
implemented as a computer simulation.

What is biological evolution?

 Every organism has a set of rules which describes, how that organism is
built, and encoded in the genes of an organism.
 The chromosomes contain hundreds to thousands of genes.
 Features of the organisms depend on the genes and they have several
settings. For example: hair color gene may be brown or black.
 The genes and their settings are referred to as a genotype of an
organism.
 When two organisms mate, they share their genes, so that the offspring
gets half genes from one parent and half genes from the other parent. Hence,
this process is called crossover.
 It is possible that gene is mutated in the organism as a completely new
feature.
 The genetic algorithm follows the process of nature to solve the problems
such as selection, crossover, mutation, and acceptance for evolution.
Following are the steps of genetic algorithm:

Step 1: Generate random population of 'n' chromosomes.

Step 2: Evaluate the fitness f(x) of each chromosome 'x' present in the
population.  
Step 3: Follow these steps to create a new population:
        a) Selection: From population, select two parents fitness according to
their fitness.
        b) Crossover: Perform crossover using  properties of crossover to form a
new offspring. 
        c) Mutation: Mutate the offspring at each position in chromosome.
        d) Accept: Place a new offspring in the new population.
Step 4: Replace: Use new generated population to run an algorithm.
Step 5: Test and Stop, if end condition is satisfied and return the best solution
in the current population.
Step 6: Go to step 2.