Story of Soil

Evolution Number Zero

Edit by Poornima Nadun

Special Thanks for Universe
 Content
Preface

1. Introduction
1.1 Formation of soil
Mechanical Weathering
Chemical Weathering

2. Mechanical Weathering
Frost disintegration
Pressure Release
Hydraulic action
Salt crystal growth
Thermal stress
3. Chemical Weathering
Dissolution and carbonation
Hydration
Hydrolysis of Silicates and Carbonates
Oxidation
4. Soil categorization
Alluvial Soil
Eolian Soil
Colluvicel Soil
4.1 The major components of soil 4.7 Textural Triangle
Mineral How to determine Soil Texture?
Water Sieve Analysis
Organic Matter Methods of sieve analysis
Air Procedure
4.2 Plants nutrients in the soil Data manipulation
Primary Nutrients The Uniform Coefficient(Cu)
Secondary Nutrients
Micro Nutrients 4.8 Soil Profile
4.3 Soil Water 4.9 Soil Structure
Hygroscopic Water 4.10 Soil Aggregate
Gravity Water Mechanism of soil aggregate
Run-off Water 4.11 Soil Tilth
Combined Water 4.12 Tillage
4.4 Wilting Point
4.5 Field Capacity of soil
4.6 Soil Texture
SOIL
Soil is the thin layer of material covering the earth’s surface and is formed from the
weathering of rocks. It is made up mainly of mineral particles, organic materials, air, water and
living organisms all of which interact slowly yet constantly.
Most plants get their nutrients from the soil and they are the main source of food for
humans, animals and birds. Therefore, most living things on land depend on soil for their
existence.
Soil is a valuable resource that needs to be carefully managed as it is easily damaged,
washed or blown away. If we understand soil and manage it properly, we will avoid destroying
one of the essential building blocks of our environment and our food security.

Formation of Soil
Soil formation is a long term process. It takes several million years to form a thin layer of soil.
As soil is a complex mixture of various components, its formation is also more complex. The
Formation of a particular type of soil depends upon the physical-chemical properties of the
parent rock, intensity and duration of weathering, climatic and other parameters.
The force of wind, water or glaciers might have transported the soil to some other place. In
addition to the soil parent material, origin of soil is also dependent upon other prevailing
processes affecting soil formation. Climatic conditions are important factors affecting both the
form and rate of physical and chemical weathering of the parent material. The formation of
soils can be seen as a combination of the products of weathering, of structural development
of the soil, of differentiation of that structure into horizons or layers, and lastly of its movement
or translocation.
Weathering describes the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals on the surface
of the Earth. Water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, and changes in temperature are all
agents of weathering.
Once a rock has been broken down, a process called erosion transports the bits of rock
and mineral away. No rock on Earth is hard enough to resist the forces of weathering and
erosion. Together, these processes carved landmarks such as the Grand Canyon, in the U.S.
state of Arizona. This massive canyon is 446 kilometers (277 miles) long, as much as 29
kilometers (18 miles) wide, and 1,600 meters (1 mile) deep.
Weathering and erosion constantly change the rocky landscape of Earth. Weathering
wears away exposed surfaces over time. The length of exposure often contributes to
how vulnerable a rock is to weathering. Rocks, such as lavas, that are quickly buried beneath
other rocks are less vulnerable to weathering and erosion than rocks that are exposed to
agents such as wind and water.
As it smoothes rough, sharp rock surfaces, weathering is often the first step in the
production of soils. Tiny bits of weathered minerals mix with plants, animal remains, fungi,
bacteria, and other organisms. A single type of weathered rock often produces infertile soil,
while weathered materials from a collection of rocks is richer in mineral diversity and
contributes to more fertile soil. Soils types associated with a mixture of weathered rock
include glacial till, loess, and alluvial sediments.
Weathering is often divided into the processes of mechanical weathering and chemical
weathering. Biological weathering, in which living or once-living organisms contribute to
weathering, can be a part of both processes.
Mechanical Weathering
Mechanical weathering, also called physical weathering and disaggregation, causes rocks
to crumble.
Water, in either liquid or solid form, is often a key agent of mechanical weathering. For
instance, liquid water can seep into cracks and crevices in rock. If temperatures drop low
enough, the water will freeze. When water freezes, it expands. The ice then works as
a wedge. It slowly widens the cracks and splits the rock. When ice melts, liquid water
performs the act of erosion by carrying away the tiny rock fragments lost in the split. This
specific process (the freeze-thaw cycle) is called frost weathering or cryofracturing.
Temperature changes can also contribute to mechanical weathering in a process
called thermal stress. Changes in temperature cause rock to expand (with heat)
and contract (with cold). As this happens over and over again, the structure of the rock
weakens. Over time, it crumbles. Rocky desert landscapes are particularly vulnerable to
thermal stress. The outer layer of desert rocks undergo repeated stress as the temperature
changes from day to night. Eventually, outer layers flake off in thin sheets, a process
called exfoliation.
Exfoliation contributes to the formation of bornhardts, one of the most dramatic features in
landscapes formed by weathering and erosion. Bornhardts are tall, domed, isolated rocks
often found in tropical areas. Sugarloaf Mountain, an iconic landmark in Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, is a bornhardt.
Changes in pressure can also contribute to exfoliation due to weathering. In a process
called unloading, overlying materials are removed. The underlying rocks, released from
overlying pressure, can then expand. As the rock surface expands, it becomes vulnerable to
fracturing in a process called sheeting.
Another type of mechanical weathering occurs when clay or other materials near rock
absorb water. Clay, more porous than rock, can swell with water, weathering the surrounding,
harder rock.
Salt also works to weather rock in a process called haloclasty. Saltwater sometimes gets
into the cracks and pores of rock. If the saltwater evaporates, salt crystals are left behind. As
the crystals grow, they put pressure on the rock, slowly breaking it apart.
Honeycomb weathering is associated with haloclasty. As its name implies, honeycomb
weathering describes rock formations with hundreds or even thousands of pits formed by the
growth of salt crystals. Honeycomb weathering is common in coastal areas, where sea sprays
constantly force rocks to interact with salts.
Haloclasty is not limited to coastal landscapes. Salt upwelling, the geologic process in
which underground salt domes expand, can contribute to weathering of the overlying rock.
Structures in the ancient city of Petra, Jordan, were made unstable and often collapsed due to
salt upwelling from the ground below.
Plants and animals can be agents of mechanical weathering. The seed of a tree may
sprout in soil that has collected in a cracked rock. As the roots grow, they widen the cracks,
eventually breaking the rock into pieces. Over time, trees can break apart even large rocks.
Even small plants, such as mosses, can enlarge tiny cracks as they grow.
Animals that tunnel underground, such as moles and prairie dogs, also work to break apart
rock and soil. Other animals dig and trample rock aboveground, causing rock to slowly
crumble.
Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering changes the molecular structure of rocks and soil.
For instance, carbon dioxide from the air or soil sometimes combines with water in a
process called carbonation. This produces a weak acid, called carbonic acid, that
can dissolve rock. Carbonic acid is especially effective at dissolving limestone. When
carbonic acid seeps through limestone underground, it can open up huge cracks or hollow out
vast networks of caves.
Carlsbad Caverns National Park, in the U.S. state of New Mexico, includes more than 119
limestone caves created by weathering and erosion. The largest is called the Big Room. With
an area of about 33,210 square meters (357,469 square feet), the Big Room is the size of six
football fields.
Sometimes, chemical weathering dissolves large portions of limestone or other rock on the
surface of the Earth to form a landscape called karst. In these areas, the surface rock is
pockmarked with holes, sinkholes, and caves. One of the world’s most spectacular examples
of karst is Shilin, or the Stone Forest, near Kunming, China. Hundreds of slender, sharp
towers of weathered limestone rise from the landscape.
Another type of chemical weathering works on rocks that contain iron. These rocks turn
to rust in a process called oxidation. Rust is a compound created by the interaction of oxygen
and iron in the presence of water. As rust expands, it weakens rock and helps break it apart.
Hydration is a form of chemical weathering in which the chemical bonds of the mineral are
changed as it interacts with water. One instance of hydration occurs as the
mineral anhydrite reacts with groundwater. The water transforms anhydrite into gypsum, one
of the most common minerals on Earth.
Another familiar form of chemical weathering is hydrolysis. In the process of hydrolysis, a
new solution (a mixture of two or more substances) is formed as chemicals in rock interact
with water. In many rocks, for example, sodium minerals interact with water to form a
saltwater solution.
Hydration and hydrolysis contribute to flared slopes, another dramatic example of a
landscape formed by weathering and erosion. Flared slopes are concave rock formations
sometimes nicknamed “wave rocks.” Their c-shape is largely a result
of subsurface weathering, in which hydration and hydrolysis wear away rocks beneath the
landscape’s surface.
Living or once-living organisms can also be agents of chemical weathering. The decaying
remains of plants and some fungi form carbonic acid, which can weaken and dissolve rock.
Some bacteria can weather rock in order to access nutrients such as magnesium or
potassium. Clay minerals, including quartz, are among the most common byproducts of
chemical weathering. Clays make up about 40% of the chemicals in all sedimentary rocks on
Earth.

Further more details about mechanical and chemical weathering,

Mechanical weathering , on the other word Physical weathering , occur as result of Frost
disintegration, Pressure release,Hydraulic action, Salt-Crystal growth, and Thermal stress.
Physical weathering
Frost disintegration
Frost weathering or disintegration is a collective term for several mechanical
weathering processes induced by stresses created by the freezing of water into ice. The term
serves as an umbrella term for a variety of processes such as frost shattering, frost wedging
and cryofracturing. The process may act on a wide range of spatial and temporal scales, from
minutes to years and from dislodging mineral grains to fracturing boulders. It is most
pronounced in high-altitude and high-latitude areas and is especially associated
with alpine, periglacial, subpolar maritime and polar climates, but may occur anywhere at sub-
freezing temperatures (between -3 and -8 °C) if water is present.

Pressure release
High internal pressure of some rocks (especially intrusive igneous) causes fracturing when
pressure is removed. Intrusive igneous rocks are formed in beneath the earth’s surface.
When erosion removes the overlying rock material, rocks are exposed to enviroment. as a
result of it pressure release and cracks are formed. from the another word,
In pressure release, also known as unloading, overlying materials (not necessarily rocks)
are removed (by erosion, or other processes), which causes underlying rocks to expand and
fracture parallel to the surface.
Intrusive igneous rocks (e.g. granite) are formed deep beneath the Earth's surface. They are
under tremendous pressure because of the overlying rock material. When erosion removes
the overlying rock material, these intrusive rocks are exposed and the pressure on them is
released. The outer parts of the rocks then tend to expand. The expansion sets up stresses
which cause fractures parallel to the rock surface to form. Over time, sheets of rock break
away from the exposed rocks along the fractures, a process known as exfoliation. Exfoliation
due to pressure release is also known as "sheeting". Retreat of an overlying glacier can also
lead to exfoliation due to pressure release

Hydraulic action
Water (generally from powerful waves) rushes into cracks in the rockface. traps a layer of
air at the bottom of the crack compresses and weakens the rock. when the wave retreats, the
trapped air is suddenly released, with a explosive force as a result of it cracks away the
fragments of the rockface. from the another explanation,
Hydraulic action is the erosion that occurs when the motion of water against a rock surface
produces mechanical weathering. Most generally, it is the ability of moving water (flowing or
waves) to dislodge and transport rock particles. Within this rubric are a number of specific
erosional processes, including abrasion, at facilitated erosion, such as static erosion where
water leaches salts and floats off organic material from unconsolidated sediments, and
from chemical erosion more often called chemical weathering. It is a mechanical process, in
which the moving water current flows against the banks and bed of a river, thereby removing
rock particles.
A primary example of hydraulic action is a wave striking a cliff face which compresses the
air in cracks of the rocks. This exerts pressure on the surrounding rock which can
progressively crack, break, splinter and detach rock particles. This is followed by the
decompression of the air as the wave retreats which can occur suddenly with explosive force
which additionally weakens the rock. Cracks are gradually widened so each wave
compresses more air, increasing the explosive force of its release. Thus, the effect intensifies
in a 'positive feedback' system. Over time, as the cracks may grow they sometimes form
a sea cave. The broken pieces that fall off produce two additional types of erosion, abrasion
(sandpapering) and attrition. In corrasion, the newly formed chunks are thrown against the
rock face. Attrition is a similar effect caused by eroded particles after they fall to the sea bed
where they are subjected to further wave action. In coastal areas wave hydraulic action is
often the most important form of erosion.

Salt crystal growth

Salt crystallization, salt weathering, or salt wedging is the weathering by which is known
as haloclasty, causes disintegration of rocks when saline solutions seep into cracks and joints
in the rocks and evaporate, leaving salt crystals behind. These salt crystals expand as they
are heated up, exerting pressure on the confining rock.
Salt crystallization may also take place when solutions decompose rocks (for
example, limestone and chalk) to form salt solutions of sodium sulfate or sodium carbonate,
of which the moisture evaporates to form their respective salt crystals.
The salts which have proved most effective in disintegrating rocks are sodium
sulfate, magnesium sulfate, and calcium chloride. Some of these salts can expand up to three
times or even more.
Salt crystallization is normally associated with arid climates where strong heating causes
strong evaporation and therefore salt crystallization. It is also common along coasts. An
example of salt weathering can be seen in the honeycombed stones in sea wall. Honeycomb
is a type of tafoni, a class of cavernous rock weathering structures, which likely develop in
large part by chemical and physical salt weathering processes.

Thermal stress
Thermal stress weathering, sometimes called insolation weathering, results from the
expansion and contraction of rock, caused by temperature changes. For example, heating of
rocks by sunlight or fires can cause expansion of their constituent minerals. As some minerals
expand more than others, temperature changes set up differential stresses that eventually
cause the rock to crack apart. Because the outer surface of a rock is often warmer or colder
than the more protected inner portions, some rocks may weather by exfoliation – the peeling
away of outer layers. This process may be sharply accelerated if ice forms in the surface
cracks. When water freezes, it can expand with a force of about 1465 metric
ton/m2,disintegrating huge rock masses and dislodging mineral grains from smaller fragments.
Thermal stress weathering comprises two main types, thermal shock and thermal fatigue.
Thermal stress weathering is an important mechanism in deserts, where there is a
large diurnal temperature range, hot in the day and cold at night. The repeated heating and
cooling exerts stress on the outer layers of rocks, which can cause their outer layers to peel
off in thin sheets. The process of peeling off is also called exfoliation. Although temperature
changes are the principal driver, moisture can enhance thermal expansion in rock. Forest
fires and range fires are also known to cause significant weathering of rocks and boulders
exposed along the ground surface. Intense localized heat can rapidly expand a boulder.
 The thermal heat from wildfire can cause significant weathering of rocks and boulders, heat
can rapidly expand a boulder and thermal shock can occur. The differential expansion of
a thermal gradient can be understood in terms of stress or of strain, equivalently. At some
point, this stress can exceed the strength of the material, causing a crack to form. If nothing
stops this crack from propagating through the material, it will result in the object's structure to
fail.

Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering changes the composition of rocks, often transforming them when
water interacts with minerals to create various chemical reactions. Chemical weathering is a
gradual and ongoing process as the mineralogy of the rock adjusts to the near surface
environment. New or secondary minerals develop from the original minerals of the rock. In
this the processes of oxidation and hydrolysis are most important. Chemical weathering is
enhanced by such geological agents as the presence of water and oxygen, as well as by such
biological agents as the acids produced by microbial and plant-root metabolism.
The process of mountain block uplift is important in exposing new rock strata to the
atmosphere and moisture, enabling important chemical weathering to occur; significant
release occurs of Ca2+ and other ions into surface waters.

Dissolution and carbonation

Rainfall is acidic because atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolves in the rainwater producing
weak carbonic acid. In unpolluted environments, the rainfall pH is around 5.6. Acid rain occurs
when gases such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are present in the atmosphere. These
oxides react in the rain water to produce stronger acids and can lower the pH to 4.5 or even
3.0. Sulfur dioxide, SO2, comes from volcanic eruptions or from fossil fuels, can
become sulfuric acid within rainwater, which can cause solution weathering to the rocks on
which it falls.
Some minerals, due to their natural solubility (e.g. evaporites), oxidation potential (iron-rich
minerals, such as pyrite), or instability relative to surficial conditions (see Goldich dissolution
series) will weather through dissolution naturally, even without acidic water.
One of the well-known solution weathering processes is carbonate dissolution, the process in
which atmospheric carbon dioxide leads to solution weathering. Carbonate dissolution affects
rocks containing calcium carbonate, such as limestone and chalk. This takes place when rain
combines with carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid, a weak acid, which dissolves calcium
carbonate (limestone) and forms soluble calcium bicarbonate. Despite a slower reaction
kinetics, this process is thermodynamically favored at low temperature, because colder water
holds more dissolved carbon dioxide gas (retrograde solubility of gases). Carbonate
dissolution is therefore an important feature of glacial weathering.
Carbonate dissolution reaction involves the following steps:
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
carbon dioxide + water → carbonic acid
H2CO3 + CaCO3 → Ca(HCO3)2
carbonic acid + calcium carbonate → calcium bicarbonate
Carbonate dissolution on the surface of well-jointed limestone produces a dissected limestone
pavement. This process is most effective along the joints, widening and deepening them.
Hydration
Mineral hydration is a form of chemical weathering that involves the rigid attachment of H+
and OH- ions to the atoms and molecules of a mineral. When rock minerals take up water, the
increased volume creates physical stresses within the rock. For example, iron oxides are
converted to iron hydroxides and the hydration of anhydrite forms gypsum.

Hydrolysis of silicates and carbonates

Hydrolysis is a chemical weathering process that may affect silicate and carbonate minerals.
An example of such a reaction in which water reacts with a silicate mineral is the following:
Mg2SiO4 + 4 H2O → 2 Mg(OH)2 + H4SiO4
olivine (forsterite) + water → brucite + silicic acid
This reaction can result in the complete dissolution of the original mineral, if enough water is
available in the system and if the reaction is thermodynamically favorable. At ambient
temperature, water is weakly dissociated in H+ and OH– but carbon dioxide readily dissolves
in water forming carbonic acid which is an important weathering agent.
Mg2SiO4 + 4 CO2 + 4 H2O → 2 Mg2+ + 4 HCO3− + H4SiO4
olivine (forsterite) + carbon dioxide + water → magnesium and bicarbonate ions in
solution + silicic acid in solution
This hydrolysis reaction is much more common. Carbonic acid is consumed
by silicate weathering, resulting in more alkaline solutions because of the bicarbonate. This is
an important reaction in controlling the amount of CO 2 in the atmosphere and can affect
climate.
Aluminosilicates when subjected to the hydrolysis reaction produce a secondary mineral
rather than simply releasing cations.
2 KAlSi3O8 + 2 H2CO3 + 9 H2O → Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 4 H4SiO4 + 2 K+ + 2 HCO3−
orthoclase (aluminosilicate feldspar) + carbonic acid + water
→ kaolinite (a clay mineral) + silicic acid in Solution + potas-
sium and bicarbonate
ions in solution
Oxidation
Within the weathering environment chemical oxidation of a variety of metals occurs. The
most commonly observed is the oxidation of Fe2+ (iron) and combination with oxygen and
water to form Fe3+ hydroxides and oxides such as goethite, limonite, and hematite. This gives
the affected rocks a reddish-brown coloration on the surface which crumbles easily and
weakens the rock. This process is better known as 'rusting', though it is distinct from the
rusting of metallic iron. Many other metallic ores and minerals oxidize and hydrate to produce
colored deposits, such as chalcopyrites or CuFeS2 oxidizing to copper hydroxide and iron
oxides.

Soil categorization depend on transport

Formed Soil (Physical / Chemical ) may stay where it was formed or may be transported by
water, wind or gravity. if they are not transported, that soil is said to be RESIDUAL SOIL.
If they are transported,
by water, that soil is said to be ALLUVIAL SOIL
by wind, that soil is said to be EOLIAN SOIL
by gravity, that soil is said to be COLLUVIAL SOIL

Alluvial Soil

Alluvial soils are soils deposited by surface water. You’ll find them along rivers, in floodplains
and deltas (like the Mississippi Delta), stream terraces, and areas called alluvial fans. This
last category results from larger floods, causing the soil to spread out in the shape of a
triangle fan.

Eolian soil
The word “eolian” (or “aeolian”) comes from the Greek “Aeolus.” Aeolus, in Greek mythology,
was the god of the winds. “Eolian” thus refers to any process of sediment entrainment,
transport and deposition by wind. Study of eolian processes and sediments is a part of the
disciplines of geomorphology, sedimentology and paleoclimatology.

Colluvial Soil

Colluvium (also colluvial material or colluvial soil) is a general name for loose,
unconsolidated sediments that have been deposited at the base of hillslopes by either
rainwash, sheetwash, slow continuous downslope creep, or a variable combination of these
processes.
THE MAJOR COMPONETS OF SOIL
Soil composition is an important aspect of nutrient management. While soil minerals and
organic matter hold and store nutrients, soil water is what readily provides nutrients for plant
uptake. Soil air, too, plays an integral role since many of the microorganisms that live in the
soil need air to undergo the biological processes that release additional nutrients into the soil.

The basic components of soil are minerals, organic matter, water and air. The typical soil
consists of approximately 45% mineral, 5% organic matter, 20-30% water, and 20-30% air.
These percentages are only generalizations at best. In reality, the soil is very complex and
dynamic. The composition of the soil can fluctuate on a daily basis, depending on numerous
factors such as water supply, cultivation practices, and/or soil type.

Mineral

The largest component of soil is the mineral portion, which makes up approximately 45% to
49% of the volume. Soil minerals are derived from two principal mineral types. Primary
minerals, such as those found in sand and silt, are those soil materials that are similar to the
parent material from which they formed. They are often round or irregular in
shape. Secondary minerals, on the other hand, result from the weathering of the primary
minerals, which releases important ions and forms more stable mineral forms such as silicate
clay. Clays have a large surface area, which is important for soil chemistry and water-holding
capacity. Additionally, negative and neutral charges found around soil minerals influences the
soil’s ability to retain important nutrients, such as cations, contributing to a soils cation
exchange capacity (CEC).

Water
Water is the second basic component of soil. Water can make up approximately 2% to 50%
of the soil volume. Water is important for transporting nutrients to growing plants and soil
organisms and for facilitating both biological and chemical decomposition. Soil water
availability is the capacity of a particular soil to hold water that is available for plant use.
The capacity of a soil to hold water is largely dependent on soil texture. The more small
particles in soils, the more water the soil can retain. Thus, clay soils having the greatest
water-holding capacity and sands the least. Additionally, organic matter also influences the
water-holding capacity of soils because of organic matter’s high affinity for water. The higher
the percentage of organic material in soil, the higher the soil’s water-holding capacity.
The point where water is held microscopically with too much energy for a plant to extract is
called the “wilting coefficient” or “permanent wilting point.” When water is bound so tightly to
soil particles, it is not available for most plants to extract, which limits the amount of water
available for plant use. Although clay can hold the most water of all soil textures, very fine
micropores on clay surfaces hold water so tightly that plants have great difficulty extracting all
of it. Thus, loams and silt loams are considered some of the most productive soil textures
because they hold large quantities of water that is available for plants to use.

Organic matter
Organic matter is the next basic component that is found in soils at levels of approximately
1% to 5%. Organic matter is derived from dead plants and animals and as such has a high
capacity to hold onto and/or provide the essential elements and water for plant growth. Soils
that are high in organic matter also have a high CEC and are, therefore, generally some of
the most productive for plant growth. Organic matter also has a very high “plant available”
water-holding capacity, which can enhance the growth potential of soils with poor water-
holding capacity such as sand. Thus, the percent of decomposed organic matter in or on soils
is often used as an indicator of a productive and fertile soil. Over time, however, prolonged
decomposition of organic materials can lead it to become unavailable for plant use, creating
what are known as recalcitrant carbon stores in soils.

Air
Gases or air is the next basic component of soil. Because air can occupy the same spaces
as water, it can make up approximately 2% to 50% of the soil volume. Oxygen is essential for
root and microbe respiration, which helps support plant growth. Carbon dioxide and nitrogen
also are important for belowground plant functions such as for nitrogen-fixing bacteria. If soils
remain waterlogged (where gas is displaced by excess water), it can prevent root gas
exchange leading to plant death, which is a common concern after floods.

Plant nutrient in the Soil

Soil is a major source of nutrients needed by plants for growth. The three main nutrients are
nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). Together they make up the trio known as
NPK. Other important nutrients are calcium, magnesium and sulfur. Plants also need small
quantities of iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron and molybdenum, known as trace
elements because only traces are needed by the plant. The role these nutrients play in plant
growth is complex, and this document provides only a brief outline.
Primary nutrient
Secondary nutrient
Micro nutrient

Primary nutrient
The primary nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. You may be most
familiar with these three nutrients because they are required in larger quantities than other
nutrients. These three elements form the basis of the N-P-K label on commercial fertilizer
bags. As a result, the management of these nutrients is very important. However, the primary
nutrients are no more important than the other essential elements since all essential elements
are required for plant growth.

Secondary nutrient
Calcium, magnesium, and sulfur are essential plant nutrients. They are called “secondary”
nutrients because plants require them in smaller quantities than nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium. On the other hand, plants require these nutrients in larger quantities than the
“micronutrients” such as boron and molybdenum.
Micro nutrient
Micronutrients are essential plant nutrients that are found in trace amounts in tissue, but
play an imperative role in plant growth and development. Without these nutrients, plant
nutrition would be compromised leading to potential declines in plant productivity. Of the 17
elements essential for plant growth, eight are micronutrients: boron (B), chlorine (CI), copper
(Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), zinc (Zn) and nickel (Ni).
SOIL WATER
Soil water can be sub divided into 5 categories.

Hygroscopic water
Capillary water
Gravity water
Run - off water
Combined water

Hygroscopic water
Hygroscopic water Water absorbed from the atmosphere and held very tightly by the soil
particles, so that it is unavailable to plants in amounts sufficient for them to survive. Found as
a microscopic film of water (3-4 molecular layers)- adsorbed water. Bound to soil particles by
adhesive forces 10,000 bar (Recall that the atmospheric pressure is 1 bar). They cannot be
removed from natural forces. It is the water held tightly to the surface of soil particles by
adsorption forces. Hygroscopic water is held tightly in thin films of 4 – 5 milli microns
thickness. It is essentially non-liquid and moves primarily in the vapour form. This water is
unavailable to the plants as huge pressure force would be needed to extract it.

Capillary water
Trees 'drink' from capillary water. Their instrument to drink from the capillary water is the
primary root. On the picture below, you can see the primary roots going downwards to the
dark soil. This soil is dark because of the water content in the capillary channels. In soil, there
are millions of vertical channels - pipes - these are called "capillary tubes". Whenever there is
a downpour, excess water runs underground through these capillary tubes. When it is dry,
these same tubes transport water to the surface. Trees have their roots in these capillary
tubes - which also contain threads of fungi which are hygroscopic (attracting water); and with
their lateral roots, they soak up capillary water when it is hot and dry. This is how a tree
survives heat and drought. Even in rocks, minuscule and invisible fissures function as
capillary tubes. It held by cohesive forces between the films of hydroscopic water. Pressure of
capillary water is much less than of hygroscopic water. Can be removed by drying(heating) or
plant root absorption. Can not be removed by gravity. Plants absorbs this water through their
roots until the soil capillary force – Extractive force of the plant root. At this point the plant
can't extract water through root and hence the plant waits this is called the wilting point of the
plant.

Gravity water
Gravitational water is soil water moving through the soil as influenced by gravitation. It is not
plant available. Moves through the soil by the force of gravity. The amount of water held by
the soil after excess water has drained is called the FIELD CAPACITY OF SOIL (FC). Fine
grained soil have higher FC's than those of coarser grained soils. That moves downward
freely under the influence of gravity to the water table is termed as gravitational water. It is
also referred to as free water. Gravitational water is of no use to plants as it drains out due to
gravity. It reduces aeration in the soil and hence, its removal
from soil is necessary for optimum plant growth.

Run-off water
Does not enter the soil (when saturated with water) and gets drained away from the soil
Surface. Run-off occurs when there is more water than land can absorb. The excess liquid
flows across the surface of the land and into nearby creeks, streams, or ponds. Runoff can
come from both natural processes and human activity.

Combined water

Moisture that is chemically combined either in the form of hydroxyl ions (OH −) or in
molecular compounds such as hydrates. Chemically combined water is not usually removed
from biological materials during drying processes.
e.g;- Na2SO4 . xH2O

WILTING POINT
As roots with their numerous branches and millions of root hairs deplete water from
capillary spaces, water from the other regions move into the depleted spaces;
sometimes the water moves upwards from the water table and fills up the capillary
spaces, but the refilling or replenishment process takes its own time.Thus plants
experience deficiency of water for a short duration time, which is referred to a
temporary wilting point. In some cases, the depleted water is not replaced for a long
time, under such conditions, plants die, and such a state is called permanent wilting
point.

FIELD CAPACITY OF THE SOIL

The amount of water found within the soil as capillary water that is available for the
root system is often referred to as useful water content of the soil. Hence the capacity
of soil to hold maximum
amount of utilizable or useful water is known as ‘Field capacity of the soil’, this again
depends upon the nature of soil. Sandy and rocky soils are poor soils in terms of water
holding potential. While clay soils have great water retention capacity but they have
the worst aeration. However loam soil is the best for it retains good amount of water
and also it has good aeration. However, the field capacity of the soil can be determined
by finding out the difference between the
weight of completely wet soil and that of the dry soil of a known quantity.
SOIL TEXTURE
Soil texture has an important role in nutrient management because it influences nutrient
retention. For instance, finer textured soils tend to have greater ability to store soil nutrients.
In our discussion on soil mineral composition, we mentioned that the mineral particles of a
soil are present in a wide range of size. Recall that the fine earth fraction includes all soil
particles that are less than 2 mm. Soil particles within this fraction are further divided into the
3 separate size classes, which includes sand, silt, and clay. The size of sand particles range
between 2.0 and 0.05 mm; silt, 0.05 mm and 0.002 mm; and clay, less than 0.002 mm. Notice
that clay particles may be over one thousand times smaller than sand particles. This
difference in size is largely due to the type of parent material and the degree of weathering.
Sand particles are generally primary minerals that have not undergone much weathering. On
the other hand, clay particles are secondary minerals that are the products of the weathering
of primary minerals. As weathering continues, the soil particles break down and become
smaller and smaller.

TEXTURAL TRIANGLE
Soil texture is the relative proportions of sand, silt, or clay in a soil. The soil textural
class is a grouping of soils based upon these relative proportions. Soils with the finest texture
are called clay soils, while soils with the coarsest texture are called sands. However, a soil
that has a relatively even mixture of sand, silt, and clay and exhibits the properties from each
separate is called a loam. There are different types of loams, based upon which soil separate
is most abundantly present. If the percentages of clay, silt, and sand in a soil are known
(primarily through laboratory analysis), you may use the textural triangle to determine the
texture class of your soil.

The major textural classes for the soils of Maui are provided in Table. Each of the textural
classes listed in Table make up finely textured soils. As you can see, soil surveys show that
more than 90% of Maui’s soils are finely textured. This is largely due to the type of parent
material of most Hawaii soils, which is basalt. Since basalt is a finely textured rock, it
weathers into finely textured soils. The relative amount of clay has great importance in the
soil.

Percentage of Maui soils that fall within the major textural classes

Textural Class

Silty clay 44%

Silty clay loam 23%

Silty loam 11%

Loam 10%

Clay 5%

Follow these steps to determine the textural class name of your soil sample:
1) Determine the percent sand of your sample and find that number on the bottom of the
triangle. Note that the numbers read from right to left, not left to right. For example, if
your sample is 65% sand, then you need to pick a point to the LEFT of the 60 mark.
2) Draw another line to correspond to the percent clay. Let’s say you had 27% clay.

3) Where the lines intersect should also indicate percent silt. On the graph above, you
can see that it is about 8% silt.
4) Wherever your lines intersect indicates the soil type you have. In this situation, with
65% sand, 27% clay, and 8% silt, it is sandy clay loam.

HOW DO WE DETERMINE SOIL TEXTURE

Sieve Analysis
A sieve analysis (or gradation test) is a practice or procedure used (commonly used in
civil engineering ) to assess the Particle size distribution (also called gradation) of a granular
material by allowing the material to pass through a series of sieves of progressively smaller
mesh size and weighing the amount of material that is stopped by each sieve as a fraction of
the whole mass. The size distribution is often of critical importance to the way the material
performs in use. A sieve analysis can be performed on any type of non-organic or organic
granular materials including sands, crushed rock, clays, granite, feldspars, coal, soil, a wide
range of manufactured powders, grain and seeds, down to a minimum size depending on the
exact method. Being such a simple technique of particle sizing, it is probably the most
common

Methods Of Sieve Size Analysis

Determination of article size is more important in Civil Engineering, as the particle size
determines the effectiveness of final product. The characters of particle such as bulk density,
physical stability, permeability and many more are decided by its size. To determine the size
distribution of particles, the sieve analysis test procedure is an effective method that prevailed
from the past. In sieve analysis, the particle size distribution is defined using the mass or
volume. Sieve analysis is laboratory test procedure in which particles will move vertically or
horizontally through sieve mesh. Depending on the needs and particle material different
sieving methods are available for the application. They are manual sieving method,
mechanical sieving method, dry sieving method and wet sieving method. Manual sieving
method is carried out in places where there is no electricity and mainly used in, onsite
differentiation among large and small particles. Mechanical sieving method is used in
laboratories to assure the quality and this is the widely using method in present days. In
mechanical sieving the method can be classified into two further groups depending on their
sieving movement as horizontal movement sieving method and vertical movement sieving
method. The vertical movement sieving method is also known as throw-action sieving and
vibratory sieving methods. Dry sieving method is considered mostly and here the testing
particles (specimen) are in dry state. Wet sieving method is considered when the particle that
is going to be used is already exists as wet or suspension. Here, in the sieve shaker machine
a nozzle will be provided to water the upper most sample material. But need some extra
about the water concentration during this wet sieving experiment.

Procedure
Materials Needed:
Specimen, sieve shaker, BS410 Standard sieves, 0.1g accuracy balance, oven,
porcelain dish and spatula, receiving pan, cleaning brush and clock.
• Clean the sieves of sieve shaker using cleaning brush if any particles are struck in the
openings.
• Record the weight of each sieve and receiving pan.
• Dry the specimen in oven for 3-4 minutes to get the dried specimen (ignore, if the
specimen is already dried).
• Weigh the specimen and record its weight.
• Arrange the sieves in order as the smaller openings sieve to the last and larger open
ings sieve to the top. (Simply, arrange them to the ascending order of sieve numbers –
No.4 sieve on top and no.200 sieve at bottom)-Sieve numbers and the particle sizes
are provided below in a chart for further under standing.
• Keep the weight recorded specimen on the top sieve and then keep the complete
sieve stack on the sieve shaker (Don’t forget to keep the lid and receiving pan).
• Allow the shaker to work 10-5 minutes – use the clock here.
• Remove the sieve stack from the shaker and record the weight of each sieve and re
ceiving pan separately.

Data Manipulation

The weight of the soil retained on each sieve is calculated by subtracting the weight of the
empty sieve from the recorded weight of the sieve after the test. The total weights of particles
retained are added and compared to the initial weight of the soil sample. A difference lower
than 2% is required. The percentage retained on each sieve is determined by dividing each
weight retained by the initial weight of the soil sample. Subsequently, the total percentage
passing from each sieve is calculated by subtracting the cumulative percentage retained in
that particular sieve and the ones above it from totality.
The Uniformity Coefficient (Cu)

The uniformity coefficient (Cu) expresses the variety in particle sizes of soil and is defined as
the ratio of D60 to D10. The value D60 is the grain diameter at which 60% of soil particles are
finer and 40% of soil particles are coarser, while D10 is the grain diameter at which 10% of
particles are finer and 90% of the particles are coarser. Therefore, Cu is estimated as:

When Cu is greater than 4, the soil is classified as well graded, whereas when Cu is less
than 4 the soil is classified as poorly graded/uniformly graded.
SOIL PROFILE
There are different types of soil, each with its own set of characteristics. Dig down deep into
any soil, and you’ll see that it is made of layers, or horizons (O, A, E, B, C, R). Put the
horizons together, and they form a soil profile. Like a biography, each profile tells a story
about the life of a soil. Most soils have three major
horizons (A, B, C) and some have an organic horizon (O). The horizons are:

O -(humus or organic) Mostly organic matter such as decomposing leaves. The O horizon is
thin in some soils, thick in others, and not present at all in others.

A -(topsoil) Mostly minerals from parent material with organic matter incorporated. A good
material for plants and other organisms to live.
E - (eluviated) - Leached of clay, minerals, and organic matter, leaving a concentration of
sand and silt particles of quartz or other resistant materials – missing in some soils but often
found in older soils and
forest soils.

B - (subsoil) Rich in minerals that leached (moved down) from the A or E horizons and
accumulated here.
C - (parent material) The deposit at Earth’s surface from which the soil developed.

R - (bedrock) A mass of rock such as granite, basalt, quartzite, limestone or sandstone that
forms the parent material for some soils - if the bedrock is close enough to the surface to
weather. This is not soil and is located under the C horizon.
SOIL STRUCTURE
Soil structure is the arrangement of soil particles into groupings. These groupings are called
peds or aggregates, which often form distinctive shapes typically found within certain soil
horizons. For example, granular soil particles are characteristic of the surface horizon. Soil
aggregation is an important indicator of the workability of the soil. Soils that are well
aggregated are said to have “good soil tilth.”
SOIL AGGREGATES
Generally, only the very small particles form aggregates, which includes silicate clays,
volcanic ash minerals, organic matter, and oxides. There are various mechanisms of soil
aggregation.

Mechanisms of soil aggregation

 Soil microorganisms excrete substances that act as cementing agents and bind soil
particles together.
 Fungi have filaments, called hyphae, which extend into the soil and tie soil particles
together.
 Roots also excrete sugars into the soil that help bind minerals.
 Oxides also act as glue and join particles together. This aggregation process is very
common to many highly weathered tropical soils and is especially prevalent in Hawaii.
 Finally, soil particles may naturally be attracted one another through electrostatic forces,
much like the attraction between hair and a balloon.

Soil Tilth
Soil tilth is a concept that refers to the suitability of a soil for planting and growing crops.
Factors that determine soil tilth include the formation of soil structures, moisture content,
aeration. water infiltration and percolation.

Soil tilth is a physical condition of soil, especially in relation to its suitability for planting or
growing a crop. Factors that determine tilth include the formation and stability of aggregated
soil particles, moisture content, degree of aeration, soil biota, rate of water infiltration and
drainage. Tilth can change rapidly, depending on environmental factors such as changes in
moisture, tillage and soil amendments. The objective of tillage (mechanical manipulation of
the soil) is to improve tilth, thereby increasing crop production; in the long term, however,
conventional tillage, especially plowing, often has the opposite effect, causing the soil to
break down and become compacted.
Soil with good tilth has large pore spaces for air infiltration and water movement. Roots only
grow where the soil tilth allows for adequate levels of soil oxygen. Such soil also holds a
reasonable supply of water and nutrients.
Tillage, organic matter amendments, fertilization and irrigation can each improve tilth, but
when used excessively, can have the opposite effect. Crop rotation and cover crops can
positively impact tilth. A combined approach can produce the greatest improvement

Tillage
Mechanical soil cultivation practices, including primary tillage (mold-board or chisel plowing)
followed by secondary tillage (disking, harrowing, etc.), break up and aerate soil. Mechanical
traffic and intensive tilling methods have a negative impact on soil aggregates, friability, soil
porosity, and soil-bulk density. When soils become degraded and compacted, such tillage
practices are often deemed necessary. The tilth created by tillage, however, tends to
be unstable, because the aggregation is obtained through the physical manipulation of the
soil, which is short lived, especially after years of intensive tillage. The compaction of soil
aggregates can also decrease soil biota due to the low levels of oxygen in the top-soil. The
resulting high soil-bulk density results in lower water infiltration from rainfall or conventional
irrigation (surface, sprinkler, center-pivot); in turn, the series of processes will naturally erode
and dissolve small soil particles and organic matter. The consequences from these processes
cyclically require more tilling and intervention, thus tillage practices have the capability to
disrupt biological mechanisms that stabilize soil structure and tilth quality.
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