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2012 DP UGMappingAES B
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Table 1 Mapping and sampling type for different stoping methods during the mine production chain
Post-production
Development Production (bogging and
Stoping and pre-production (stoping) stage transport) stage
Stoping method style Mapping stage sampling sampling sampling
Shrinkage Development
mapping
Cut and fill Linear
Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) 2012 VOL 121 NO 2 97
Dominy and Platten Grade control geological mapping in underground gold vein operations
2 Gwynfynydd gold mine, Wales – stope back mapping and sampling undertaken in the Chidlaw Link Zone, 110 west
shrink stope. Back samples were collected across the principal geological domains either side of the fault that crosses
the stope. The western section (left of the fault) was not on the footwall, as this had been displaced south by the fault.
The eastern section (right of the fault) was located on the footwall and locally presented small patches of fine visible-
gold clusters. A few metres above this horizon, the vein rolled to the south and mapping allowed this to be predicted
and the stope modified accordingly
to determine the attitude and position of relevant copied to production staff to guide the next development
structures that control the 3D form of ore shoots or round or stope lift (Fig. 4).
gold-rich veins. In particular, the shoot position relative Many large operations use development profiles of 4 m
to likely stope outlines and the pitch of the margins of by 4 m or greater. This means that for safety reasons the
ore shoots within the stopes. upper 2 m or more of the face and the backs cannot be
The internal architecture of the host vein generally easily accessed for close inspection or sampling. In such
needs to be mapped, since small scale structures often cases, the geologist needs to do the best possible job and
have a profound effect on gold distribution (Platten and leverage their experience at the mine to fill in the mapping
Dominy, 2003). In complex high-nugget systems, the gaps. Additionally, the drive backs are often meshed and
advantages of mapping discrete veins rather than the bolted quickly after blasting and mucking for safety
gross quartz package are evident (Fig. 3). reasons. Again, the geologist will have to use appropriate
expertise to glean what they can from partly obscured
Face sheets backs.
Face sheets are the most important aspect of mapping as Mapping of drive backs provides additional informa-
they indicate whether the drive or raise is still following tion on small-scale vein continuity beyond that of face
the structure and allow direction of development (Fig. 4). mapping which is usually on a scale of 1?8 m or above
In some operations, side wall mapping is important (Fig. 6).
particularly where the vein system is geometrically more In addition to mapping sheets, digital photography is
complex and is wider than development (Fig. 5). an essential tool in modern underground mapping
Mapping is usually undertaken on a pro-forma sheet (Fig. 7). Rock faces can be recorded rapidly in a form
often made from water resistant paper. They provide a that can be incorporated into digital databases and
cross-section of the structure, give data in a vertical mining software (Fig. 8). Photographs can be printed and
direction, give the most readily observed and interpreted subsequently used in the mine as a base map for plotting
view of the structure and are usually the basis for collection complex data. Photographs on their own should not be
of samples. They need to be accurate and detailed yet used as a substitute for conventional geological examina-
mapping and sampling has to be rapid to limit disruption tion, sketching and description at the time. Photographs
of the mine development cycle. Traditionally face sheets can sometimes mask geological detail, particularly where
have been the property of the mine geologist, but should be lithological colour contrasts are weak.
98 Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) 2012 VOL 121 NO 2
Dominy and Platten Grade control geological mapping in underground gold vein operations
3 Mapped section of a granodiorite-hosted gold lode located in the Eastern Cordillera, Peru. Map shows discontinuous
nature of the high-grade gold quartz-sulphide vein (early high-grade vein). The high-grade vein formed early in the
development of the lode zone. Late activity introduced a low-grade quartz-dominated breccia vein which locally carries
grade where fragments of high-grade vein are enclosed. The routine introduction of backs and raise mapping helped
to resolve continuity of the high-grade vein and led to optimised stope design that improved high-grade vein recovery
and reduced dilution. Head grades were increased from 5–6 g/t Au to 10–12 g/t Au. X/C shows cross-faults
4 Gwynfynydd gold mine, Wales – typical face sheet used during operation. This sheet shows the vein (face) at the base
of a raise from the 120 sub-level. Here the high-grade footwall leader vein is well-exposed with visible gold. Width of
sub-level is 1?8 m. Sheet shows sample results and instructions to mining crew for next shift
Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) 2012 VOL 121 NO 2 99
Dominy and Platten Grade control geological mapping in underground gold vein operations
5 Ballarat gold mine, Australia – Llanberris 596 level access cross-cut sidewall map of the Tiger Up-Dip Lode. Mapped
sidewall length 25 m, with cross-cut height approximately 5 m. Veining at Ballarat is complex and mapping of the
access development provides a picture of the entire system. Not all quartz veins within the mineralised zone are
extracted. Black box shows approximate profile of the north ore drive (see Fig. 7). Map colours: quartz vein in red,
sandstone in yellow and shale in blue (Source: Castlemaine Goldfields Ltd, see also Edgar, 2012)
The popular overuse of shotcrete in mines frequently Direct face mapping is possible via specialised digital
inhibits mapping, particularly of walls and backs. camera units (Van Der Merwe, 2009; Rees, 2012). The
Systematic digital photography can help speed data geologist can draw ‘lines’ on the image to represent
capture where shotcrete is applied almost immediately geological features, which can then be ported to suitable
after mucking, and mapping time is very limited. An mining software fully registered in 3D mine space.
outline field sketch is still required. However any data is In the more open minded operation, mapping will
better than a shotcrete covered surface if unexpected include the recording of geotechnical as well as
changes in ore character have occurred. geological parameters to facilitate better stope planning.
Face or backs mapping can be made more time Geologists are the natural recorders of geotechnical
efficient through the use of field tablet computers where information following appropriate training.
mapping is directly onto the tablet. This results in an
immediate digital format that can be easily ported to
other software for editing and/or visualisation. The
Sampling for grade control
authors are aware of an example where the set-up, The requirement for high quality samples has been long
mapping, data export and modelling time for 100 m of recognised, where they should be representative,
backs mapping took around 18 h using a tablet system unbiased, safe and operationally timely. Various meth-
compared to over 30 h using a traditional paper-based ods and approaches are available to the mine geologist
method followed by manual digitisation. This repre- (Rickard, 1907; Peters, 1987; Minnitt, 2007; Dominy
sented a saving of more than 40% of time. et al., 2009b, 2011; Dominy, 2010). Gold veins often
6 Cononish gold project, Scotland – example of a 1 : 125 scale underground geological map. Map shows the nature of
the Cononish vein in this section, as series splay-veins off a shear structure. This 35 m section grades approximately
6 g/t Au, the gold–sulphide veins being marked in red. It is important to resolve the continuity of the gold–sulphide
veins as they carry most of the gold grade. The fully mapped exploration adit on the vein provided strong support for
a predominantly drill-based resource estimate (Dominy et al., 2009a; Source: Scotgold Resources Ltd)
100 Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) 2012 VOL 121 NO 2
Dominy and Platten Grade control geological mapping in underground gold vein operations
8 Ballarat gold mine, Australia – Llanberris 638 level north ore drive face on the Mako lode system. Drive profile
approximately 5 m by 5 m. The digital photograph has been registered into a mining software package and can be
integrated into the model to display nearby drill holes and geological wireframe. Visual integration such as this is a
critical step in understanding local geology in complex vein systems. Mine development needs to be responsive to
often short scale changes in veining and grade (Source: Castlemaine Goldfields Ltd)
Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) 2012 VOL 121 NO 2 101
Dominy and Platten Grade control geological mapping in underground gold vein operations
and poor gold liberation and recovery; and abrasive ore sample quality. These issues relate to, amongst other things:
that leads to rapid mill component wear. the rate of face advance, time pressures, and availability of
Relevant geometallurgical mapping characteristics the geologist. It is critical to have mine coverage by the
could include: abundance of visible/coarse gold, sulphide- geological team and this may need to be 24 h per day.
rich versus sulphide-poor mineralisation (and associated
bulk density variability), the presence of problematic mi- Geotechnical mapping unified with
neral species (e.g. chlorite or tellurides), alteration and
associated clay content, quartz/wall rock ratios, degree of
geological mapping
oxidation, and mineralisation hardness and abrasiveness (a Geological mapping during grade control provides a
visual based classification based on rock type, alteration perfect opportunity for the collection of geotechnical
type/strength and fracture density for example). information. An appropriately trained geologist is the
natural recorder of geotechnical data. The geologist can
Mapping and sampling under production collect data from faces and/or side walls to include rock
type, major and minor structures, blockiness and water
conditions: the time issue seepage. This information will support the definition of
During production, time spent at a working face is rock mass quality and structural regimes, which will in
critical. The geologist must develop skills to collect the turn feed into stope design (e.g. dilution control) and
best information in the shortest time. There is rarely an ground control. Faces can be treated as windows for
hour to spend at a face and more likely between 15 and geotechnical mapping or a scan line(s) can be taken
30 min. across the face and along the side walls back to the
Operational pressure tends to be higher in large previous face position. A visual assessment may be made
mechanised mines, whereas in smaller mines (e.g. air leg) of drive backs, though these may be bolted and meshed
there is usually a higher focus on tonnage quality rather already. During rising, a similar approach using faces
than quantity of tonnes. Whilst not wanting to unduly and side walls can be applied. In entry stoping methods,
hold up development, time to do the job properly and on-going geotechnical assessments of backs and side
collect samples in a geological context is imperative. The walls are critical for both dilution and ground control.
authors maintain that once the mining crew has made a The inclusion of geotechnical mapping may add to the
face safe, it is not unreasonable for a geologist to be time needed at the face, though for an experienced
allowed 30 min at the face per shift. Actual time geologist this may be no more than a few minutes.
required will depend on orebody complexity and drive
size. In reality, the actual delay cost by allowing Integrating mapping and sampling data into the
geologists access to a face is minimal, though few mines stope design process
will either realise or admit this. Mapped and sampled development (as drives, possibly
There is often an inverse relationship between the size of a with raises) serves to effectively block out reserves.
mine and sample mass collected at face. Additionally, there Development data are often supplemented by diamond
is also often an inverse relationship between mine size and drilling information (Fig. 8). As part of the grade
Table 2 Key stages in the design and implementation of an underground gold mine grade control programme. Outputs
will be dependent upon stage of project development, but an assumption of some access to the ore zone is
assumed (from Dominy et al., 2011)
102 Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) 2012 VOL 121 NO 2
Dominy and Platten Grade control geological mapping in underground gold vein operations
control estimation process, a design file should be opinions expressed in this paper are those of the authors,
established for each stope. This should contain all and not necessarily those of Snowden.
relevant geological, grade and geotechnical data to
facilitate economic evaluation and design. The stope References
file should include both digital and paper based
Dominy, S. C. 2010. Grade control sampling methods in underground
information, with a physical file established to document gold mine grade control, in Proceedings of the Sampling
all parameters and visuals of designs. Conference, 7–20, Melbourne, The Australasian Institute of
The success of the process will be constrained by the Mining and Metallurgy.
level of collaboration between geologists and engineers. Dominy, S. C., Annels, A. E., Johansen, G. F. and Cuffley, B. W. 2000.
General considerations of sampling and assaying in a coarse gold
In complex orebodies, the need for close collaboration is environment, Trans. Inst. Min. Metall., 109, B145–B167.
very high. Planning meetings must be held to ensure that Dominy S. C. and Petersen J. S. 2005. Sampling coarse gold-bearing
all information is passed between the parties. Geologists mineralisation – developing effective protocols and a case study
must use mapping data to constrain the estimation from Southern Greenland, in Proceedings of the Second World
process and build any complexities into the stope design Conference on ‘Sampling and blending’, 151–165, Melbourne,
The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.
(Figs. 3, 4, 6 and 8). Final sign-off on stope economic Dominy, S. C., Platten, I. M. and Raine, M. D. 2003. Grade and
viability and design must be a bipartite activity. geological continuity in high nugget effect gold-quartz reefs:
implications for resource estimation and reporting, Trans. Inst.
Safety issues Min. Metall., 112, B239–B259.
There are many safety considerations to be had when Dominy, S. C., Platten, I. M., Xie, Y. and Sangster, C. J. S. 2009a.
Analysis of geological mapping data at the Cononish gold-silver
working underground. One of the greatest risks for the
mine, Perthshire, Scotland, in Proceedings of the Seventh
geologist is working under unsupported ground. In many International Mining Geology Conference, (ed. S. C. Dominy),
operations, close access to the face is not permitted and 187–196, Melbourne, The Australasian Institute of Mining and
leads to the application of ‘remote’ mapping and grab Metallurgy.
sampling during development. This tends to be in the Dominy, S. C., Platten, I. M., Fraser, R. M., Dahl, O. and Collier, J. B.
2009b. Grade control in underground gold vein operations: the
larger rather than small mines. Awareness of the risk and role of geological mapping and sampling, in Proceedings of the
proper training is critical. High risk also faces the Seventh International Mining Geology Conference, (ed. S. C.
geologist when mapping and sampling within raises, Dominy), 291–307, Melbourne, The Australasian Institute of
again training is required. Mining and Metallurgy.
Dominy, S. C., Platten, I. M. and Nugus, M. J. 2010. Application of
Conclusions geology to alleviate sampling bias during the evaluation of high-
nugget gold systems, in Proceedings of the Sampling Conference,
This contribution proposes that effective geological 75–85, Melbourne, The Australasian Institute of Mining and
mapping, together with sampling are critical to grade Metallurgy.
control in underground gold vein operations. Grade Dominy, S. C., Platten, I. M., Xie, Y. and Minnitt, R. C. A. 2011.
control is about adding value by delivering optimal Underground grade control protocol design: case study from the
Liphichi gold project, Larecaja, Bolivia, Trans. Inst. Min. Metall.,
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and waste. It permits better selectivity to optimise grade Edgar, W. B. 2012. Geological aspects from the redeveloped Ballarat
above the cut-off, minimise waste/low-grade rock dilu- gold mine, AusIMM Bull., 4, 71–77.
tion and maximise mining recovery. Forrester, J. D. 1947. Principals of field and mining geology, New
A number of issues support a successful underground York, John Wiley & Sons.
James, A. H. 1946. Profile technique useful in mapping stope geology,
grade control programme: Eng. Min. J., 147, 74–75.
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N appropriate sampling and assaying protocols, which and mining, London, Chapman and Hall.
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Key recommendations for the design and implementa- Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.
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summarised in Table 2. Wiley & Sons.
Platten, I. M. and Dominy, S. C. 2003. The occurrence of high-grade
A well-designed grade control programme will show gold pockets in quartz reefs at the Gwynfynydd mine, Wales,
stakeholders that by applying geological knowledge, the United Kingdom: a geological explanation of the nugget effect,
mining process can be more efficient and cost effective. Explor. Min. Geol., 10, 249–272.
The authors believe that grade control is about Rees, K. 2012. The benefits of using photogrammetry in the geological
identifying uncertainty and risk to maximise value. It interpretation of the Cosmos nickel mine, in Proceedings of
Narrow Vein Mining Conference, (ed. S. C. Dominy), 145–147,
is about setting expectations and ensuring no surprises Melbourne, The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.
and where there is risk – manage it. Rickard, T. A. 1907. The sampling and estimation of ore in a mine,
London, Hill Publishing Company.
Acknowledgements Schmitt, H. 1936. On mapping underground geology, Eng. Min. J., 137,
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The authors acknowledge various companies for the Van Der Merwe, H. C. 2009. SirovisionH: a proposed solution for the
implementation of a digital geological mapping system at the
opportunity to input into grade control studies over a Moab Khotsong mine, in Proceedings of the World Gold
number of years. Thanks are due to AES Editor, Professor Conference, 183–191, Johannesburg, The Southern African
Neil Phillips for his helpful review of the manuscript. The Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.
Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) 2012 VOL 121 NO 2 103