ETEMENTS OF

Practical
Aerodynamics

BNADI.EY JONTS
PROFESSOR O!' A9RONAUI'ICS
UNMRSTTY OF CINCL{NATI
A.F,IIr.9,

8e44&8ES(n
W+l'lg{,
ryDeL
eoor -d
li ;.--{ l"'{ t-a f-i F-t F*.r

Preface

Tbis book is plaped to. intrgduce the reader to the subject, of :

aerodynamics. The treatment is intended to be elementary so that

it will serve either as a general survey of ihe practicsl aspects of
aerodlmamics or as preliminary to a inore theoretical treetment of
the subject. The reader is assumed to have had no mathematics
beyond elementary calculus,
In the preparation of this edition, an eflort has been made to
amplify and clarify the text. l'here has bien some rearran6emenl
of chapters rvhich it is thought will aid in the classroom presenta-
tion of the subject. Some descriptive material not directly pertinent
to aerodynamics has been omitted. All the problems have been
revised- Someittention is given to en exam;ration of some stand-
ard florvs in order that the reader may comprehend the principles
of detnrmining pressure distributions, which is so iinportant in the
study of rving theory. Th.:se sc Jrions may be omitted without
destroying the continuity.
I wish to acknowledge the assistance of Prof. Louis F. Doty of
the University vi Cincirnati for helpful suggestions and for as-
sistancd in the proofreadingi. .A,s in previous editions, liberal use
has been nade of N.A.C.A.. reporbe
Bn rpmy JoNos
Un erdtg c! Cirlci,nnti
Jamnry, 1960
.ral
-t -l >-{
-l-FtF4Fr | 4 }
t-r t-l
{l
F' Ft
-
FI F FI FI FI t1

Contents

L I.\.'TRODUCTION I
2. FLUID LAWS 6
3. CASES
4. THE ATI{OSPHERD . 48
5. FLAT A)iD CURVIID PLATDS 6r
6, AINFOII.S
7. AIII FLO\Y I\ TWO DII,IENSIONS ABOUT A WINC , 83
8. \\IINCS WITII ASPI'CT ITATIO OF SIX AT SUBSONIC
S PEE DS 95
9. \.'OIITEX l,IOTtO\ r46
10. CORRECTIO\ fON ASPDCT RATIO 159
11. SCALD AND COIIPRESSIBILITY ]TFFIJCTS 194
12. AUXILIARY LIFT DDVICUS 208
13. DRAC
14. ENGINES ] 225
16. PROPELLERS 23t
16. LDVEL }'LIGHT 284
17. CLIMBII:G FLIGHT 288
18. CLIDING FLIGHT 29t)
IO. FASIORS AFFECTING iERFORMANCE
20, TAKDOFF AND LANDING 334
2I, ENDURANCE AND ITANCE
22. TURNS 464
23. LOAD FACTORS 381
24. CONTROL SUnl ACDS 893
26. STATIC STABII,ITY 4()6
26. DYNAMIC STAI]II,ITY 422
ANSWERS TO PITOBLIiMS 432
]NDEX 457

L
 !rttr!::::a
lrtl

I L

I
I
cl
Introduction
I
t
t.
Ij 1.1. AERODYNAMICS
1. Aerodynamics is the study of the motion of air and of the lorces

tl"
I

I
on solids in motion relative to the air.

I.2. FLUIDS
A fluid is material that flows; that is, it changes its shape easily.
In a fluid, the particles cohere so slightly that they may be ea"sily
ma.d: to change their relative positions by the application of very
small forces. A fluid is homogeneous. A fluid has very slight resist-
ance to tension and moves continuously under shear.
At idzal f:uid ie con,'oived to be a fl':id rvh::h has absoluteiy no
resistarce to snear forceel consequently, between trvo p-ariicles,
the action of any force nugt be normal to the contact surfaces anC
there can be no tangential components. No ideel fluids exist. The
conception of an ideal fluid is convenient in developing certain
theories. Theories based on an ideal fluid have to be corrected
before they can be applied to real fluids.
A fluid moy be either a liquid or a gas. The chief difrerence
between gaseous fuide and liquid fluids is their resistance to com-
pression..

1.3. MASS
Mass iB the measure of the quantity of metter in a body. The
masr of o boCy rena;ns cor,sts,nt uniess part of the body is removed
br additional matter 'i added. The '"s*o of a body is uot the ssme
as its weight. The weight of a body is the force with which rhe
body ia being pulled toward the center of the earth, and, if tiris
ottractive force cbanges, the body's weight changes though its
msgs do€s not

z
 INTRODUCTIOi.I \rISCOSI:IY 3
lfu rrnlt of mass is the shrg. One slug is the mass rvhich weig,rs by shear from its origrnal shape to a new
shape,{gEF, the shear
I'l? lb under the standard gravity condition. strain is angle d or DF/DA.
I3. nuids, Bhesr strain continually
. inueases. Therefore, if "{gCD
l,l' ItllNslTY in Fig. t.lo r€presenrs the originat shape
;i;;;;;;;i,^;i'il;
lhnrlty io the mass per unit volume (slugs per cubic {oot)' It is
|;l unit
ltt ho oonfused u'ith specific rveight, rvhich is the rveight per
lihttrr (pounds pcr cubic fcct). Numerically, the density is
lfUnrl tty dividing the specific rveight by the acceleration of
lfllfy I (feet per second per second), the value of the latter
hlir lor the place shere the \veight rvas measured.
Itrolffc volume ie the volume of unit rvcight; it is the reciprocal
J lht rpocific weight.
c D v
l,l, ti[:ssuRE
v-,_--
Al'ltlliu pressure is force dividcd by the area over rvhich the *lLvt*/
l m lr,tr, Ordinlrily pressure is mcasulcd in pounds pcr square vl
l|l ol lu pounds per squute inch. In sotrrc pressurc-measuring
tillor, tho preseurc is measurcd by noting thc height of a column
AB
d nrt.uty that will be balancecl by thc pressure As a cubic foot
d rro,rry rveighs 848.7149 lb, a column of mercury ft high I
bdtnoor c p:eacure of 848.7 Ib per aq ft or 5.89{ lb per eq in. 6)
Itudrrd atmospheric prcssure i8 29.921 in. of mercury: Fro. 1.1. Bhosr in lolidg ead fluide.
Uaa,l /12') X 29.92 or 2116.2 lb per sq ft or 14.093 lb per sq in.
tlhrro can never be a negativ€ preisrrrc' i,e,, a pressure lees than
and after a short interval of time thig fluid hao
the s haoe of ABEF.
tfit, at a lainr timo it will be more deformed j
Itruuror are sometimes givcn as "gage" pressure (the pressure
at""8i;i;li;;_
greater valuo. For fluidr, thereforo, tho strain
"od
mdlnjr on a gage). Gage presaures are measured posioively abovo tte enJ; I *;;
used in computationg of viecosity.
almfipharic proesure. A negative gage pressure is the amount of In Fig. 1.1b, a.btationary surface.r{g and a moving
bololv atmospheric pressure surface CD
)Frlut! are separatod by a fluid. Ir ie aasumed tl"t
tlu f"y!.-oi nJiil
immediate cont&ct with ,{g adheres to it and t
Ir, vllcoSITY 'Iho layer of fluid in oontact with eurface
uJo.itrl
CD "."ru.o il;;
Vlaoorlty i! that property of fluids which tende to retard r€lative same v€locity u as the eurface, Tbe velocity"d;;;;;;
th. i;;"_ri;;
mollon of difieren', parts of the flrrjd. Whereae aolide have a definite fluid will va,ry between thege limits. If Ar"t,"f;h;;ifr;;;;l;
trhhnor to rbear, f,uide move continuouely undor tho action of of fluid saparated b], di"i;o;;;;;;;
rhlrt lorbc.. ;,,"i:::ti :l,ty" leyen
lrvo particles,_ " eacb other orid-
t ee iu each layer, ere oppoeita
ln rolldr, ahear strain iB the mee8urp of deformation producod na,ly, st th6 €Dd of I eec the faatar moving particle
wilt be ap fit
hy r rhmr rtreu, Epecifically, it is tho engle of shear in radiang or ahead of the other, The rate of strain *ti U a,yafl,
Itr lrnlant (for rmall angles, the tangent may be coneidered equal limir du/ily.
;; ; ;;
l,u l,hr rn3lc ltrelf ). For a eolid, .r{BCD in Fig. 1.1o, which is changed The coefrcient of vircoeity p ie defined aa the ratio
of the shmr.
 INTB,ODUCUON
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY
lA3 rtress r to the rate of shear strain. In Fig. 1.1b, the ehearing
BeoauE€ the density of air is affecLed
d'ffr r would be the force F applied to the moving surface CD, by both pressurc und
dlvldd by the of CD in contact with the fluid. temperature, whereas the coefficient
ar.ea of visclsitv i.
by temperature, the coefficient ui tino-iti, "mo.r";;i;
i r,iscosity of air ic
y:= (1.6.r) greater at bigh altitudes.than at-the
ground. fo,
u*ffito; il;
ctu
lwel with the temperature bgoF, ti" .oumrioni
da viscosity y ie 1.566 X 10-{ sq ft per
of kinematis
"t 6;,ini;;
u.r,'.,uh.ru*
uhore p is in siugs per fooilsecond altitude, where the temperature is
-62"F,'thc
matic viscgsity r is t6.gb X lO+ sq iio*'."..
coefficient of kin*
u is in feet per second
y is in feet
r is in pounds per square foot. TABLE T.1
Conrncruxr o}, Vtscosrry
The absolute coefficient of viscosity p, being of importance only rr FoR AIR

whcn a fluid is in motion, is sometimes called the coefficient of tt

Tcmpereture in stugs
rlynamib viscosity. In liquids, viscosity is due to the inlernal oF
in
pcr Tentperilture in slrrgs pcr
foot-sccond units in "F
Itlotion oi the molecules. In gases, viscosity is due not so much to fool-socurirl urrits
lnlornal friction as to molecular vibration. Consider a rapidly -67 2.056 X l0-7 30 3.5b; \, t0-7
-60 3.006 X l0-7 40 3.615 x l0-?
tnot'ing stratum of gas immediately over another stratum of gas -50 X t0-7
3.069 50 3.tt73 X t0-?
moving more slorvly in the same direction. Some rnolecules from -.10 3.138 X l0-7 59 3.726 X l0_?
lht upper layer, ou'ing to their vibratory n:ction, will wander into -3C 3.196 X t0-7 60 3.71j^ X l0-7
lhl lorver layer anrl ,dll accelerate the motion of the lower strata. -20 3.252'X n-7 70 3.767 X l0-?
ilolecules passing from the lower to the upper ',ur&tum will retard
-10 3.318 X l0-7 80 3.813 X l0-7
0 3.379 x r0-7 90 9.899 X l0-z
ihc motion of the upper stratum. Any mingiiug of the molecules l0 X l0-7
n
3.439 100 8.955 X rg-t
h0ween the two strata tends to make the two velocities more 3.498 X l0-?
ltterly equal.
In liquids, an increase in temperature ca,uses a decl€ase in vis-
oority, because the intermolecular friction is less. fn gases, an
lnorease in temperature causes an'increase in viscosity, because
lhere is an increase in molecular vibration and therefore &n
lncrcssein molecular interchange.
The coefhcient of viscosity p of air varies approximately as the
)( pover of the absolute temperature. The variation of p for air
with temperature is shorvn in Table 1.1. Except for very high or
very low pressure, the coefficient of viscosity p is independent of
pressur,e.

I.7. KINEMATIC VISCOSITY

The coefficient of kinematic viscosity v is the ratio of the co-
officient of viscosity p to the density:

y:- tt
p
 EYDROBf,ATIC PRESSI'RE

The wedge may be treated as a free body as shorvn in Fig. 2.1b.

The force F1 acting on the vertical face is the pressure p1 mul-
tiplied by the area Ao X Aa tan 0. The upward f.orce F2 acting on
the underside is the press\rre p2 multiplied by the area (Ao)2.
The force Fa o.n thb inclined surfase is the pressure g on this
Fluid Laws surface multiplied by its area Ao X Ao sec d. The force F3 may be
resolved into t-n'o components, a horizonf,al component F3 sin 0
and a vertical compoueui,'F3 cos 6.
For equilibrium, the sum of the horizontal forces must equal
zero and the sum pf the vertical forces must equal zero:
L'S LAW
a tiquid at rest, there can be
no shear' .sin':c if there is shear LH:0:Fasin0-F1
or
ouid rvill continue to deform' Forces acting
on
-particles'
These forces but Fs: ps(Aa\2 *c0 and F1 : p1(La)2 tunl
oi p"rli.r"*, mttst be nolmal to the surface' g : [p3(Ao)2 sec 0]sin d y(Aa)2 Lanl
-
O -- ps(Aa)2 tan0 - p1(Aa\2 tani

T Pr:Pg
l*
Ac
and LV:0:Facosd-.t's
but F2: p2(Aa)z
I
-I g : [p(Ao)2 aecl]cos0 pz(Aa)2
-
g: p6(Aa)2 - pz(to)2
i.-ao'.'*l ?z=Fz
(d) Pr = Pz.: pB

Fro, 2,1. Prescurer i! !t&"lc 0uld' Since 0 may have eny posaible value, the pressure in any direction
has the aame magnitude as the pressure in any other direction at a
thatt if point in a fluid.
be balanced if the fluid is at rest' Paec&l stated
yle o.gl".tud, the pressures at any point in a fluid muat be
2.2. EYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
a r;" in magnitude in any
direction'
- - . . t"pl"jil$*^:
io ng. 2.r", in infrnitesimal particle.of lYidj: lThen two points in a fluid have.a finite difference in elevation,
t, tf" eOgoof each face beir.g Ao in
length' The preesuree p1 on
pressureo p2 on
the veight of the fluid muet be coneidered in determining the
vertioal-facea are equal and opposite' Tbe difrerence iu pre"rure between the two points. In Fig. 2.2, aveftica)
borizontal faces are equal and opposite' cylinder has.a height f, and a coss-soctional area of ,r{. The prer-
.i" pl*. u. paseed tlirough a lower horizontal,edsll-1lo11' sure on the upper surfpce of the oylinder ia p1, and on the lower
;;;;;sl.? with the hirizontal' Since no shea'r ir pre*nt'
surface if ia p),Il,o ia' the rpecific'weight of the fluid, the wqigh6
ffi".* pl on this new face is normel to the surfaoe' of the fluid in the oylinder ia uh,A, For equilibrium, the sum ollUe
 I t I

8I.IIID L/\WB LAW OF CONTINI'ITY 9

lhrough every point on thi; curve form a stream tube. As the v;all
Yrrtlcal forcas'must be equal to zero'
pzA*prA+uhA of this tube iscomposed of streamlines, there san be no llory
through this wall.
(2.2.1)
Pt-Pt=wh The stream tube e"ts like an imaginary pipe. The pipe ni:ry havc
the fluid beiag non- a variable cross section. There being no place in the stream tube
The above presumes thaL ro is constant, u ie
compressible' If the fluid is comprtssible'
variable and
ilp = uilh (2.2.2)

If h is measured downward, dp is poditive;

if h is measured upward, dp is negative'
The integration of Eq. (2.2'2) depends on the Ftc. 2.3. Strclrrr {.ube.
manrer in which trl varies with h'
u'hcle fltrid is creuterl or tle:;tro1'etl, tlre vclo<:ity is grca,ter rvherc
2.3. STREAMLINES
thc cross section i; srnnll thlrr rvlrcrt.it is llrrge.
A stream of air may be conceived as consist-
ing of a number of particles moving in the 2.5. LAli' OF CC)N'I']NUITY
,*t" g"o.t"l direction. The path of any oneis If a fluid is moving steadily :rnd uniformly through a clo,"ed pipr:

]1c, r.2. Hvdro

pa*ic[ is called a strearnline' A streamline or strea.m tube, the ma-rs of flrrids passing one section in 1 sec must
lbtlo pressure. a'lso defined
as a line' thn tangent to which be th.; s:l,rne &s the mass of fluid pnrripg any othcr secti^rr in one
at any point is the drection of thc veloc'i'y second. If p is the density of the flr,icl in slugs per cubic foot, A
do
ri thst point. In steaiy'flow shapes of the st'reamlines
the the cross-sectional area in square feer, and I/ the. velocit-r' of th"
il &";" from one instant to the next; i.e., they a.e independent flurC in feet per second, the mass passing a section in I sec is
ol iime. If the shapes of the streamlines are continually changing' p,4.7 slugs. The lan'of continuity is
bhc flow is unsteedY'
that would mean that two pAV : constant (2.5.r)
Two streamlines cannot
be"'oo
"io""
in the same place at the saure time,
oniti"i"" of fluid would :
irhi.t ir impossible.
' -ifttn"
nArVr pzAzVz (2.5.2)
florv is such that any one streamli ne is entirely
in one
in that rvhere the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to any trvo particular sections
olon" urra all other individual streamlines are entirely
of the pipe.
ffi;i;;, i" p*tilel plane,-the flow is twodimensionai' In If the fluid is incompressible, p is constant and the law of corr-
" shapgs-i.s identical
ilititn" "r flol, thl pattern ot itte.streamline
An of twedimensionel
tinuity may be written as
to * series of p"i*ttut planes' exa'mple
"otiru giound a cylinder of infinite length in a AY :.constant (2.5.3)
;;; rh" motion oi noia
;;;"ril at right angles to the sxis of t'he cvlinder' Arlh: AzVz (2.5.4)
gTREAM TUBES This signifies that, if d1 is larger than /.2, yr will
be less than 72.
'I.4. cun': such in Fig' 2'3 is con-
as ob Dfrerentiating Ec1. (2.5.1) and dividing by pAV gives another
In a steady flow, if a clo.sed drawn
rldered i1 a plane perpendicular to the flow' the streamlines form of the law of continuity which is';alid, whbther the fluid is
T
lart.
lr
FLUID LAWS
]-i
if1-
t-l r-"!
- 'i t-l
rl

BERNOIIJI'S EQUATTON
rrQtt?
lr

1l
2.6. BERNOULLI'S EQUATION
tsarProuible or incomPressible :

do dA In steady motion, a relation may be found between the pressure

e,+ ff:o
(2.5.5)
i+ and the velocity at any point of a streamline. In Fig. 2.4 is shown
a small element of .the fluid formibg part of a str€am tube. The
the fluid is incompressible, p is constant and Eq. (2.5.5)
Il
Fduou to
itA , dv .-0
A- v
(2.5.6)
diameter of the stream tube is so
small that the pressure may be as-
sumed to be uniform ecros.s the sec-
tion. The length of the element is ds,
+
+ ,J Vrooot
t itv
its cross.sectional area is .24,, and its
density is p. The element has a veloc- {a'F
dA (2.5.5a)
A 7 ity V to the right.
the left end is
The pressure on
p and on the right end
Fro. 2.4. Fluid elem6ut.

Thlr means that wher dA is positive (i.e., the area is increasing) is p - dp. This pressure difference.will carrse a positive accelera-
Cy lr ncgative (i.e', the velocity is decreasing)- When the area is tion to the. right. Since the tube is assumed to be horizontal,
tl:ortnring, dJ is negative; then dll is positive and the velocity is weight may be neglected.
Ilunudng. By Newton's second law of motion, the product of a mass
EXAMPLI] multiplied by its acceleration is equal to the unbalanced fgrce
causing the acceleration. In this case, the mass of the fluid is its
A plpe is gradually tapering in size, diminishing by 0.1 sq ft p:r foot
volume ,4 ds multiplied by its deasity p. The acceleration will be
ru;, iVhet is tbe change in velocity per foot run where the pipe is 4 sq ft
lF ,troas section, if the velocity ttrcre is 90 ft per see. Is the velocity dv/dt. The accelerating fcree will be ihe pressure difference -dp
lnanming or decreasing? multiplied by the area L on which this pressure acts.
Edttt'ttn.
ita itv :A itp : oA dr#
dt dt
A -v _dp _dsXdV
itv p dt
dB but
-0.1
4
itv :
90

+2.25 ft per sec per ft, increasing

ff:,
dt
ofr more simply, a decrease of 0.1 sq when area is 4 sq ft means a
ft -dP
p - Y d.v (2.6.1)

rlnorcnse of 2.5 per cent in area; this means an increase of 2:5 per cent in Integration gives
-0.02S
velooity or X 90 : 2.25 It per sec per ft. yz f d,e
PROBLEMS T +J ;: constant (2.6.2)

1,6.1. A circular pipe, lfi) ft long, graduelly tapers from 3 ft ir If the fllid is incompressible, p is constant and
rllrmo0er at one end to 2 ft in diameter at the-other.'Fluid is flowiug
lmm the bigger toward the smaller end. Whet is the rate of increase in oV2
volocity st the entrance il the velocrty there is 80 ft per sec?
t
7+P:H (2.6.3)

i..
Q..:r '':r'- i I
7' 'l)
 r-----l
.!! il.l{lri.:
\
BERIiIOULLI'S EQUATION 78
FLUID LAws
lf . Pt - 2,116.2 + 20 X I44
cubic foot :
rhrru P is in stugs Per 4,996.21b per sq ft (cbs)
V is in feet Per secontr
p elnd H are in pounds per square loot' 4,ee6.2 * #(6.s88), : pz * #h(zs.se;z
the kinctic :ne.rCy of a cubic foot of a
Tho lirtt, term represents a velocity Iz' Thc second term p2: ft
iJii,"*it"rt has a densitv p ln<lthe cubic fo<lt of fluid' If potenti:rl 4,404.21b per sq (abs)

ilprosents the pressure "n"tgy'of : 15.9 lb per sq in. (eage)

:r'rc neglected'..// r'epresents r'hc lotal
ililii;-""a heat energv
cubic fooi of fluirl. Bernoulli's equati.n may als'
be
il;;; J1h" PROBLEMS
Urltt€n in the form
,+*rtt:# *r,
\-
-2.6.1. A horizontal pipe, 1 ft in diameter, tapers gmdua.lly to 8 in.
in. diameter. If the florv is 500 cu ft of water per minute, rvhat is the
differencb between the pressures at the trvo sections?
2.6.2. Water flows through n horizontal pipe at a velocity of 50 ft
whcre IZ is in feet Per second
per sec. Orving to the pipe gradually exna.nding to a larger size, the
p is in Portntls Pcr square foot
velocity decreases to 35 ft per sec. lYhat is the difference bcts'ecn the
,cfc, to clilTcrenb scctions of thc strelm tube'
"r.tbs"ript, pressures at two points, one in ench size of pipe?
thc
lf the flo$, is smooth, rvithotrt turlrttlcnc:c 6r' cddy cttrreltts, 2.6.3. The diameter of a horizontal tube is 4 in., in rvlrich tetnr-
may bc nppli"tl to thc bromoethane (spec. grav. : 3.0) is florving at the rate of 0.50 cu ft
lolm or Bernoulli's equation shted allovc
iow tnrougt a horizont'al pipe of varying dian're[er" Smooth florv !e:' sec. The pressure is 30 Ib per sq in. (gage). If the tube gradually
grad-';al' An abrupt decreases to 3 in. in diameter, rvhat is the pressure there?
uJru," rvheln changes in the size of the pipe are 2.€.4. ,rlcohol (spec. gra,v. : 0.80) is flowing throu;h a horizontal
a turbulent flo*' at that point.
;;;,u"
-' in the pipe- diameter causes
pipe, which is l0 in. in diameter, with a velocity of 40 ft per sec. At a
Aii roonirrg-*l lor" speeds may be treated as an incompressible smaller sectron of the pipe, there is 6 lb per sq in. less pressure. Assuming
ntiJ. et of 200 mph and over, its compressibitity must-bc thet the flow is smooth, what is the diameter there?
"p""a" another
lolrn into uccountin making calculations. At these speeds 2.6.5. Air is flowing horizontelly at e speed of lCC mph through a
equation must be usrJ. Bernoulli's equation
iorni of Bernoulli,s duct 4 sq ft in cross section. The duct gradually n&rrows down to a
iu, .o*or.*tible fluidsis discussed in Chapter 3' throat section. If a U-tube shows a difference in pressure between the
throat and msin sections of 7 in. of water, what is lire cross-sectional
EXAMPLE srea of the throat? (Assume that the air is non-compressible and has
dorvn to 4 in' in diam- a density of 0.002378 slug per cu ft.)
A s'ater pipe 8 in. in diameier gradually tapers
per min' If the pressure is 20 lb per
ot.r. if," ,"t" of florv is 1,000 gal 2.6.6. A horizontal water pipe is reduced in size from 18 in; in tliam-
it in', o'tt"t is the pressure where the diameter eter at point d to 6 in. in diameter at 8. The flow in th" pipe is 10 cu ft.
aq i". the diameter S
"ft*"
ir'4 in.? (Water weighs 62'4 lb per cu ft') per sec,and the pressure at .r{ is 20 lb per sq in. (gage). If it is assumed
Sotuliotr. that there is no loss'in energy due to friction,.what is the pressure at B?
2.6.7 . lyir flows th"ough a horizontal pipe et the rate of 3,000 cu ft per
1,000 gal per min - Tl'ry== : 2'228 cuft per reo sec. If the pne$ure is 30 lb per sq in. (gage) where the diameier is 3 ft,
what ie the pressure where the diameter is 2 ft?
2,2?= ' 2.6.8. Water flows through a horizontgl pipe at the rate of 8fi) gel per
v, : - 6'383 ft Per sec
min. What is the difrerence in pressure between a point wherd the
f,(rl)?
diiuneter is 2 in. and a poirit where the diametcr is I in.?
- 25'532 ft Per sec 2.6.9. A hoiizontsl pipe line enlerges from s diameter of 6 in. et
"': #f

Strl ii
 tl l4

f,.LUID LAWS VENTI'RI TT'BE 15

ft
I !o a diameter of 12 in at point 8. The florv of rvater is 20 cu 2oz (At" - Ar'\
i, rnd ttte pressure st.A is l0lb per'sq in' Whst is the pressure et B? - 2- \ Ar2Ar' I
TIXTUNT TUBE
nl application is made of Bernoulli's equation in the
Q: Az (2.7.1)

Ube. tne Yenturi tube is a convergent-divergent tube

i rhort cylindrical throat or constricted see'tion as shorvn in
rvhere Q is in cubic feet per second
,{ ii in square feet
p is in pounds per square foot
p is in slugs pcr cubic foot.

EXAMPLE
The diarneler at ,4., Fig. 2.5, ie 12 in.; the diameter at B is 6 in.
\\:hat is the flos' rate of rvat'i if the pressure difference bets'epn B and
,{ is 5 in. Hg?
Solzllon.

Fro. 2.5. Venturi tube. au- ::f:)' :

4\2/ o.re6 sq rr
ilf, l.O. This ,levice determines the ratc of'florv of fluid through
by measuring the difference in pr essure iretween the throat
AB _*:L
ihi tuU.
section.
Atl4
---Dy and the entr&nce
Htlon :
the larv of continuity, Q being the rate of flow in cubic feet 6 in. Hg 5 X 70.73 = 353.6 lb per aq ft
plt tooond, for non-compressible fluids,
Q: ArVt: AzTz I: 0'196

Tbrn
- 3.87 cu ft per sec
Vr' : (f)'
PROBLEMS
,r' : (h)' 2.7.1. A Venturi tube narrows down from 4 in. in diameter to 2 in. in
diameter. What is the rate of flow of woter if the pressure at the throot
rnd by Bemoulli's equat'ion is 2 Ib per sq in. leee than et the larger section?
2.7.2. A Ycnturi iube is 6 in. in diarreter et the sntrance, n:here the
pt-pz=f,{vr'-Vf) pressure is 10 lb,per sq in. (g:ge). The throet i8 4 in. diameter; there the
pressure ie 6 l{aC in. (gage). What ie the flow of water?
2.7.3. A 12 in. by 6 in. Venturi meter is located in a horizontal water
-2(Q'_E-\
z \ar' At'/
line. If the presoure gages reed 30 lb per aq in. end 16 lb per sq in., what
io the flow?
16 FLUID LAWS STAGNATION POINT 17

B.H. IIULATIVE MOTION The pressure at the stagnation point is crrlled the si,agnation
When a solid, blunt-nosed body is immersed in a friotionless, pressure, impaco pressure, or dynamic pressure. If there are no
eddies or burblings, Bernoiilli's equation may be usecl to calculate
non-compressible fluid and is in motion relative to the fluid, this
tpln[ive motion ma,y occur in trvo rvays. The body may be station- this pressrtre. If p" is the pressurc at the stagnation p<lint, i3 and
rr,y with the fluid in motion past the body or the fluid may be 7s the pressure and velocity at some undisturbed poinb in a
ll,llionary with the body moving through the fluid. uniform fluid stream, since the velocity at the sbagnation point is
lf the body is stationary with the'fluid moving past it, the zero, 8".
Irplnorance of the streanlines is approximately as shown in I'ig. 2.6. ' pVo2
With the fluid initially at rest and the body in motion througir it, P,:Pon Z
(2.e. i )
nr the body moves forrvard the fluid particles are first shoved aside;
lvhcre p is in pounds per square fcot
I/ is in feet per sccond
. p is in slugs per cubic foot.

Sbagnlt,ion pressure may'be me.rsured b5'placing in tlrc florr' a

_ Frc. 2.6. l.low about a blunt-noscd body.
tlren, as thc body noves on, thc ptrrticles close :n behind the body
nnd are again at rest. From a fixed referencc pr'rnt, the fluid parti-
rlcs have an irregular, unsteady rnotion. Horvever, if an observer
lr locatetr ou the moving bodv, the particles would appear to be
rnoving past the body in smootir streamline fashion as in Fig. 2.6.
l,'or a body moving through a stationary fluid, it is more convenient
t,o study the flow relative to the body than to a stationary reference
gxrint. r'lri; is mathematically acceptable. In this case, the body is
tleated as if it rvere fixed rvith tlie fluid moving past it in such a
nl&nner that at a distance in front of the bcCy it acts as a uniform
rtream s ith a velocity equal in magnitude but opposite in direction
to the actual velocity of the body.
tul.re rvith its open en.l facing u.ostrcam, thc ol,hcr end bcing
conrrcct.cd to a pressurc-mczrsuling <lcvice. A tubc sct in this
m&nner is cailccl lr Pitot tube. Thc Pitot tube
is a slandard rneans of measuring the speed of
fluids (see Fig. 2.7)
In conjunction ,;ith a Pitot tube, there ir:
usually another tube, called the static tube, so
arranged as to measure the pre$sure in the un-
disturbed fluids. These tubes are connected Frc. 2.7. Pitot
to a pressure gage so that 'ulie gage-reading tube.
corresponds to the difference betrveen the
static and dynamic pressures. Such an arrangement is the standard
airspeed indicator used on airylanes. Since
pV2
Ps:Po+ 2

2.9. STAGNATION POINT

In a florv arounci a solid body, as shorvn in }-ig. 2.6,.some stream-
v:P
!z
(2.e.2)

lines will be diverted to one side of the body and other stream.
lines '.'rill be diverted on the other side. There rvill be at least one where Iis airspeed in feet per second
point on the front end of the Lody rvhere a streamline strikes pe is static pressure in pounds per square foot
norrnally. At this point, the velocity is "ero. This point is called a p" is Pitot pressure in pounds per square foot
stagnation point. Point S in Fig. 2.6 is such a stagnation point. p is air density in slugs per cubic foot

,I

i,/
 IHH l--r t-11
i!t:
l-i ,-..a
r=
f-"'l J-- ,- l-l l-l l-l l-l l-l
It "
l-lFl- .-l--l-l-lFr'-:t
^!ti- t'I
l|l FLUID LAWS ,
I
vElpcrrr AND STREAM FUNCTTON 2l
!,0.2. An airplane is flying at sea level at en &irspeed of 160 knots. the fluid crossing OP per second is the same quantity as that
tVlrnt is the difference between inrpact and ststic pressure? crossing O'P per second, since no iluid crosses OO'. Then the stream
2,9.3. An airplanc is flying at ses level. The Cifierence between im- function of P with respect to O is the sarne as the stresm function
;lrut ond static pressure is 0.25 lb
per sq in. Wbat is the airspeed in
of P with respect to O'.
I rrots?
2.g.4. An airplane is flying at 10,0fi) ft altitude. The difrerence
2.11. RELATION BETWEEN VELOCITY AND STREAI\{ FUNG
hol,ween impact and static pressune is 0'25 lb per sq'in. Whoi is the
TION IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOIV
rlnpeed in knots?
',1.S.S. en airplane is flying at 10,000 ft altitude with an airspeed of In twodimensional flow, the velocity I'may be resolved into
lll0 knots. What is the difference between ststic and impact press'.:re? two components, parallel to the X and Y axes respectivcly. Thc
velocity component parallel to the X axis is termed r; its clirection
is positive if from lesser to greater positive values of c, i.e., to thc
/,,:'.:
-O"t^ .l'"
zn.\
- Qq.y
\- 2
right. The component parallel to the
IZ axis is termed u; it is positivc if its
direction is toward increasing posi-
tive values of y, i.e., uprvard.
Stream function is positive if thc
florv is clockrvise about the origin O.
If P and P' are points on atlja-
::. ,.r. stream,'""#. ccnt streamlines (see Fig. 2.9) ud
if drl is thl difference betrveen their
I,IO. STREAIU FUNCTION respective stream J.inctions and d" o'
and dy,the difrerence betrveen their Frc. 2.9. Slream functiou
In studying the two-ciimensional florv of fluid,'it is desirable to
coordinates, the quantity of fluid and velocity.
Irtve a name for the quantity of fluid pnssing betrveen a given crossing PP' per seuond must equal
lxrint and a reference point. This quantity is termed the stteam the quantity crossing P.r{. plus the quantity crossing zlP' per sec-
frrnction I of the given point. In trvo-dimensional flow, the dimen-
ond. Then
rions of stream function are in square feet per second.
In Fig. 2.8e, O is the reference point, OAP md OBP are any ilt = uily - oilc (2.11.1)
ln'o lines connecting O and P. The amount of fluid crossing line Nolp: a is negative because its direction is dorvnrvard.
OAP per second must be the same as the amount of fluid crossing From differential calculus, if ry' is a function of. r und. y,
OBP per second: this amount per second is the stleam function
of P. d,l, : ydfiqac +! au (z.tr.2)
In Fig. 2.8b, points P and P' are trvo points on the same stre&m-
llne. The stream function of P is the amount of fluid crossing line then
OP per second. Since fluid carrnot cross line .I'P' (see Section 2.3),
u-
w
tho quantity of fluid crossing line OP' per second is the same as ^
du
l,hq qualrti$ crossing the line..OP per second. Therefore points
a9
on the-sa,rse streamline hai'e the Same stream function, and, don- O: -- (2.11.3)
vemely, points hiv::g the sarhe stream firnction aFe on the saure 0a
rtroa,mline. Similarly if O' is on a streamline passing through O, When thd value of I is known ".s a r'unction of the a and y
-.] FLUID LAWS
'i UNIFORM FLOW pLUg A SOURCE z,
fluid will travel radially outward from the source. A sink is a
*rlrlinutes for al! points in a trvedimensionel fluid flow, the
negative Bource or a point at which fluid is disappearing at r defi-
telllil,y may be determined'
nite, uniform rate. With no disturbance, the fluid travels radially
EXANIPLE iirward equallSr from all Jirections
ll llrrid is florving so thet { : t2 - y2, determine the velocity at the The strength za of a source is the quantity of fluid appearing per
secondl in twodimehsional flow it is measured in square fe"i per
1',,lnl. (ii, 2).
second. Thb streamlines from a soirrce are ra.dial lines. If crc of
'1ilulion. these streamlines is designated as a base or rcference line, and the
u:!(t'-y')'.,,
d! streamline thrqugh point P makes an angle 0 with this refere'ce
line, 0 being measured countercllek*,ise from the reference line,
: -?! the stream function for the point P is
--4 mB
9:E dinradians
t)= -!@'-r')
dx (?.12. I )
m0
: -2x {t :
' --:-
360
0 in dcgrees
:_6 since the florv is radially outrvrrd, the rnagnitucle of the r-elocicy
y:'\/rrt+o, Izis
:Vgo+ro (2.12_2)
: 7.21 lt per sec
and the direction of Ir malces the anglq d with the reference line.
0: tan-r
: 2.I3. UNIFORM FIOW PLUS A SOURCE
Because stream function is a scalar quantity, stream functions
: tan-r--6 may be added.
--4 The stresm function of a source, of strength m, located at thc
: 236o19' origin.is 9: m0/(2r),0 being measured in radians in a counter-
clockwise direction from the positive X axis. The stream function
PROBLEMS of s uniform, stiaight-line florv parallel to the X axis and. flo*ing irr
l,l l,l What is the veloeity at point (-2, 4i, il P; : at -'rz7 a positive direction is ry' : * Ug, rvhere U is the constant Velocity.
i,ll,l, Wtr"t is the velocity at point (3,5) if * * 1at v2? The streani function of these two florvs when combined is
i,ll,3, Fo. the flow { : rz } y2, what is the velocity point (4, 5)1
i,l l,{, Fot the florv { - 12 } y2, vrhat is the velocity at pcrni (5, 5)? t: *(It +4r*
l,l L6, What, is the velocitv at point (4, 4) if * : ln (s2 1- y2)?
(2.13.1 )
I,IT, FOURCES AND SINKS
= +uu +fiw"u!
le tho mathematical study of fluid flow, a useful.conception is a I{aving the equation for f in terms of the constants U and zr,
frlar, ot t sink..{ source is a point at rvhich fluid is appearing at and: the variables c and gr, curyes may be plotted for various
f &idta, uniform rate: if there is no disturbance to the flow the
 :
,,,,rrrllnre!{, as in Fig. 'fhe streamline representing g : O
2.1Lra.
= r he ,Y nxiE plus a curve resembling a parabola, pP', sho-wn as a
I sa*u".
l,ervy rolid line ia Fig. 2.10c. I u:- w
0u
Ae rro tluid may cross a strearr^line, any streamline may be

h(*u: + fit'"-')
l';rlalr,rl lry a solid boundary, so that the streamlines of Fig. 2.10c =

7,1
= tu. *'(]i;)
: -1(X) ft per sec ,l a :
__r=9:
. 4,,
u- -=- ,. / 'l'
dx

li..

:qry/ l'5 \
,;\o + Fl
03.? ft per sec ;- - , \ (
y:y'1-1sof+(ffiF
f17.6 ft per sec
{b)
p:po-2rvr-url
Fro. 2.10. l:.,urce and uniform flow.

Fft lH considered as thc fl,rrv of a horizontal wind striking a hill

- 0.mll89(lm2
2,116.2- - l6t)
*lp*f lika PP'in Fig. 2.ruD. . = z,lll.4lb per sq ft
'fhr volocity being ascertu.inable at any point in the florv, if the PROBLEMS
Fturo is known at some one poinr,, Bernoulli's law may be used
la frfirl tho pressure at any other point on a given streamline. 2.13.1. With a souroe,and uuiform flow as in the example, find the
pr€ssur€ at the point (0.55?, 1.0).
EXAMPLE 2.13.2. With a source snd uniform flow as.in the exauple, find the
pres$u,e ot the point (-1.15, 2).
I ruuroe of strength of 600 eq ft per sec located at the origin (O, O) 2.13.3; W.ith a gource gnd riniform flow as in the example, find the
I $prrlmposed on a uniform flow of 100 ft per sec parallel to the X axis pressune at tbe point (0.955,0).
h I nrlrtive direction. If the pressure in the flow rcmote from this 2.19.4. With a source a,nd uniform flow as in the exemple, find the
F$ter_lr rtandard atmospheric, what is the preosure at the point (0, l.5X pnessune at the point (-rt.4{17 5, 1.755).
t*i'l'hlr point is on the streamline ry' : g. 2.13,5. For o gource with a etrength of 2 cq ft per eee, located at the
 DVVTIV! rluD Dlt\a rluD uNur-rrtrvt -r4rYv zl

rtllln, I ft per sec parallel to the -X axis, ploi the

nn(l e uniform flow of X axis and a s)'mmetricrl curve, tan (2rUy)/rn-2c!/ (r2 *Yt -c2),
clrrrtttlittcg for {, : 0,* : -0.1, and I : -0.1. resembling an ellipse. The florv ma5, be considered as the trvo-
1I{. SOURCE PLUS SI}IK PLUS UNIFOR}I FLOW dimensional florv about a cylindrical sudace having for its cross
ses[ion the quasi-ellipt,ic shape of the / : 0line-
lf rr nource rrith a strength zr is located on thc X axis aL r : c
nttrl lf nainkuithastrength -rn.islocatcC rntheX axis alr : -c
(e,,r l,'ig. 2. ll), the stream firnction of point P (r,y) is
rn0' m,0"
t:;:_-
,zTtT
(2.14.1)

but
tan 01 : -'!-
r-c
,,--Ej_J and
!
I
+

l,'trt. 2.11. Source lnd sink.

l1no,' -:!l-
- r+c
Frc. 2.12. Source plus sirrk pl.rs uniform flow'
IIy Ilrlgonornetly,
tun0r - Lan0z The cornponeut velocit,ies, tr and u. mlry be found at any point
tan (01
- 0z) :
1* tan 01tan02 by difTercntiating the slt'c:rm function [see Eq. (2'11'3)]
y _u u:-
atP

x-c x*c dy

11(-)(#) -u +
mlr-c
t \;r- +9 (2.14.4)

:;4V-7
w u: -a;
a*

l,!. (2.14.1) may be rervritten in the form na/ |

= +zrW-rl
t\; :) (2.14.5)

{': (2.14.2)
(x +
rvhexe r12 - - c)2 Y2
r22:(r+c)2+a2.
Hrrlxrrimposing a uniform flow of -U ft per sec parallel to the
,l nsin on the outrvard flow c,f the source and the inrvard flow of The components of the velocity bcing kno'lvn, the resultant
llro xirrk gives, for the point P (r,U), velocity may be found. The pressure being knorvn at some point
in.tlre horv, the pressure at another point on the same streamline
*: -uu +fr^n,(;ffi _ (2.r4.3) nray be calculated by Bcrnculli's larv. Or';ing to thc syrcmetry of
",) the streamlines, the lressures on the surfaee, I: 0, are symmett'ic
lly tssigning various values to ry', strea::rlines may be plotted for about the X and Y oies. The sum of'the vertieal pressures is zero,
ilrir frrrm of florv as in Fig. 2.12. Tbe streamline fo, I : 0 is the arrd the sum of the horizontal pressures is zero'
 r^/t,|ry A CIR'CULAR CYLINDER M
. .EL'Url, !ArY$ ^5UU'1'
2.15. FLOW ABOUT A CIRCULAR CYLINI)I}R
EXAMPLE
It was shown in Section 2.14 that the stream function of a sourcc
source, whose etrength is 314.2 sq ft per 8ec, and s sink, who6e
1!. and e sink, each located on the X a>ris at s distance of 2c apart, is
nCrength is -314.2 sq ft per s€c, 8re loceted at (1.0) sud (-1.0) respec-
l,ively. They are superimposed on a uniform ffow of -f00 ft per sec
grnrallel io the X axis.'If the pressure in the florv lemote from the eource
,t,:#r""-^(Vfu) (2.r4.2)

urrd sink is atmospheric and if the fluid is air, rvhat is the pregsure at the
gxrint (1.05, 0.6)? Nolz: This point is on the streamline * : 0.
rnd the streamline for ry' 0 is the X a:ris and a, curve resembling
-
Solruiiuro.
an ellipse.
If the distance 2c betrveen the source and the sink is made smaller
r12 : (1.05 - 1.0)' + (0.6)2
rvhile the strengths m and -rn a,re made larger, the product,2*m,
: 0.3625 always being kept const&nt, tl'e ratio of the length of the major
axis to the length of the minor a:ris of the elliptic figure rvill become
r22 : (1.05 + 1.0)' + (0.6),
less. As the distance 2c approa':hes zero in value, the figure rvill
: 4.5625 become more nearly circular, n'hen it is combined rvith a uniform
\ flow. i:tting F :' ?'cilt, Eq. .(2.A.2) ma5, be re\r'ritten
z : -loo +3112
( o'05 2.05
2r \0.3625 4.56251
: -115.6 ft per sec -t
9- ^*'(v#-z)
4rc
(2.15. l )

| _ I
314-2x0.t/ __t
I \ p
2tr \0.3625 4.5tt25/
: 76.2 ft per sec As c approaches zero, the rightJrand side of the above equation
becorres indeterminate, but, by applying a standard method of
. v2: (_115.6)2 + (76.2>2
calculus (Ilospital's rule), differentiating separately the numerator
:19,170 and the denominator with respect to c, a.nd letting c approach
?,ero., I solutibn is obtained. Performing liris operation on Eq.
:2,1t6.2+ - (2.15.1) gives, for the sourcesink doublet,
P
| rt-rml, 19,1?01
pu
: 2,10F.3 lb per sq ft v:fiffi2 (2.r5,.2)

PROBLEI\{S lVhen this flow ie combined with a uniform, negative flow

X a.xis, the strea,m function becomes
parallel to the
2.14.1. For the flow described in the example, what is the pressure
nt point (1.38,0.2)?
2,14.2. For the flow described in the example, whot is the pressure
{'- -uv +**#*t
ni point (1.27,0.4)? Letting
2.14.3. For the flow descriH in the example, what is the pressure olL
nt, point (1.18,0.5X
2,1{.4. For ttre flow described in the example; what is the pressure
" -?nU
rt grcint (0.56,0.8X
2,14.5. For the flow described in the example, wirat is the pressurc {,--ua+ffi (2.15.3)
nL point (0.0,0.86X
 0: O *'ill,be the X axis and a circle whoe€
'f'lro strcarnline for
at the origin and whose radius is a.
rulrl,or is 4(fvt
Anywhere in the florv, the component velocities are a2

+ ('to'*7) v-2u!o
": *(-uY
In polar coordinates, this becomes
--(r*(ra2l##1 (2.15.4)
l, : 2U sh,O (2.1i.?)

o:-*(uv**2v#) The pressure at any point cn the surface of a circular cylinder in

a uniform flow.is, frorn Bernoulli,s law,

:*(razl#d . (2.15.5)
i
. p:Pa*$u-4sin?al (2.15.8)
I

( )rr the circumference of the cin:le, ry' : 0, since yz : a2 ir-.

- a2

dr:
d&u-! Direction of
Alpo air flow
+--
u: -ZU4a'
a : 2(11
a'
'l'lrc lesriltant velocity I/ makes an angle taa-L @/u) with the Fro. 2.13. Flow around Fro. 2.1.1. Pressures on
,T axis, but circular cylinder. circultr cylinder.

-T
2UrA
a
u w
T
The streamlines for the florv about a circular cyli:.der are sho\yu
in Fig. 2.13, and the pressures on the surface are illustratetl in
Fig. 2.14. All the.pressure and velocity calculations in this and
preceding sections are based on non-compressible, non-viscous
flow. As the preisure distribution is symmetrical about both the
_! X and f axes, the sum of the vertical forces acting on t}re cylinder
u
is zero and ^,he sum of the horizontal forces is zero.
'l'his shows that the reeultant velocity 7 is tangent to the
olrotrmference of the circle. EXAMPLE
Vz : u2 +a2 A uniform curnenE of air with a epeed of 100 ft p€r Bec flows around a
circular cylinder. At a distence from i.,ire cylinder the ;iressure ie atnos.

-w)"+(ry)' pheric. \rvhat iE the pressurc at a point on the surface of the cylinder eo
lociteti that a radial lincihrcugh the point rrakes aa angle of l5o with
the main direction of the air flow?
;,.2 f
o- ? ^) :Y- r-'lr',i4''
\42',.
 ADI bATtO PnOCrDrs tt
EXAYPLE To raise air one degree in tcrnpcrrturc rt
<:rursttnt l)rcssurc
tVlrnr is the density of dry air if the pressure is 25.93 in. Hg and the requires more heat than to raise it one degree ab constant volume.
I' rrlrnrnt,ure is 45tF? By the equation of state, if pressure is kept constant as the te:n-
Absolute temperature T : 45 + 459-4 : 504.4 perature increases, the density mustldecrease. A decrease in
P \ o^ :25'93 x 518'4 density means that the volume occupied by the air has increased.
:
'o : Po.T' 29.92 604.4
x 0.002278 0.00212 T ne heat added ha.s not only to do the work of adding to the
internal enFrry of the air particles, measured by the increased
EXANlPLE temJrerature, brrt it ha^" also to do th.e work of pushing the particles
tVllrl, is the specific weight of dry air if the pressure is !6'38 in' Hg farther apart in increasing the. volume occupied by the air. The
lr,l llrtr lcmPerature is -10'F? heat coefficient for constant pressure co is alrvays larger than co.
For air, cp : 0.24O.
P L on :16'38 x 518'4 x 0.002328 : 0.001b02
'n - PoT',- 29.92 4{9.4 3.3. HEAT PROCESSES
Hlre,,lllrr wcight p x g + 0.001502 x 32.1740 : 0.04832 lb per cu ft
The equation of state contains three variables. A change in one
PROBLBMS variable may affect the other brvo variables. Unless tl.rere is an
additional statcm"nt or restriction on the firttnner .n rvhic'h.bhe
,l I I l,'ind the density of dry air at 23 in. pre'sure and 15oF.
change in state is accomplished, no solution can Lre fcund lor the
'l I ? l,'ind the density of dry oir at 17.31 in. pressure and -loF.
't LI ltind the specific weight of dry air ut 22 in. pressure and 22oF. changes in either of the trvo other variables.

. : III,;A'I COEFI'ICIENTS 3.4. ADIABATIC PROCESS

ll,'nl, ix n form of energy. Heat energy can be transformed into Of chief interest to the aerodynamiiist is the adiabatic process
,,,e,,lrlrrir:ol energy and vice versa. Seven hundred seventy-eight of change ofstate. In ar: adiabatic change, no heat energy is added
l,,ll ;roundc of rnechanical work equal one British the'rr^al unit to or subtr&cted from the air.
r I lllu ) A British thermal unit is the amount of heat c:iergy needed In aerodynamics, most of the changes in a column of air in
tl llnfnrue by one Fahrenheit degree the tcmperature of 1 lb of motion occur so rapidly that there is little time ior' heat energy to
*lla rrnder standard conditions. be interchanged with surrounding air or other objects. This
l'l rni;c a pound of gas, at constant volume, one degree in tem- assumption of adiabatic condibions appears to be justified by the
lrci.tum does not..require as much ad'led heat, engrgr as to raise fa;ily close agreement between calculated results and those ob'
r p'runrl uf water through one degree. To increase '"he temperature tained by experimental test.
With the adiabatic restriction, namely, that no heat is added or
'{ r purrnd of gas by one degrce, at constant volume,'?, Btu mtst subtracted, the followiug relation is true.
l,e rrftlfll. Within certain limitations, c, is constant for any oDo gas.
It h rrnllod the heat coefficient for constaut volume. For ordinary PPo (3.4.1)
lit, r'r - 0.172. -:-
p't Po'l
Wlrorr nir ie heated, at constant volume, accoding to the equa'
where
liel ul rtote the pressure iucreases ifr exactly the seme ratio as the
c?
llorlrrln temperature increases. The air density remains the ssme. 'f=-
I hl: h ovident if one considere a quantity of air encloeed in a ca

rrlel voreel. The volume remaining conatant, rvhen heat is added For sir
hetlr lamperature and pressure increase but the total number ol.
1'40
prllolar of air (the mass) iu the cloeed vessel remains the Ba,me. ': u94ru:
 r.LUrD LAWS
=
Faluwn'
= 2,n 6.2 + 0.001189 X (100)rtl (4siirzlb")l
5.
1t -
= 2,080.5 lb per sq ft
PP.CBLEMS
| 16, I , l'or the florv in the above exbmple, what is the pressure on the Gases
lhlhr
'-i ta,'J,rurfoce at o 90" arc from the direction of air fow?
What is the pressurc at 45" frorathe direction of air flow?
!,lll,S. $'hat is the pressure at l35o from the direction of air flow?
t,16,l, \Vhat is the pressure at 0" fronr the direction of air florv? 3.1. EQUATTON OF STATE.
1.16,0, At rvlnt point on the surface of the eylinder is the pressur.e
From s physical standpoint, a gas is composed of individual,
Jffirlrlroric?
disi,inct particles, each in continual, irregular motion, and these
particles are constantly colliding with each other. For aerodynsrnls
purposes this conception. is simplified to that of a continucus,
contiguous matter.
/{a - ,3.- -f
el3rvn
Although liquids and gases are both fluids, the density of the
V J former is only slightly affected by changes in pressure and tem-
.(,rJ 7t
perature. The density of a gas varies directly as the pr,ssure p and
-ll inversely as the absoluCe temperature ?. The absolute temperature
? is the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit measured from absolute
?,ero, -459.4"F. The lelation between pressure, density, and
temperatue is
'' t,l
p : gpnT 3.!.711 (3.1.1)

where p is in pounds per square feet

g is in febt per second per second
p is in slugs per cubic foot
I is in feet per dcgree Fahrenheit
f is in degrees Fahrenheit absolute. JEz
fi.
'o2.
)ctt
/l is known a9 the gas corutent; for air it has a value of b3.Bbl.
Bquation (3.1.1) is the equation of state. It contains three
veriables, and if two of these are known the third may be found.
If two variablee are changed in a known mrnner, the third may be
found.
The equ'ation of sf.ote roay also be written
p_p Tp (3.1.2)
Po PoT
&?

z
 l-r.'
ror 37

EXA\{PLE 3.5. SPEED OF SOUND

Alr at standard pressure (2,L16.21b per sq ft) and stsndard tempera- Sound is transmitted by means of rvaves of alternate compres-
lurc (69'F) has a density of 0.002378 slug per cu ft. What is (o) the sion and rarefaction.If a compressive strcss is applied to a fluid;
rlnrrrlty and (b) the temperature, if the air is compressed adiabaticeily
th6 added pressure is not instantly distributed to all palt^s of the
lrr I ntm?
fluid. A shor0 but finite time is required. A quickly applied pne-,rsure,
llolulion.
acting for a very short time, may mean thaf, the pressure at various
ln) p,: Po(fr)'" points in the fluid may be qtrit'e different. The ratc at which e ivai'e
o_f increased or decreased pressure travels tlrrough a fluid is related
: 0.002378(2)r/r.o to the elasticity of the fluid.
:0.002378 X 1.641

€; 0.00f9r slug per cu ft , lorr"lo' (#o'

l'rom equation of state:
v
---> pt@
t'
:-
(', | l..- I I
Pr-Po
grTt PoT o - -ot-io'l-
LJ a" L-J
As@
r,: ro(9(;) (a)

Frc..3.l. Longiludinal wave iu tubc.

: (+se.r+,E sol
(i.rJ el \-l
,7 r -E- In Fig. 3.lo is shorvi^ a tube of uniform cross-sectional arer S,
: 631.9 /rol
J= tP,/ the fluid flowing to the right rvith a veloci;y I/. A pressure u'ave is
,:631.9-459.4 t:'aveling to the left with a velocity o. Assume that the veiucit-y of
flow Ir can be regrrlated and.has been So adjusted that it is equal
: 172.5oF in ma.gnitude to the wave velocity o. This has the effect that, rvhile
PROBLEMS the increments of pressure arrd density are traveling to the left
with r-eslrect to the fluid, they ere stationary with respect to the
I I I lir at standard Pressurc compreseed grou:d. At any section, such as O4, the velocity, pressure, and
rdlrhrilodly to 3 ai,rn. What are (D) the tem-
density are constant, but a short distance.As on either side the
prrlrtta?
velocity, pressurre, and density will be slightly difrerent from those
t I l, Air al standard pre$sure and temperolure is permitted to
trpilrl nrliabatically to one-half atmospheric pnessure. What are at O4.
lii lhr rlnnsity and (D) the temperature? Figure 3.lb shows horv the pressure may vary along the tube.
I I f, Air at standard pressure end temperature is adiabatically As the density varies with the pressure, the.cunre of Fig. 3.1b also
FiFrnrnd to 50 lb per sq in. 88ge pne$ure. What is the temperature? indicates how the density varies dlong the tube.
I I I Air et standard pnessure and temperature is permitted to As the tube is of uniform dia,meter, by the principle of con-
€;r'r'l nrliabai,ically urtil it ie one-haif gtendard deneity. (o) 'lVhat is tinuity 7 is constant. tVhere there is an increment of p and con-
Ec nrsnrro? (D) Whet is the temperature? sequently of p, therc will be a deerement of 7.
I I 6 Alr at stsndard pressure aud tenperature ir permitted to If dp/d* is the rate of change of pressure along the tube, the
|prd rrllabatically. When the temperature bas dropped to 0"4 difference in pressure between the section GO and the section
ll rhrt lr the preesure end (b) what is the density? O'4', separated by e distance As, will be (dp/ds) as.
3t
, !l(,,'
,,
" "....' C]q
 SPEE"D OF AOT'ND 39

lr' rrrrbalanced force on the fluid betrveen sections O-O and

l In gases, the compressions anC ra,refacticns incidental to sound
,, rr' rvill be the pressure difference multiplied by the cross- waves take place very rapidly; therefore the relatlon of pr:ssure to
..,rrrrrrrrl arca, (dp/ds)As density can be assumed to be adiabalic.
X S. The mass of flrrid betrveen these
,,rl,n:i rvill be pSAs. The acceleration rvill be dV/at. By the L _?o
,
',,r',1 lrrrv of motion, force equals mass times acceleration or . pl pol
- (#a,)s : os r,,
ory - p:+{Po
Po'

dp dV dp Po El'
ds dt dr:'--o'
| ,l
dV r/s\./-:dV /Pop'\l
:t\or"/;
--dV
l/-
dt dt" ds ds
i !,, t| _ ^tp
(3.5.4)
dp ..dl'
oV-
p
ds ds Tiren, for gas \

-f;: oav (3.5.1)

By the equation of state,
":C (3.5.5)

it . ,,, r,,s1.iyg sign shows that an increment in p means a decremenb p: gpnT

t r,, l;rrv of continuity siates bhat ?: gRT

p
pV = a constant
, ii ,, ||lt:rl,tttg, Substituting in the previous equation for the speed of sound,
pdV*Vdp:Q o: \GIRT (3.5.6)
pdV: -Vdp (3.5.3)
: :
For air, ^r 1.4 and ft 53.351 ; then, for air
. | , rrrlr, l,ltc trvo values of p dV,
o: 1.4X.32.174 X 53.351 X ?
-+ : -v itp :49.022{T (3.5.7)

v2:dp where 7' is in degrees Fahrenheit absolute.

a
dp
tt, ir,rtrrrl rLssumption, 7 is equal in magnitude to a, the velocity .EXAMPLE
r t *Frrrrrlrrlri \\'ave propagation, another name for the velocity TVhat is the epeed of scunC in air ai stanciard ie:rperature, 59"F?
i ,rr,,l l'lrc:r the velociby of sound is Soluli,bn.
a:ag.g22\/-a5g-a+n
o: 1d,
tdp
(3.5.3)
== 1,116.2 ft per sec
 IJIJTTNOULLI'A ]9QUATTON
FOn' G'OMPIIESSIBI.E: FLUIDS 4I
EXAMPLE
' ,, tlrr. speed of sound in gir at stendard pr€ssure, 2,116.2 lb per
t,. trrrrrlnrd density, 0.0(}2929 elug per cu ft? J:r: I#p-,,7dp
x :; portt -t f.
_
o.=
1.4
0.002378
2,116.2
illrt-ar't]"
I

: 1,116.2 fi per sec

1 Porlrr-t1'
^t - 1' Fo
PROBI,EMS
t ,,, I rlrt' speed of sound
' :^t?
on :r l1nr. d4y, when the temperature is "t-lp (3.6.1)
I',,,1 llrt: speed of sound at 20,000
ft altitude, where the tem_ \lhen this is substitutecl in the basic equation,
,,,,, rrr:rlly 12.3'F. for compressible fluids in-i"rirlrt"f Bernoulli,s
- ..eguation florv becomes
' ,,t rlrr.speed of sound ..t 30,000 ft altitude, n,here the tern_
''' t'r:tll.1' v2 1n
, -{S.l"F.
I rlrr, spccrl of sound rvl.en the bar.onretric pressure
, ; -r ..--_; -: consiant (3.6.2)
r rt,r ,llrrsit]. is {}.00205
is 27.2 -t p
slug per cu ft. or
, I tlrr, sg,ectl of sound when the ltarometric v2-r. r p _1,0, ^r
pressure
T -_-:-:--:--+
,r,, is po
,,,,1 rlrc den_*il,J is 0.000g02
slug uer-cu ft.
- 7-tp- 2 -;-; ' (3'63)
, 'rrt,t,l'S EQUATION FOR COIVIPRESSIBLE FLUIDS Using a subscript l, to indicate a definite point in
gir'^5 the fluid flcrv,
'
u;t:.J E_t):o
,.,,,, rlrrrg chapter, a ba.sic form of Bernoulli's
equai,ion
.l

yz (3.6.4)
: constant Substituting
ry
-rl \Pr Pb'
, * _[0,,' (2.6.2)

,,', llrl)t.{'ssible f rrrd, p is constant and the equation is Pr Po

_t /'pt\(l-t)t"l
I
pr -
- po\po/
-
gives
pv2 vr' - voz
n--1 P:constant
fr[(fr)"-')t'l -,] : o
(2.6 3)
(Bosl
rl,l,l r r r'ornl)ressible, p depeuds : .ypo/ptt this may
"
on both p and ?. When
hrrpr,,r ,rr.(. assumed to take place, p depends
t,,rFElrtr,,rr is carried out
on p only
since ca2
-+-+
v,, : vo,.
be u.ritten

ssr follows. Since

P-_Po "1}(fr)("-,)/"
_ r] : o (8.6.6)

rr pg7 EXAI\{PLE
t I /po\rtr fn an undieturbed air streanr, the pressure
ie 14.7 lb per sq in., the
density is 0.00287g elug per- cu ft, and
tr:;\;) the- rreiocity is DOU ft per
lYhat is the velocity where the pr..r".u sec.
i;;;i" per eq in.?
 MACE N.UMBEn,
Substitutiig,

Ft - po(g\"' - t vozf
fw +'t .t
Vo/ I-po 2J
- lrll6 ft per eec - rofr .#+hil"t'-'t (3.7.1)

r,,- l^,
+
ff[' - (fr)'-""] r-',A r]
Fi'om Section 8,5, a, = ,tp/pi then.on2, the
square of the epeed
of sound in the undisturbed air flow, may be substitrrt€d
'rPo/ po:
for
I t' - fu *, *ry [, _ (r*)('
ti

li -f399,500
e, - io[t ..# Voz'ltlf'-rt
ao2 J
(3.7.2)
-t

Yt - 632 ft per seo

If 7o is less than 2,480 ft p€r Beo, the term t(r _ t1.29;1Vo/a,))z
ialgss than unity, and the *pr"rrioo in brackets
lr'fS.Z.Zi'i;v
be expanded in a convergeni seriee by means of the
PROBLEMS binomiai
theorem:
lVhlt r.ruld be the velocityi where.the preseure is 13.5 lb per
i, : polrL-*{t(t * vo' Q - t)rf ...t,-1
zao' \' -6'T-
lho cxample above, if the fluid were incompressible?
tl rn undigturbed airstr€am, where the pressure is U.7 lb A ')J
\ lld the temperature is 59oF, the velocity is 650 ft per second. rf wo/ao2 is replaced by- ib equivalent p6, the formura for prcs-.ure
h vclocity -here the pr€Bsur€ ir 13.9 lb per sq in.? at the stagnation point in e compressiUle'fltia becomes
h ln undirturbed
Chr
air otrtgm, where ihe preasure ia 147 lb pei
tanperaturo is !!'F, the velooity b 620 ft par !oc; Where
h'000 ft per reo, wbot is the looal prcesure?
?,=eo+ry(.#.ry# ) (sz.s)
A comparigon of this cquation with the equation for
the presslue
laTroN PRESSURE IN CO\{tRESSTBLE FLUTDS at the stagnation point in a non-comproritt, fluid
sho; Gi
compres'lbltity aauses an.ilorgase in the pressure
ilogpotion point, let p. and p1.be the pressure and density, at the atagnation
point. This inorease is rslat€d to the ratio
dy, the velocity being zero. Then: if pq, ps and I/s are the of the verocity;-ri;;
to the velocity of sound in the undieturb€d air flow.
donsity, and velocity in the undisturbed flow of & com-
fuld, the following relution is truc. 8.8. MACH NUMBER
.r pt Voz .' "t pn In.pplfi9$Y lvery problem in the atudy of the flow of
com-
.l-lp, :- 2 't -1po pressible fluidr, theratio of the tocal verocity of the n"rii"
velocity of sound ar ttar nme poiN is of greet
tl.
importance. Thia
ratio ie called the Mach number and ir aen-otea
P:=P,[fr.+ uy
Being a ratio of two velocitia, M iadimengiouleso.
itre;t;b"it:

lP,\t'' M-V
.o (8.8.1)
P,=
^V1,) where 7 and c $r in feet per eeoond.
 I'r' ' r,rlrng section, for the stagnation pr....r." in a compres- but the size of the object were increased, the flow would be as
r, ll,rr,lgivcs shown in Fig. 3.2c. If the velocity were decreased ia an inverse
ratio to.the increase in size, i.s., YL kept the same, where Z was a
1,,: Po *ry\, +tr42
+
Q-t\Ma \
f -i- "') (3.8.2) representative dimension of the object, the flow would be as
shown in Fig. 3.2dj With the same VL the flowe would be geo-
., III,,\'N()I,DS NUMBER metrically similar.

r,, l.rry,linh physicist, Osborne Reynolds, ryas the first person to

.1,.. ,rn inlcnsive study of flow in pipes. Using tubes of various
.. e ,rrrrl ,lilTerent
'tlr
liquids, he found that at Iow speed ihe flow was
nt high speed the florv rvas turbulent.
lrrrt,
tt, , r.,rlvrrrl an expression rvhich is called the Reynolds nunber
=o! (o)
=O)= (b)
I ,,' ,,'rrunonly abbreviated R.N. It is dimensionless.

<(
PVR
R.N.: p
(3.e.1) I
\ ._a

, , ' I rrv()rage axial velocity in feet per second
/i irrner radius of tube in feet
,, nrrrss density of fluid in slugs per cubic foot
,, r:rxrfficient of viscosity of fluid.
r' , ',,1rl:,l,rrrnd experimentally a value rvhich is called tlie critical
, ',,'l'lj nurnl)er. For values of R.N. less than the critical, the
,i 'r,, r,rn(x)th or lan:inar; for values griater than the critical
!, i i I lrr. llorv tvas turbulent.
t,. , rr,,l,l:r' rvrlrk was entirely with pipes. The critical value of the
' ,,,.1,1r nuurl)er for the flow inside circular pipes is meaningless
r',,lrrry, rvit,h the flow of. unconfi.ned air* around, objccts, such as
i i.r,,,r 'l'lre Reynolds number can, horvever, be applied in
i ' ,,',,rrurt1 rvhcther all, or a portion, of the boundary is laminar
, ,,l,rrlr,trl.
,,, .,tr\lll,All. FLOWS
r,' ,rlr.r rrpplication of the Reynolds number for the aeronautic
1;;r,,r 1 1'q rl,s use in comparing the florv of air at different speeds
',"1 ,'1,;r,r:t,s of varying size. The m&nner of the air.flotv around
I 1, r t, rr:r slrorvn in Fig. 3.2a, rvould bc changed to a flow more
i r tl,,rl nlr.wn in Fig. 3.2bif. the speed cf the air were increased.
II r lln s111,1'1| of llo*' were the same &s for the flow shorvn in Fig. 3.2o
UV )>
*\
o)-
(.) (d)
Fro. 3.2. Florv around eimilar figures.
Again if Lhe size of the object and speed of flow were the s6,1ae
as in Fig. 3.2o but the density of the airwere incre&sed, the florv
rvould be changed to a flow resembling that in Fig. 8.2b. A decrease
in coefficient of viscosity would have the same effect on the shape
of the air flow as an increase of density or velocity.
To summarize: If the Reynolds number is the same, the florvs
are geometrically similar. With geometrically similar florvs about
trvo bodies of different sizes, at, corresponding points in the trvo
florvs the direction of the streamlines rvill be the same and the
magnitudes of the forces will always have the same ratio to each
other. /
This relation is important in the design of airplanes. Models of
rvings or airplanes may be tested in wind tunnels, and the results
of these tests may be used in the computation of the p-erform&nce
of the full,size airpltrne, provided that the Reynolds number of
the modei is the same as the Reynolds number of the airplane.
Since the models arc smali in size in comparison with the actual
wings, in order to have the Reynolds number of the same magni-
 GA*Jt;S
SIMII,AR FLOWS
47
r. rur l,lrc Ilpynolds number cl the rving the velocity 0r the 3.10.3. Find R.N. for an.airplane rving
i ,,-rry o[ the air in the rvind-tunnel test must be much greater 4-ft chord, moving at 150
ntph. A{' is *40"C; barometer, 2l in.
i ,,, rrr Llrc actual flight. 3.1O.a)Riadthe velocity at which tests
should be run in p rvind tunnel
ir 111'11, l,lls Reynolds number of the wind-tunnel test of a model on a model wing of 4-in chord i,r order
that the R.N. ehall be the eame
'.e r,r rrol, t,he same as for the full-size tving in flight, the data as for a rving rvith a 4-ft chord at f
a0 mfi. Air under st'an;;,;;;;;;-
,-,',,r1 lr'orn the rvind-tunnel tests cannot bc expected to give tions in both cases.
.. tly 1.1'1 l'sgl; results rvhen used iu calculating forces on the 3.10.b. In a variable_deryitV wild tunnel,
under what pressure should
i ir -i.,, rvrrrgs. At Langley Field, Virginia, the National Advisory tests be run on a model.with u B_in.
chord. *ir reto.ity beinq 60 urub,
in order thoi the R.N. ehall be the eame-;
,,,,rill'r' for Aeronautics bas n variable<lensity tvind tunnel. f"; full_size rving, of 4ft
! r r,rrrrrr,l is entirely enclosed in a steel shell. The air,
chord, moving at lo0 mph through trru ji, temper&ture
" is thc sarne
after in each case. "i.i
r:,lrr\vr through the tunnel, past, rhe model on test, florvs
',,,1 tlrr.outside of the tunnel proper to re-enter the throat.
, rlrrr rrir is at all times imprisoned inside the et€el chamber
.rr trr. pul, undcr pressure. The Langley Field variable-density
, I ,rrr r rlcsigned for pressur.es es.great as 2l atm and for air
, ir,.i,;,ru;l, ttre model rvings as high as 75 fb per sec.
I r rnrplrtrrrg the ltcl'nolrls number, veiocity V must be
in feet
,,,,rrrl, rr lineor dinrension .L of the objeci mu'st be in feet.
: i,rf i,, tlrc lenglh of the chord :s commonly used for this
: ,!::i,,rr /, lf the test is conducted under :+,andard conditions
nl,l iti(l rlrm pressure) the density.of the air p is 0.002923
,r 1,-r ,rr lt, arrd thc coefficient of viscosity p is 0.00CC00gZg
,,! t'-r ll nrrr:. It the temperature or pressure is not standard;
, r er rtrlrr rrrrul, be made to density p and coefficient
of viscoaity p.

EXAMPLE
ir,,,t thr ltnynolde numbor for a model wing of B-in. chord, teats
,r lrn ,lplr with standard air.
il in. - 0.25 ft
ltt(t rrrph = 146.7 ft per sec

X146.7 XC.25
t(.N.- 0.002378 --234,000
0.000000373

PROBLEMS
I :,r I I'rnrl 11 ry. for on airplane wing, 4ft. chord, moving at 120 mph
!t: ,r!i pielrlrrrl nttnoaphere.
e lrl e Ftrrl ll N. for on airplane wing with a B-ft &in. choid uoving
:t lElt nylr lhrlrtllr rt,tndard air.
 at^ rr^vol tI&lil) 49

t. 4.2. STANDARD .,SEA LEVEL'' CONDITIONS

For the purpose of cbmparing airplane performances, calibrai^,,g
instruments, and other engineering a::C scientifi<l reasons, it is l

desirable to have a "standard" air condition at sea levcl. The

I
conditions universally used in the United States rvere those pro-
The Atmosphere posed by the National Advisorlr Committcc for Aeronautics li

(N.A.C:A): q barometric pressure of 29.92 !n. (cr'7{i0 mn) of ll

mercury, and a temperoture of 59oF (or lb"C).

Under these conditions, the mass density p of dry uir. is 0.002378
I I I:0NSTITUI]NTS slug per cu fi..

lir rri t
gus. lb is u physicul mixturc, not a chr:micul compound. tlsing for -"lan<lur<l al:celerrrtion of gr.lvity g crlrrrtl to 32.r7J0
I lrrr r:rrth's atmosphcre at sea level has the follorving percent- ft per sec per sec, the spccific rveight of ,,standurd,,.dry uir is
lr! volume of these gascs: 0.07051 lb.per cu ft.
'1rr'n
Until 1926 lhc N-Liorral Advisory Commiltcc for ,,\rlronii,,tir;s
Nitrogcn 78.08 used for standord conditions I burornctric prcssrlrc of 2ll,\\2 in, IIg
0xygcn 20.91 and a tcmperatule o[ 00'lr (15.6"C).']'he mrrss rkrrrsit,.y oi 111..1,;1j,.
Argon 0. $4 under thdsc conditions is 0.002372 slug and thc ivciglrb dcn-.t...
IJydrogcn 0.01 (g : 32.t22 ft pcr scc per scc) is 0,07635 lb pcr cu IL. In usin
Neon 0.0012 data from \.A.C.r\. rcporls or oLher sources of informati()rl, c&1.,
Helium 0.0004 should bc takcn ti note the standard conditious of l,hc tcs[.
Carbon dioxide 0 .03
,.3. ATN,IOSPHERE
rl ,rt.r vrrpor also is alrvays present, the amount varying rvith the The air in the atmosphere close to the earih is compressed hy
,.,,,pr!nrl,ul\. and o'rher factors brrb averaging about 1.2 per cent the weight of the air above it. At higher altitudes, the air i: uncler
.r tl'r' r.rrrth's surface. less pressure because there is less air above to cause pressure. The
\ n rrr lroL an "ideal" or "perfecL" fluid, .as it is both viscous and evidence from observations of meteors appears to indicate that
"'t,r,rrsible. r\t low speeds, horvever, the fact that it is compros- <.rur atmosp\ere extends upward at least b00 miles. In trre upoer
t lr. rury be neglected, and, if all parts of a fluid are moving at the limits the air is greatly rarefied;therefore there is no exacl dentar-
,rrrr. rrlx,{r(1, viscosity has no effect. In many instances, therefore, cation at the upper edge.
,,, lny lrc treated as if it lvere an ideal fluid. Heat is radiated from the sun, and this radiation passes through
l11, I,o tllitudes ordinarily encountered by aircraft, there are our atmosphere rvithout any appreciable heating effect. 'fhe
,,ully u,inds and vertical air currents to keep the various con- sun's radiation heats the earth. The layer of air resting immedi-
,ir,r' nl.l r:ommingled in approximatelir the same proportion as ately on the earth is heated by conduction. This air in turn warms
' .,',1 rrlx)vc. At extremely high altitudes, undoubtedly the differ- air superadjacent to it. Also, the rvarm air lvill rise, and, in ascend-
r pnr,r,ir t:omposing the amtosphere separate according to their ing to a region rvhere the pressure is less, it will expand. Jf no hr:at
-r,, trvr. <lensities, hydrogen forming the outerrnost layer, helium is added or subtracted (tbis wil! t'e true if the uprva,rd moverncnt
'
, | ,' q l,, rnd
so on. It is aiso probaole that at extrence altitucies tire is fairly rapid), rvhen the air expands its temperature drops. \yith
, cr.il rrrolccules dissociate as a result of the solar radiation. increase in attitude above the earth, the temperature decreases.
48 This decrease in temperature with altitude continues until the
 . THE ATMOSPHERE StrANDARD ATMOSPEERT 61

,, ,, Lrrre has decreased ' stays constant et that

to - 67'F' It . TABLE 4.1
'| r :r

i rr,rrrpcr&ture up to about 20 miles.attitude' It' then starts to AvrrrrDe-Pnsssuns-DsNsnr Rnr,enox

itt.t"r"o in rvith altitude until
F! ,\rr,,r uguin temperatue (Ba.eed on N.A.C.A. No.2l8)
"rd
, r, ilr1rr.r.ntu"re of -170'F is reached. At sbout 38 miles altitude
,, st arts to get colder with increasing altitude' Altitude P p in olugs
"r,,," in ft p0 per cu ft
u lltol'OSPHERE AND STRATOSPHERE 0 +69.0 29.92 !.rno r.000 0. fi)2378
I lr| Lru'er region of the earth's etmosphere is called the tropo' 8.20
1,000 +66.4 0.9710 1.0148 0.00280c
with alt'i- 2,0q) +61.8 n.82 0.9128 1.0299 o.wzl42
1lr,;1, 111 t.he lroposphere, the tenrperature decreases 8,000 +48.4 m.81 0.9161 r.0454 p.002176
r,,1, 'rrrr,ls m&y blorv from any direction' and since moisturc is 4,000 +44..8 ?s.u' 0.8881 r.06ll 0.002112
1r.--, ll l,lrt:rc may be clouds' The
upper region of the earth's 5,000 +4r.2 24.89 0.8616 |.0773 0.002049
rrr,,,,,,plrlrc is caied the stratosphere. In the gtratosphere, the 6,000 +37.0 23.98 0.8358 r.0938 0.m1987
I ,,,g,',rrrl.ut'c is constant, not varying rvith altitudel any winds 7,000 +34.0 23.W 0.8100 1.1107 0.001928

blutv from a rvesterly'direct'ion, and, since no mois- 8,000 +30.0 22.22 o.we 1.1280 0.001869
ll,Bt rrny ar€
21.38 0/0619 1.1450 0.001812
9,000 +27.0
lrilr, ld |lr'r'Rcnt, there a,re no cloUds. 1. 1637. 0.001756.
10,000 +25.4 20.68 ,F-7s84
I ,,' ,lrviding-surfuce Le.trveen tne pyao@ and t@ifrCto- .79
'0.7154 1.1822 0.001701
f 11,000 +19.8 19
!lrl*.r,, lb ,:tllcJ the-,qgpggqusrc. Tlie a$-e of the tropopause
is 12,@0 +r8.2 10.0:t 0 .693r L.2012 0.001648
an,ru, tt irr thc tropicq;Uoot 38,000 ft over the United States, 13,000 +t2.8 18.29 0.6712 .l .2206 0.001596
14,000 +d.z 17.67 0.0499 L.2404 0.001546
srrrl xlrlul, :1U,000 ft in the polar regions' 0.6291 l.2608 0 .001496
16,000 +6.6 16.88
?0,000 -r2.s r3.75 o.6gn 1.370r 0 .00r-967
IE H I ANI)ARD ATT',IOSPHERE 11. r0 0.4480 I .4940 0.m1006
25,000 -30.I
-,t[8. f 8,98 0.8?4O I .0352 0.000889
le! r'ilttv(lt,ience in acron&ut'ics, a "etandard" atmosphere has 3n,000
T.u 0.3008 1 .7961 0.000736
!f uftrpto.!; that is, it has been ag"etii- to .assume that and
the 86,000 -96.8
40,000 -07 0 6.64 o.zuil 2.02t5 0.000682
uru, prur.ur", and, consequently, density are fiTed 45,000 -67.0 4.30 0.1920 2.1786 0.000469
l,,r ony altitude. This hypotheticsl "standord" atmoe- 60,000 -07..0 8.4 0.1617 2:6074 0.000861
0.cfrt24
Sumoi that no moisture is present in the air' It repreeents o0,mo 2.18 0.00413 8.26s4
-07.0 4. l166 0.0@1{o
there may 70,m0 l.84 0.06901
f mnditions
'
ony one tlme
ronrlitions at 40o latitude, buf at ory time tnene
80,000
-67.0
-67.0 0.8i12 0.06o73 6.2178 0.u0008730
, bs oonaiderable divergence fr\m t'his standard, especially 90,000 -67.0 0.618 0.02286 0.6140 0.000064s6
l$uaot. The standard atmoep\re is ehgwn in Table 4'1' 100,000 -07.0 0.82,t 0.01424 8.3800 0.00008886
I tto United States, a gtandard\thoepbere approved by 120,000 -0.6 0.182 0.00604 14.090 0.0m01t98
Commiseion for Air Navigation (I'C'A'N') ls 140,000 +78,0 0.002 0.00201 22.277 0.00000479
0.083 0.00092 82.987 0,00000218
the same sea level conditions and a6'me tempera' 100,000 +16{.8
180,0q) +170.0 0.018 0.00050 44.843 0.00000118
,, but this' gradient contiDues to 36,090'ft, where the 200,000 +100.0 0.010 0.00028 6S.649 0.00000007
ir -56.6'C. This ternperature, -56'5oC, is t'he tem=
ft altitude the tabulatrrt vclues are tentative'
) tho I.C.A'N' stratooPhere. lVota.' Above 06,0m

i, tior^dar,l atmosphere asstlmes that at' sea levelis

i;he
tilr.$ure is 29.9C in. and the temperature 59"F the tenoperature ie -67'F (-55'C). From this altit'ude upward
irut.t further that the temperature deureases loF for the temperature i8 sssumed to be ionstsnt until an altituc: of
inot.t". in altitude up to a height of 35,332 fii, rvhere f04r987 it (3Z,0OO meters) is reached' At this altitude, the tem-
 STAND.i,RD PRESSURE IN TROPOSPHERE 53
THE A'TMOSPTIERE
Substiiurrng,
, ,,,r,r,,rs assumect to increase rvith albitude at a rate of loF for
, r ','rt.f i increase. This conlinues until an alti*"ude of 164,042 ft
- edZ
,, ililrl trrcters) is reached, where the temperature is 170.6'F.
'nT
d,D: -' (4,7.2)
From Eq; (4.6.1),
rr,,. r,'rrrgrerature is assumed to stay consiant until an alti'tude of
.' rr rn ft (00,000 meters) is attained, where further ascent finds T:To-aZ
'i.. ,rl [ctting colder again. Differentiating,
l,r tlrr, ntand&rd atmosphere the air is dry. .It is assumed that, up d,T : -adZ
, ,,r rltitude of 65,000 ft, the changes in the scceleration due to or
, . irl'rrrc ncgligible. Above that height, the changes in rveight
r .. r,, I lrc increasing distunce from thc ccntcr of the earth are taken dZ: -g
a
' , , ,,rr,;itlr:rulion. Substituti,rg in Eq. (4.7 .2),
, .I';\NI)ARD TDMPDRATUITIi AT ALTITUDE
I r, t,rnn nltitrrtlc of 3,tr,332 ft, the:c is a constant drop in tem-
dp: -#C+)
.,,r r,.ol 0.0035(i6'F pcr fi.'lhc tcmllcrrrture rt any lllitudc is
,,, 1 l,v srrblrir,cting tlrc [crnperulttle dnlp fi'om standard sea level --' dP tdT
..1,. rrllll.C: p ,nT (t .7.3 )

T:1'o-aZ (1.6.1) Integrating.

,PO 1, To
" l' ,= absolute tcmperatrrre ut allitude ol Z leet lo8,
-p - o?'o9'T
,r -= standard lcmpclatrrre gradient, 0.003566"F per ft

T :518.4 - 0.0035662
rt,,,r',:r,llitudes of 35,332 ft, the temperature is assumed to be
,, r,,nt :rt -67oF (T :392.4'), up to altitudes of 105,000 ft.
(4.6.2)
' (+)'^.
-- Pn
(1.7.4)

, NDARD PRESSURE AT ALTTTUDES BELOW

Substituting po:29.92 in. Hg, ?o : 518.4, o:.003i66, and
I I\
tt,l,:'l'
35,332
l? : 53.33,
/ 29.92
lr, il.r'l,ir)n 2.2, it
that, in a fluid, the pressure being
rvas stated t:-
(4.7.5)
i ,, t, r llrrr rvei;ht of the fluid above, the pressure differential is the ' /518.4\5.26
, rrrr \\'right multiplied by the height differential. In the earth's \t/
,,,,,, 1,lrr,rc, hsight is measured up\vard from the surface of the
,'t, rrrrrl, as thc altitude incieases, the atmospheric pressure EXA}IPLE
i !',t.t:;: Find the temperature, pressure, und <iensity at 1g,000 ft altitude in
dp : --gp d.Z (4.7.tt standard atmosphere. I ., . ,
Sohdion.
r , rir I lrc cquation of state for any gas (3.1.1),

9P: RT
p ': iii.l -i1*,uuux 18,ooo
 T}IE ATMOSPHERE STANDARD PRESS'URE IN STRATOSPHERE

: 518'4 -'64.2 This giv:s the ratio p/po, p being the pressure at an aititude Z,
--ll"l"" rvhich is Z - Zo ieet above some arbitrary reference point at
altitude Zs, where the pressure is pq.
: The arbitrary re{erence point is chosen as the altitude of 35,332
2s.92 ft, where the temperature is 392.4"F. As this point is the upper
P:/5 limit of the region where a temperature gradient applies, the
formula used in +"he preceCing scction can be used to find the
\4sn) pressure ai, thi; alt'.tude:
: 14'936 iu' Hg
29.92
Th< cto (1.8.?)
- ,: ,rf,r? 518.4
.\'J'Lt

- - 6.925 in. I{g

:
o.oo2'i8
"t#i*:#
ft Substituting this pressu;e as t'he po, 392.4 as ?, and 53.33 as r?
0,001355 slug Per cu
gives
PROBLEMS . --'---t lc.g, T) z - 35,332

, I l"rrrri the Censiby of air in the standerd atmosphere at 22'000

ft ffi 53.33 x 392.4

r .' I'incl the density of air iu the etandard atmosphere at 26'500 ft

z - 35,332
' '; 2.3C26 (logro p- logro 5.925)
,' Iri.rl the ciensity of air in the etandard atmosphere at 31,643 ft i'3.33 X 392.4
,.r.,,1r.
lo8ro P : logro 6.925

, rI'ANDARD PRESSURII AT ALTITUDES ABOVE 35'332 Z - 3-0,332

I r" l':'l' 2.3026 x 53.33 x 392.4

t t,, rrlt,itude of 35,332 ft is the dividing line between tho

tropo- Z
: - - 30,332
--, i,, r. rur(l the stratosphere. It
is th9-'r*pper limit of the tropo- 0.84042
18,190
gradient with
=,',,,, ',' rvhich there i, u d"cttusPd temperature
(4.8.3)
:', r, r, l,' I t 1. thq lerver limit of the'stratosphere in which there ie a
,, t,rrl, l.('mpel'atur'c of 392.4oF abs' li\-,\ lll'l,li
l , llrr'prectding section, there is derived Eq' (4'7'2)' a relation
Fincl the tenrpernture, I)r'essure, anrl tlt:nsity at 40,00C ft in stondard
! , r,.,, n l)rcssure and altitUde:
a.tnrosphere.
dp dZ
;: - nr Solulion.
T : 392.4" obs (isoihcrmal tcmp*a',u;c)

\1 ,lr tlrr' lcmperature f constant, integlation gives 40,000 - 35,332

logrop:0.84042 -
n Z-Zo .18,190
1os.ro:--Er- (4.8.1)
: 0.74C57
rrl-1 .l
f-t
i.
F t-l t-t r-r f-l .t-.
I
I
I
I
r-t l-l l-1 !"-1 T-1 T1 11 T-r n-l
THE ATMOSPHERE EFFECT OF HUMIDITY 57

P : ir. Hg
5'54
PTo
o:poT,n
t0 r

":#*" #i
= 0.002378

= 0.000582 slug per cu ft

I'ROBLE\{S
i 'I l,rnd the rien,*'ity of air in the standard atmosphere at 46'300 ft

i ' l"irr<l tlrc densitv of ail in tlte standerd atmosphere at 42,625 ft

i , tr

i I l rrrr.l tlre tletr-.it)'oi air in tlre stan'iald atmosphere at 52,800 ft

. o5 5.O ,
II I,('T OI' I{UIIIDITY
G
t,, :rn in the "standat'd" aLnrospheie is assllmed tcr be perfectly
I I c=o
!, r,', conbaining no rvnter va,por' The rer"l atmosphere prac- r o.4 4.o
'
o
,11, lruiys has some \\'aler vapor. Although the effecl is small,
i ,,'rr,rty does affect the ail densitl'. The follorving method of
,rr,1.1;111 for humidity is a sufficiently close approximation for
.,,., t :rr,r'odynamic rvork.
\\'rrlr,r' vapor is lighter'. in lveig)rt i,han air; under standard
,,,lrlr.rrS (29.92 in. pressure and 59"F temperature) its density
rr rrol 176 slug per cu ft. Its density is 0.001476/0.002378 or
,1';'rr,111111lsly 5A ol |he density of ait-Ihe portion of the atmos-
irr' l'
\\lrich is \v&h'r vapor tvciglt*{'{ less than if it rvere dry air'
l rlr,.t,hcory of partitl presstlres' the rveight of a cubic foot of
,,,", I rril is equal lo the rveigilt of the dry air plus the rveight of
,1,, rr;rl.rtf Vapof.
i,, linJ hurniClt;r, Cry-bultr and l'el-brrlb thermometers are
,,,,'l 'l'he difference in their readings is multiplied by a "dew-
1.',rrrl. [rctor," and this product is subtracted from the dry-bulb
,,,,,lrrr;1 l,o give the derv point: The derv-point factor is given in
Lr, ,l I for the corresponding dry-bulb temperatures. For each 10m3n405060708090
Tcmp?r.turc in Dcgrcls
!,,r point, there is a corresponding vapor pressure e' Since, in
F.

r,, r,lrrri,, t,lre density, /se is used, it is given in Fig. 4.1 lor the corre- Itc, 4.1. Dew-point faui,or and fu vapor pressure

1,,,r,,lrng, delv points.

'Ihe formula used to correct density for
 'Tm eutiogffinb PRESSURE ALTITUDD 59
r,rr
is of an airplane is stated for, say, 10,000 ft altitude, it is not the
tl,,'effect o1 6rrlditY performance at 10,000 ft altitude at any time; it is the perfornlance
p:po"Y#"'+ that the airplane would have at 10,000 ft altitude in a standard
a'umosphere. Actually it is the performance in air rvhich has the
density associafed with an altitude of 10,000 ft in the "standard"
: O.O+1ZO
(4.e.1) atmosphere.
"'+ It is often desired to find the actual density frorn the altir,reter
EXAlviFLE reacling and to.convert that density into altitude of standard
atrrrosphere. From the equation of slate;
when the (dry-bulb) temperature is 80o
\vtrnt is tr5. 6ansitY of air
in' Hg?
the barometer 29'30
76o, and p ? ..To
,,,,.',*1-i"ril ilf,lperature
'r,,ilru:rr. "e*rrr
Fig. 4.1, dew-point factor for 80" is 1'68'
Po Po' 'l'
:'dry-bulb- (dry-bulb - wet'bulb) X factor
I)ew point
: 80 - (80 - 76)1'68 But, in Section 4.7, it rvas shou'n by Eq. (4.7.5) that
: r^/.t.O^o
of 73'3" is 0'30' fi: (^t)"'
I r,,rrr l"ig. 4J, %t for derv point
Then
p:0.04120.#*-*# p
: (fi)'"'(?)
: 0.C/Jl2215 slug Per cu ft Po

\-J- 7l'zo
I'IESSUFE ALI'ITUDE \o
used on aircraft are pressure gages' They are of
l.lr.:rltimetfrs
';;,,;;;;4rorueter tvpe Although they actuallv measure ;
,',,
pressures givenin
(;)""' To
,:;, ,,,;,."tr,f-scale reads in feet of altitude' The the scale with the
i;: ,j:';i "ir^" of Table 4'1 are marked on Since
that table. The altimetei readings then
,:,,,,.,,,,,;il;i altitudes of pressure alone'
T:To-aZ
.'::''::.:,"ie altitude, i.e., an artitude based on
' ",',,11,,1','rlilr]1 atmosphere corresponge€xsctly with the "standard"
is read' the
z:!(To-T)
a
,,,,,,,,,,',,,* rt the instant at u'.hfh the altimeter
,',',, ;,;l;'il !;ve the correct
,., ,, i,."i:'"iiiny instant of
number
time,
of
horvever,
feet
the
the
real
airplane is above
atmosphere
therefore' the
may
alti-
:T(- fi)
;:,',;;:,.,;; irom the "st&nd&rd" atmosphere;
days may be warmer or
,,,,,,., ,,,,r,ai.gs will not be correct. Some
:Tof , - po/n
\rrr'zo-'t (4.10.1.)
consequently the conditions of pressure oL^ J
: :',;,., ;;'?normal";
,,',,',';',,.,;u;1,ure at any altitude may
not agree with "gtanda'd"
, ,,il' t ll lolls. Substituting To: 5t8.4 and o : 0.003566 gives
'i,,' performance, the engine
,r"i o, shorvn later, the airpllne
,,;',, ';;r;"; a.nd the propeller perfr''noance all depend on the z : !45,Boo
[t - G)''"']
(4.10.2)
&ir, not on the pressure alone' Wber the performance
1,, ,, ,, u ,,J 1,[e
 TTTN ATMOSPHERE

EXAI\{PLE 5.
Arr &ltimeter reads 11,200 ft when the temperature
is 39oF. what is
r1,,. rrir density and what is the standard altitude?
ii'ilrtlion.
T: 518.4 - 0.003566 X 11,200
: 478.5 :
FIat and Curved Plates
P' igg'o\'*
p- \51&4/ i

: 0.656
5.1. FLAT PLATI]S NORX{AL TO DIRECTION OF FLO\\I
Iiquation (2.9.1) gives for lhe stagnation pressute non-com-
prcssible fluids
'l'rl,nu1;';'J'
pYo2
.,,t, 'lhis is the actual pre-ssure lt the airplrne; it is the pressure cor- ?s:Po! 2
,, 1,,,rrrling to 11,200 ft in standtrd atmosphe re'
?actuar:459'1 +39
if the flui<l is in steady, niin-Lurb.le^t florv and a st.cemline is
lirorrglit to rcst.
: 498.4' It r*a-s pointcd out that, tvhen the f id is brought to resl, there
must lrc no turbulence and the pr.essure difference, p" 716, is
Po-518'4x0'656
ihe difference betrveen the stagnation
-
P 498'4
pressul'e and the pressure in the undis-
: 0.682 turbed stream.
p : 0.002378 X 0.682 : For a flat plate normal to the
direction of florv of air, the actual
: 0.001623 ; pressure rvill not be the same as the
Z : 145,30011 - (0.682)0'2351 theoretical pressure. Actually, rvfen
particles of air are stopped at the
: 12,48n ft :
flat Frc. 5.1. Flat platc normal
surfaces, they cannot get out of the rv\y to florv.
of the follorving particles of air; some df
the air is pocketed or trapped in the centralportionof theplate; eddy
curlents and rvhirlpools of air are created. The amount of eddying
depends on the size and shape of the flat surface. Because of these
eddies, etc., the actual force against the flat surface is not exactly
thc sarae as that given by the fo;mula. Also, as shown in Fig. 5.1,
the air, sweeping pasi the edge of the plate, will drag air along
from behind the plate, so that there will be less pressure against
the rear side of the plate than there would be if this action did not
occur. Numerous tests have been made in rvhich have been meas-
61
r
I}iI FLAT AND CURVED PIATE.S lu CT]RVED DEELESIING STIRFACES 63

rrr(,(l exactly the forces on flat plates of various sizes and shapes EXAMPLE
rvlrr:n in air streams of various velocities. As the results of these A 4Gmph wind is blowing against a signboard 8 ft by l0 ft in size.
t,.:il,s have been quite consist€nt' the amount by which thti true Atmosphere is normal density. W'hat is the force acting sgeinst the
t,rlr:c diff€rs from the theoretical force can be predicted if the size signboard?
,,,r,1 shape of the flat surface are known. Soluli,on.
I
I t, is usual to multiply the theoretical force by a correction
factor I F : 0.00327 AY2
/( l,o obtain the actual force on the flat surface' The magnitude
,,1 /( varies slightly with size if the area is only a ferv square feet;
,t rr.lso varies rvith the shape, i.e., whether the flat surface is ciroglar,
:l;'Jii'x8x10x(40)l
:rluirr€1 or rectangular. Except for very precise work, in aero- The force on the flat plate varies as the square of the nir:speed' If the
,,,,,rlics, it is customary to neglect these variations of K and as- force acting when the relative speed is 1 mph is knorvn, the folce of any
,rrrrr: that it has a constanb value of 0.64;the equation for force on
other speed can be found by multiplying by the square of thr' rrir speed'
,, lLLl plate normal to an air stream becomes
EXAMPLE
F: O.64pAV2 The force against an automobile windshield is 0.012 Ib shen the car
is moving forward at 1 mph. What is the force rvhen the crrl is trtr-eling
'r lr.r'o p is in slugs per cubic foot at 35 mph?
rl is in sqrtare feet Solution.
l'is in feet per second. F (Pounds) : 0.012 X 35 X 35 : 14.7 llr

lint:r the kinei,ic energy of 1 cu ft of air moving with a velocity PROBLEMS

.t lz feet per second is oV2f2, it is custornary to r,se the above 5.1.1. What is the total force of a 4lmpir wind on n ltnt:-ur door
' 'tu:rl,ion in the
forrn 40 ft by 25 f.t?
5.1.2. An auto windshield is 40 in. wide by 15 in. high and is vertical.
F : r.28f,nr, (5.1.1) What ie the force against thc windehield at 60 mph?
5.1.3. What is the force egainet the side of e building 70 ft long and
40 ft high in e 90-mph wind?
lr,rr standard air density and alrspeed in miles per hour, the
5.1.4. What force is required to push a flat plate, 3 ft by 2 ft, at a
l, rr rrNll& becomes
speed of 35 ft per eec in a direction perpendicular to its surface?

F : 1.28* qgff x a x($ r')' o.2. CURVED DPFLECTING SURFACES

- : 0.00327AY2 a
in iniles per hour
'rlr,.rc tr/ is
,4 is in square feet.
'l'he force F is due to a relative motion of air and plate. The
l'rr:r,r oD the plate will be the same whether the plate ie held
rrtnl.ion;ry and the air is moving with a velocity 7 or the air is
atll,ionary and the plate is moving with velocity 7.
Velocity has direction as well as magnitude. If the direction of
(5.1.2)
motion of a mass is changed, even though the speed remains the
.eame the velocity has been changed.
A curved surface may be placed in a stream of air so that the
air meets the surface tangentialiy but is graciualiy deflected so
thst the air leaves tlre gurlace in a direction difrerent from its
o;iginel direction. If the surface is smooth, the air mey sufrer no
diminishment in speed. The velocity being changed, the de'
flecting surface must have exerted o force to produce that change.
 -r
|-t ---t L} J
IiI TI,AI ENO CURVDD PLATES CURVED DEFI,ECTING SI]RFACES 65

r ,,rrvcrSClJr theremust have been a reaction force of the air stream
.ryiunsL the deflecti:g surface.
lrr lfig. 5.2a, air is moving horizontally to the right with a ve-
t,,, rt,y I/ representd by ob in Fig. 5.%. The air meets a curved
,1, lL.r'l,ing surface so that it leaves in a direction represented by oc
L sec is p.4.7 slugs, and in I seconds the mass of air being deflected
is pAVt slugs. The horizontal component of force, acting to the
left, required to cause the deflection is

,,, l,'r11. 5.2b making an angle e rvith the horizontal. It is assumed

tlrrrl, l,hc speed is unchanged, so that length ob equals length ac. : pAV2$ - cos e)
r',l,rr.il,y bc is the oniy velocity which. acicitici to velocity ob, rvill
and the vertically dorvnrvard component of force is

F,: pAVt--^*
: p'i V2 sin e

'lhe rcsultant of thcse tn'o componcnts is

p : lp^t a$
: p;lVz{zQ - cosr) 1S.Z.t)
(o ) (b)
FIc. 5.2. Deflection of air streern by a curved surloce.
If there is no friction, the direction of tlic dcflecLing fcrce F'
rvill biscct the angle bets'een the directions of the air coming
ri\r' v(:locity oc. Veiocity bc may be considered t,n be composed of torvard and lerving the sur-
Itr,, (:(,rnponents, a horizontal component bd ani a vertical com-
l,,,lr.ttl, t/c.
f
,'r,rrrr Fig. 5.2b, it can be seen that '
l3j;l",Li;T#:il"*::
'tie
tion, ,nd sc, if surface
@ *-\\
\*
\
ol,: V cose
i 6cts on the air'stream as ex-
plained, the air stream rvill F\c. b.3. Dorvn*,:rrd deflec[ion of
,dc:I/sine react on the surface rvith an an air stre'rn.
l'lr,' r:ffcct of tl^; deflecting surface)-as been to change the hori- equal force but opposite in di-
,,,rrtrrl vclocity of the air from V Lo i cos G, and the vertical veloc- rcction as shorvn by F' in Fig. 5.2a. If there is fliction. the mov-
rl y ,rl l,lu: air from zero to V sin e. If it takes I seconds for a particle ing air rvill tend to drag the surface along rvith it, so that there
,,1 nrr l,o traverse the curved surface and undergo this deflection, rvill be a tangeritial force and the reaction rvill be more as shorvn
tlr,.rr rs rr, horizontal acceleration to the left: b)' the dotted line F/' in Fig. 5.2o.
Whether the deflection is caused by a curved plate or by the
V-Vcose air florving around an airplane rving (see Fig. 5.3), the mere fact that
Ah:
air is deflected means that a force has acted on the air to cause
nrr'l rr rlownrvard acceleration: the change in the direction of motion. Then the air musr react rvith
Tsine an equal and opposite force on whatever causes the deflection.
a!: It is customary in aerodynamics to give names to the two com-
t
ponents of the f rrce.prgduced by air reaction. The component
'llr. rn:uss of air meeting the plate and undergoing deflection in perpendicular to the dlr{ction from rvhich the air comes to meet
\
 I

FLAT AND CURVED PLATESI -...INCLINED Er.aT. PLATES,

!- 97

t, tl,, l.urg surf&ce is called "lift." The component Because of this turbulence, theoreticr.l computations are liable to
r r,,,r ,lrrr,r:tion is called "drag." considerable error.
Actual tests have been made of flat plates set at ya,rious angles
EXAMPLE c to the direction of the air stream, and information from these
r,r,rrn of eir 50 ft rvide and l0 ft
high is moving horizontally at a tqsts is plotted in Fig.
r ,,r ri(t rnph. lVhat is the magnitude of the force required to deflect 5.5. These t€sts were
4" dorvnward rvithout loss in speed? made on small rectan-
;1,,:,:;:,"" grrlar plates, with the
60 mph : 88 ft Per sec longer sides six times the
length of the shorter
t" -- u+v'Ji(---"or r) sides, the air striking
X vztr one of the longer sides
0.002378 X 50 X l0 X 882 -.*al first. Small corrections
643.2 lb &re used in applyrng ce
,,rrt.:rl component these data to large plates

It6: pAI/2(l - cose)

or plates of different
shape. The coefficients,
: 0.002378 x 500 X as' x (t - cos 40)

: 22.5lb

F, : pAV2 sin c

: 0.002378 X 500 X 88' X .io 4o Jo

2 ' 1 6 I l0 t2 t4 t6
: 642.3 Ib Ar8r. c ln h8r.ca

Fro. 5.4. Air etrik- I\o. 5.5. Graph of Cr, and Co lor flr;t
PROBLEMS ing an inclined flat pLBt€.
plst€.
, .' r A stream of ait72 sq ft in cross section is moving horizontally
rr ,,r.r.rl of 10Omph. Whut force is required to deflpct it downward
u rllrout loss. in speed? Cr, and Cp, given as ordinates in Fig. 5.5, are the coefficients in
? A stream of air 00 ft s'ide and 8 ft high is moving horizontally
r. ,' the equations for lift component and drag component:
.r ,r 11'.r,rl of 75 mph. What force is required to deffect it downrvard 8o?
', .l :t A stream of air 100 sq ft in cross eection is moving horizontelly Iift component: CriOr' (5.3.1)
.r ,r rr1'r.c{l of 150 mph. It strikes tangentially against the interior woll
.t . rr.rnit:ircular cylinder so that it is deflected through 180'. What is where lift and drag are in pounds
rli,, t,l,rt[ force against the cyiinder? p is in slugs per cubic foot.
h I INCLINED FLAT PLATES Drag component : Cp (6.a.2)
ll rt slream of air strikes against a flat plate which is inclined at inf
rr, nrrg,lc bo the line of original direction of air flow, turbulence and where 14. is in square feet
rl,r, l,rrrnotion of eddy currento are bound to result; see Fig. 5.4. 7 is in feet per second.
 gvrltgU .r4l.C.:
CENTER OF PRESfITTRE ON A FLAT PLATE hg
EXAI\,{PLE
force times distance, for example, foot-pounds or mile-pounds.
ft long and 2 ft rvide, is set at an angle of l2o to en air
ir,,r I'lJrt,o, 12 No time is involved. In overcorr.ing a, force ot , pouncts through a
.,, ulrich has a velocity of 50 ft per sec. (o) What is the force on distance ol y f.eb, the same wo'k of ry foot-pounds is done whether
, i rt, rrl, right angles to the air stream? (b) What is the force parallel accoruplished in a short or long time.
' ,,rr r,lrcam? (c) What is the total force? The mere exer+"ion of a forcd does not involve rvork. A jet of air
,,r,,rr l,'rom Fig. 5.5: for a : 12", C 1 -- 0.73, Cp : 0.164.
striking against & plate mea,ns that a force is exerr^d by thc air on
Lin : qryq4 x x z)x s0' the plate and a force is exertedl by the plate on the air, but unless
o.za [2
" the plate moves no work is done. If the air is stationary and the
: 51.7 lb plate movep ageinst air resistance, the force needed to move the
o'oo-2378
plate,.multiplied by the distance the plate moves, gives the rvork
Drag : 0.104 x xiz x 2 x 502 done.
2
Power involves the element of time. To do the same.work in
: 11.711>
half the time means that twice the porver is required. Forver is
lltsrrltant: \/5;'.;" + 11.72 expressed in rrnits of work divided by time. Worl< is force times
: 53.0 lb
distance. Velocity is expresped in units of distance divided by
time. Then porver, rvhich is force times distance divided by tir.ne,
I'ROBLENIS is also force tinies velocity. It is usual to express power in terms
r \ ',rrinboard is l2 ftlong by 2 fL *,ide. A 28-mph rvind is blorving of an arbitrary unit, a horseporver, rvhich is 550 ft-lb per sec.
, l. ol {)o to the pltne of tlre signlroard. (o) \Yhat is the force in t hP : 550 ft-lb Per sec
' ,rr llrt: signbonrd at riglit orrgles to the rvind direction? (l,r) Whrt : 33,000 ft-lb p"' pi11
, ,,, 1':rlullel io the rvind dircction? (c) \Yhat i" the resurtant of
i ,' l,'r'cos? (d) lVhat is the component perpendicular to the face : 1,980,000 ft-lb per hr
,1'"1,r'ttftl?
:\ ltrl,r: havir,g &n area of 8 sq ft is balanced by its tail so that it : 375 milelL per hr
r l,r l,lrc horizontal. \\'hst is the lifting force in a lO-mph rvind? That is, overcoming a force of I lb at a speed of 375 mph, br of
r \ llrrl, surface 6 ft by 2 ft is subjected to a 3Zrnph rvind rvhich
-,', ,, ,lrrcction 6" to the surface. (a) What is the force in pounds 375 lb at a speed of 1 mph, or 15 lb at a speed of 25 mph, requires
,rrlrrr'r: perpendicular to the rvind? (b) \Yhat is the folce parallel t hp.
,',,11' (c) What angle does the resultant of these trvo forces make
t,, ,l l;lr:c? 5.5. CENTER OF PRESSURE ON A FLAT PLATE
'
t l lrr. sirle of a freight car is 80 ft long and 10 ft high. \Yhat is If a flat plate is held with its surface perpendicular to the direc-
, . ' l,rr rnsi the side of the csr due to an 8-mph rvind f rom a direc-
, ,r 1 tion of an air stre&m, on each square inch of the surface of the plate
i ' , t,' r,li(:ultr to the side: (a) rvhen freight car is stationaly; there will be the same pressure. The center of pressure, which is
r,,
', , rr i:i moving forward of 70 mph? the location of the resultant force, will be at the geometric center
i .\ llrrt, plate is moving in a direction l2o from the plane at a of the plate.
i I 'r'tl [], per sec. If plate has area of 70 sq ft, what force applied
i If a rectangular plate is tilted Bo that it is inclined to the direc-
, , I r,rr of movement is required?
ticn of the ir, thc piessure is.no longer uniform over the surface.
lr r r

r tlnlll( .^-ND POWER The pressure is grcier noo,r the front edge than'toward the rear
I l*. ..rul)lishment cf moiion against the action of force tend- of the plate. This me&ns that the center of pressure has moved
^r
r r,r,,r,l it, is defined as work. Work is expressed in units of forward from the center of the plate. As the angle between the
plate surface and the direction of the eir is decreased more, the
r ,I ELAT AND CURVED PLATES CENTIiR OF PRESSURE ON A FLAT PI,ATE 7L

, farther forward. Finally, rvhen the angle

r,t,.r' of pressure moves If, for any reason, the leading edge oi i.he plate should go down,
i... lxrrn decreased tn znro, so that the plate is parallel to the decreasing the angle of attack, a^s shorvn in Fig. 5.70, the center of
t,,,r.t,ion of air flow, the center of pressure is at the front edge of pressure force are no\\' no longer acting at thc same point. Thc
ilrr lrltrt€. action of these ttvo forces r,ill cause rotation in $ clockrvise direc-
tion, which rvill increase the angle of attack, back toward the orig-
Eo 0 inal angle of balance.
€S o.r ' If, however, the angle of attack is increased, as shorvn in Fig. b.Zc,
g€ &3 the center of pressure n'ill move backrvar.ds torvard the center of
830.4 the plate..The resulting couple rvill give count,erclocku'ise rotation,
o- 0.5 decreasing the a.ngle of attack.
'l'he action just described gives sLat.ic stability in that, if the i_rlattr
is balanced a.t some given angle of attack, trhen the plate is dis-
turbed from this position couples will act to restore ib to the
0,. 10p 21 30p. 40p 5e 6e 71 8tr 90" original angle of attack. This action can be observed in the flf ing
Angle of attack
of kites. The rveight of the tail is adjusled so that the kite is bal-
Fro. 5.6. Center-of-pressure position of a flat plate. anced at some definite angle to the irinct. Because of the inherent,
stability, the kite rvill keep adjusting itself so as to remain at
il,, ' lront edge of the plate is called the leading edge; the rear that angle.
, , ,:rr.lled the trailing edge. The angle betrveen the surface of As will be described later, the cenLer-of-pressure movement on
' t,l,rl, lnd the direction of rir flow is called the angle of attack. the rvings of an airplane is exactly opposite to that on flab plates.
,,,,. lr.(i shorvs the center-qf-pr"ssure movement on a f..rt plate. Rectangular airplane wings are primarily unsbable.

L
!<.4__

I
P
(c)

Fro. 5.7. Stable center-of-preseure movement.

llrr,r rs a stable center-of-pressure movenent in that it gives

=tal'ilrrl, t,o the plate at any angle, as illusirated in Fig.5.7. In
tlp ['/rr, n ftet plate is shown at an angle of attack. A weight is
slr,*rr lrxlrl at such a point thet its oenter of gravity is opposite the
,artrir ,f l)ressure position. Under this condition, there is no
tBnrlprrr,y for the plate to rotate.
 CEORb 73

li. of the wing area which lies rvithin the fuselage. an{ nacelles being
bounded on the front by a straight line connecting the Ieading
edges and on the rear by a line connecting the trailing edges,
fairings and fillets being ignored. Ailerons and flaps are counted
aB part of the wing area. This convention is illustrated in Fig. 6.1.
Airfoils

\ It(l,'olI-s
11f the s'ord airfoil ma1'be used interchangeabil'rvith the
1,,r11,,h
,l dictales that the rvord wing oe used in
r,rtttl , oommon usage
.,,rrr1, l,{) the actual rving of an airplene, and that the rvord
' ,t r,, :rpplied in descriuing the contottr or shape of lhe vertical
, , tr.rr of a wing. Many clifferently shaped airfoils l'-rrve been
, ,,1 ;rnrl their properlies investigated. Only a fel' of Lhese
, ,l ,,, rll bc discussetl in this book. For descriptiuns o[ other

,i
' tlrl lcilder is referred to reports of the lia,tional Advisory
,,,!',rtt,.(, for Aeronautics end other aeronaulical testing lab-

I pl;rtr:s are not :uitable for airplane rvings. 'lo be struc-

l,,t
, ,tt1 .tr,rrrg, l,hey rvould have to have a considerable amount of
, ' Frc. 6.r. Area of a wing.
rrrl' 'l'his bracing, if located outside the plale, l'ould cause
,, l, lrrcl,ion in moving through the air; if inside the plate, it
In the case of a wing with flaps, when the flaps are d.epressed the
',1,1 rrr.r'r.:use the thickness of the plate. By cur"'!ng the plate
chord as measured along a straight line from the leading edge to
, ,, ,,lrs,lrt.ly it is possible to increase the weight-sustaining
the trailing edge is considerably decreased in length. This decrease
r . 1,, r tr, 1',r'cltly. By closing in the undcr pide and making it more
. ,,1, ,,trr,nrnlined in shape, the resistancb to forrtard movement in chord length, and conrequently in projected rving are.r., is ignored
it.,.,irslr llrt: air can be greatly decreased.
in calculations; they are based on the rving in its nolmal position
r l'rrr1,.rrrg t,he amount of curvature rr the thickness of a rving rvith the flaps neutral.
,tt r lr,rrrt,r, t,lrc lifting power and resistance. There is no ideal wing 6,3. SPAN
Li, lr r r ,irrrt,rrllle for all types of airplanes. The proper shape rnust
Span is the distance from wing tip to wing tip, inclusive of
L r lrr'r.rr lrr czrch individual requirement. ailerons. It may be considered the least rvidth of hangar doorrvay
F J Alll,:A through which the airplane can be pushed straight. The symbol
llr,. rrr.n of a rving is the area of the projection of the actual for span is b.
,,,rtltrr. ,rr l,lrc plane of the chord. The symbol for area is S.
6.4. cHoRD
It,t nr.rrxlynamic calculations a.wing is considered to extend
ritllrrrl. rrrk,rruption through the fuselage and nacelles, that part To Ccscribe the curvature of the upper and lower surfaces, a
72
base line is used as a teference. Coordinates are given u'ith respect
 I-1 !-1 q-r l---!t! ?-r
-l-li
.1i": r.
J-f J-l r--r l----H

l" MEAN GEOMETR,IC CEORD 76

I
I

, ,,,,,,,, o' this ,"r"r"r,..llnl"rojT"r* sufficient pr.rints on the rving panel passes through the centroid of the plan vierv of the
,,,t,,rl Lo enable the curve to be drarvn. This reference line is the rving panel. The leading edge of the M.G.C. is on a line connecting
l,,,r,l ol' the airfoil. tire leading edge of the root and tip sections, and the tr:.iling edge
ll llrr: airfoil has convex curvature on both upper and lower of the M.C"C. is on s line connecting the trailing edges of the root
,,rrlr' ('ri, as in Fig. 6.2o, the chord is the line joining the most for-
ald tip sec[ions (see Fig. 6.3, rvhich shows a srrept-back, tapered
,, r ,1 point on the front edge (leading edge) to the rearmost point
wing.and a graphical method of finding the \'|.G.C. of a rving
,r,.rlurt{ cdge). If the lorver surface of the airfoil is predominantly panel).

(a) (b)
A
I
llrr;. ti.2. Chords. (o) )ouble camber. (b) Single camber. i
rl rt :r:; in F;g. 6.2b, the chord.is the straight line that coincides for
,,,,, I ol its lc;rgth n'ith the lorver surface. With other shapes of
,,rl,,rlr; tlrc cl..turn linc is more or less arbitrary. This causes no
,,',,irr:.ion as the chord and the airfoil aie never dissociated. When-
, r,'r :r.rr airfoil is uescribed, the chord :s knorvn.
'l lr,'t:hord length ir the length of the projection of the airfoil sec-
t',r ()n its chord. Its symbol is c.
Ii iI I\,IT'AN AERODYNAMIC CHORD Ftc. ti.3. Mean gcornetlic chord of srvepr-back wing. .

'l'lrr: mean aerodynamic chord (M.A.C.) of a wing is the chord

If d is the perpendicular disbance from the root to the I\,I.G.C.,
,,1 rr.rr imaginary (simple rectangular) rving which, throughout the
llrlqlrl, range, rvill have the same force vectors as the actual wing. - h(o * 2b)
I lrri irnaginary airfoil does not need to resemble any knorvn air- 3(" + b)
l,'rl 'l'he location and length of the mean aerodynamic chord may
l,,.r,l,t,uincd from l'ind-tunnel tests of a model wing, or they may where [: pernendicular distance root section to tip section
l,, ,lrtainccl l,.y calculations. The calculations are somes'hat long o: lengbh of root chord
,,rr,l crrmbersome. In actual plactice, the mean geometric chord is b: length of tip chord.
instcad of the mean aerodynamic chord. Only negligible error The length of the mean geometric chord is
'r,.,.r1
r , rrrl,roCuced by doing this, and the calculation of the mean
1',,ornctric chord is much simpler. Id.c.c. : ?(" iL)
3\ *b - @+o/
IiIi. MEAN GEOIUETRIC CHORD
l,'or a rectangular monoplane wing, the mean geometric chord
2/ 6z \
:5\'+,-6)
r,r i<lcntical ivith the chord of the wing section.
lror a tapered monoplane, the meag geometric chord of each The distance m, in a swept-back wing of the leading edge of
 r-l f---t . r-! r-t l--r I ---l r-t r- ! r- | r-1 l- r
,rr:!l tl ll ll ll it l: r,i'

AIRF'OIL8
I' CAMBER

. rl (; (). to the rear of the leading edge of the root chord, is behind the leading edge of the center section is

* %) m@ - 1t1
n: s(o
T@ +a
N: VT-:T
r,' r' i;tor,al sweepback. where z: distance of L.E. of M.G.C. of wing panel behind L.E.
I ,,r n rnonoDlane rvith a straight center section and swept'back of center section.
,"r! l,rnols, the M.G.C. of the center section and the M'G'C. ot For a monoplanc'n'ith dihedral (sce Fig. 6.5), i;ire ir{.G.C. of the
'r,, ,,,,1,.r panel are found separately' The distance e of the M'G.C. \- center section and the M.G.C. of tire outer panel are found sepa-
r rlr' r,rrt,ire semlrving from the center line of t'he airplane (see
rateiy.
i ,r r, l) s'ill be The distance n.' (see Fig. 6.5) by l'hich the \{.G.C. is clcvated is
+ h"S,
e: h'5"
5"1s" t
n:rn t@-h''t
y,_y
r.,,, ltt: distance from center line of airplane to M'G'C. of
:
rvhere rn' distance that M.G.C. of outel' panel is raiscd.
semi-center section
/r" : distance from eenter line of airplane to M.G.C. of 6.7. ASPECT RATIO
rr'ing panel
The aspect ra'"io of a n'ing is the rafio of the span to the chold.
,s. : total area oI center section 'I'his is for reciangular *'ing:. For rvings that are noi t'ectangttlar
,s,, : total area of both rving Panels. in shape rvhen vielved from above, the aspect ratio is tirc ratio of
the square of the span to the area.
-1-- -T bb2s
o
c
n m M.G.C. of A.R.:-:=:-;
cD..c'
(6.7.1)
M.G.C. M.G.C. outer panel
?
E Pl ser,, center
'tl
o
Clo
section It
is customary in wind-tunnel tests to use model airfoils rvhose
t,i
t.r,'{ c3 aspect ratio is 6. Force measurements from these tests need to
't. = be corrected when applied to airfoils of differing aspect ratio'
l. 6.8. CAMBER
I

Frc. 6.5. Mean gqo:netric chord Camber is the length of the ordinate perpendicular lo the chord.
I r,: {i.4. Mean geometric chord of
with dihedral. Top camber is the distance of a point in the upper sulface of the
',, p1 lrack tving with cenLer
section.
airfoil from the chord line; bottom or lorver camber is the distance
l'lrr: length of the mean geometric chord is of a point in the Iorver surface of the airfoil from the chord line-
Because airfoil seciions, which are geometrically similar but of
(c"-c)(h" -")
M.G.C. : C, * ---T'=il-- different size, would be designated by the same name' amount of
camber is always given in percentage of the chord length. The
distance along the chord is also given in percentage of chord.
'' 1,,.r'r: C,
: leng+h of M.G.C- rving panel In Table 6.1 are shown the dirnensions of a Clark Y airfoil, a
C" : length of M'G'C' center section' typical mediun-thickness rving. When the chord length is decided
'llrr: rearr.'ti,rd distance a of the leading edge of the M'G'C' upon, the actuai camber can be found from this table by mul-
 ., . -r. I ;i-.r 1-"... -*i, !_:a'.....:F. .*!.1t..

AIRFOIIS TAPERED WINGS 7S

TAIli,t.l 6.1
6.10.AIR}'OIL SHAPES
Srupp.or. Cr,,rnx Y Arnrorl All the airfoils that have been used on standard airplanes up to
(Percentage of chord)
the present time have sone features in common. All have had a
I)istance f;om Upper Lorvcr
roundd front or leading edge. They have smoothly thickened to
Lcading Edge Camber Camber
a point of maximum thickness; usually one.third to one-half the
0 3.50 3. 50
t.25 5.45 1.93 chord'length back of the leading edge. They have then gradually
2.5 6.50 7.47 decreased in thickness'to a thin, so-called knife-edge at the rear
5 7 .90 0.93 or trailing edge.-Several popular airfoils are shown in Fig. 6.8.
7.5 8.85 0. 63
r0 9.60 o.42
l5 10. 69 0.15
20 1r.36 003
30 11.70 0
10 ll.{0 0
50 10.52 0
60 r). t5 0
7o 7 .ils 0
s0 4r, 0
90 2.30 0
05 I .4{) 0
@/c r.rpper cambel d mean line of airfoil profile
100 0. 12 0 6zu
m,/c
lower camber
mean camber
tc profile thickness
chord length
,,1. tlrr, t'hord length by the suitable percentages. The use .t lc. 6.7. Median line and cumber.
,, t,rl,Lri.: slius'n in Fig. ,i.6, the points laid out by means of
',,r,lrrr:rtcs defining a curve. Airfoils designed for supersonic speeds rvill be radically different
in shape from the familiar airfoil. They will have a sharp leading
edge and a sharp trailing edge. Two proposed shapes are sholvn in
Fig. 6.9.

6.11. TAPERED WINGS

Frc. 6.6. Clark Y wing contour. Rectangular rvings are usually the cheapest to manufacture since
each rib is identical; there are, horvever, many advantages to
i | 'rrr\rnnlm camber is an important dimension; it refers to taperiug a rving.
1.,,,rt,.,1, tlt:parture of the curve of the airfoil from the chord There are three rvays of tapeling n'ings. The fir'st is termed
taper in plan lorrn onlg. This means using the same airfoil section
thror.tghout tbc rving. As the chcrd is lesscned from the rool to the
III'IAN LINE j t,ip, the u.ilfoil set:tious rr.t'c nxluced in size; t,his eutrils <leclcru;irrg
I l.lrc thickness from nxrl,. l,o tip. 1'he secoricl method is termetl
i r,,, 1111111 rrn It is the line
line is also called the mean cambr line.
lu,per in lhichwss only.'llis means rr lcctitn€i'.il&r' rving, the r:hortl
, ,,, tlrr.krcusof points equidistant from the upper and lower I
remaining the sarne fr<xr root, to tip. Tlrc lir{oil sccti<lrr is gradurrlly
", ' 'l'lrr: shape of this line has an important effect on the ,
I
changed from a thick rving at the ror,'L to a thin rving at the tip.
, ,' I' r r,t,i(:s of the airfoil. It is illustrated in Fig.
6.2. The third rnethod is a combiiration of the first two.
 AIRFOII,s
t.1,,',1 \virrgs are slightly better aerodynamieally thau rec-
tangular wings, the improvement
being more marked at high
speeds.{The big advantage of
Clark Y tapered' rvings is structural
weight, the rveight of a rvell-ta-
pered wing being only 50 to 60 per
cent of that of a rectangular wing
(;0ttin8en.398 of the same span and area. In the
taperedrving, the increased chord
> c-80
length at the root is accom-
panied by increased thickness s.
that spars may have their great-
est depth rvhere bending moment
is n aximum.
A standard taper approved by
the Army is shos'n in Fig. 6.10.
M-6
J u.rr.swEEPBACK
. Srveepback is the anele be-
RAF.I5 trveen a line perpenciicular to the
plane of s)rmrrretry of the airplane
and the horizontal projection uf
a reference line in the wing. If
the rving is rectangular in shape,
USA.35A this reference line is the leading
edge of the wing. If the rving is
tapered, the reference is the line
passing through the point, in each
NACA.22l2 airfoil section, that is onequarter
of the chord length back from
the leading edge of the section.
:4.2412
> 'flow
A,irfoils- Frq. 6.9. Supcrsonic airfoils.
RDLATIVE WIND 81
If the angle of srveepback is 45o or great€r, the wing is termed an
anowltcad, wing.
A small emount of sleepback increases the directional and
latcral stability of the airplane. Tailless airplanes usually have a
iarge amount of srveepback. On airplanes designed for high-speed
flight, the use of sweepback or slveepforward permits the airplane
to be flown at higher speeds rvithout the eppearance of shcck
wa,ves.
Ag
Span-4.7211C-L
| , I arnr--- F g
.368 C I
c .472C
Qirai.:i chord slations 0.5 c
4l
I
< I
ttl
Area - 3.719 Ct t---;--J F 8C
LenSth of M.A.C. = 0.843 C
L.E. M.A.C. Att t.E. Ret Chord-0.039C
+^ R@t Chord Thictness
Tip Chord Thickness
(Scction C-C unfaircd)
- l8%
- 9t
Frc. C.10. Standard wing taper.
6.13. DIHEDRAL
It is customa.ry for rvings to slope uprvard toward the tip; this
is lhe dittcitral. A small amount of dihedrai adds greatly to the
lateral stability. The amount of dihedral is measured by the angle
between a line perpendicular to the axis of symmetry of the air-
plane and the projection of the wing axis on a plane perpendicular
to the longitudinal axis of the airplane. Tapered wings that have
their upper surface horizontal are said to have effective dihedral.
6.14. RELATIVE WIND
Relative wind is the motion of the air rvith reference to an object.
If au airplane is rnoving forv,'erd horizontaliy ihrough stationary
air, the relative wind is moving horizontally backward with respect
to the eirplane. If the airplane il rnoving both forward and dorvn-
ward through stationary air, as in coming dorvn to land, the direc-
tion of the relative wind is upward as well as backward. If the
airplane is moving forward horizontally and e;counters ah up-gust
 AIRFOILS
direction of the relative lvind is upward and
. n., rr rlcflected by a moving object, even before it en-
.- t1,,, lxrtly, the velocity (speed and direction) of the
. ,ru,l ,n r.eusured at such distance ahead of the moving
rt'rl llrl disturbing effect from the body upon the air is
ATTACK
.. or,y[, of ottack of a wing is the acute angle between the
rvrrrg and the direction of the relative wind'
7.
Air Flow in Two Dimensions
about a Wing
2.1. TWO-DIi\IENSIONAL FLOW
A fluid is moving in trvo-dimensioual florv u'hen its motion is
entirely in a plane. If a circular cylinder is infinite in length and
air is flervi'rg around the cylinder, and if the direclion of the relative
rvind is perpendicular to the cJ'linder axis, thc flou- is tn'o-dimen-
sional. If an airplane rving could be jnfinite in spln and if the rela-
tive n'ind rvere to ccme from a direction pelpendic:llar to the span,
the air florv rvould be two-dimensional. This means that an air
particle, as it approaches the s'ing and passes above or belorv, may
be moving up or dorvn but not sidervays.
It rvill be shorvn in a later chaptel thab about n real airplane
wing, *.ith infinite span, air spills out from under the wing tip,
over to the top of the rving, and in*'ard. This rving-tip vortex
motion complicates the movement of the air about the wing, so
that it is not trvo-dimensional. The present chapter deals only
with motion when this action is. absent, i.e., when the rving tips
are at infinity.
If the wing is rectangular in pla,n so that each airfoil section is
the same, in two'dimensional florv the flow pattern about any
section of the rving is exactly the same as the florv pattern about
any other parallel sestion of the wing. Any forces on a wing section
produced by the air flow will be exactly duplicated by similar
forces on all parallel rving sections.
7.2. BOUNDAN,Y LAYER
In Sectiolr 2.6, Bernoulli's equation was derived by equating
the pressure force to the product of mass times acceleration. No
other force was mentioned. In consideingreal fluids, account must
be taken of the shearing force required to overco4pe viscosity.
83
 iI I"I,()}v IN TWO DIMENSIONS ABOUT A WING
I
1
,,,. ,,lu&tion can be properly applied only to ideal (non-
llrrr,lrr-
,ty lrr:rr!,ins to layers of a fluid shearing past each other.
, ,,1'r'rr adjacent layers moving at different velocities. If a
r rr I rvere moving in such a way that every particle had the
I I r r
,l',' rl.y, viscosity would have no application.
,. '1,;r.r:t, is completely immersed in a viscous fluid, and if the
, 7.1. Then for each strearnline, such as aa' and bb', there is a countei-
,,, r,,,,l,ir)n rvith respect to the body, there is a layer of flurd
,,, , rrrrt,lrct rvith the surface of the object, and in this layer
,, I ,, rrl, rest rvith respect to the object. A real fluid cannot
, rl'. rjrrlface of an object
t,, rrrljrLccnt layer the fluid is moving at a small v"locil.v
,,,, L t,o lhe object, and in successive layers thu velocity is
. ,",1 lirrater. At some snrall distance away from the :bject,
, I , . rrroving at the full velocity of the fluid mass.
,,,.,11 lr:gion of the fluid, adjacent to a body in the fluicl, in
,1,, , , lor,it1l varies from zeroto full stream velocity, i,* callecl
,,,,1.,ry ltyer. In the boundary la1'er, because oi the varying
',' vrii(;ous forces play an irnport,ant role. The florv in the
r,,; l;rycl may be either laminar (smooth) or turbulenl.
.,, r'l,.rLl (non-viscous) fluid, there s'ould be no boundary
lr ,luc to viscosity that the velo..ity drops from full value
, , ,,rr Llrr: surface.
'i t layer depends on the viscosity of
l,r, k rrr:ss of the boundary
,i ,,,1, llrr: less the viscosity, the thinner the layer. If the fluid
.r, r. t,,rcat, the bounCary layer is thin. If Reynolds number
' , t ,,,rr i).9) is large, the depth of the boundary leyer is small.
i., rlrr lrrrundary iayer, the forces due to viscosity are of appro::-
,, I , tlr' r;lrrne magnitude as the other forces concerned u'ith the
t 'rr,t r,n. Outside the boundary layer, viscous forces i,r'e
, r.,. r l,lr.
| ,, ,rr' ()n the outer surface of a boundary layer is transmiLfed
,,,,',lly l,lrrough the layer without change.
. I IIII';;IIIIIIIES ON A WING WI'TE IDEAL FLUID
ll 'rr rrl,rrl fluid is flowing two-dimensionally in a horizontal
i',, ' tt,'rr rrlrorrt a wing, the streamlines have the appearance of
f is i I ( llrsc to the upper surface, the streamline deviates from
"trnqr.lrl, plr.th in order to follow the sontour of the wing. Farther
:r..
!r lr "m llrr' krp surfaee, the disturbance to the straight florv is less.
PRESSURES ON A WING WITE IDEAL FLUID 85
Theoretically, at an infinite distance above the wing, the.c is an
infinitesimal disturbance. Practically. at Bome nnite distance the
disturbance is negligible. Below ihe lower surface, ihere.is also
disturbance.
since the flow is twedimensional, for every other section of a
rectangular wing the flow is exactly similar to that shown in Fis.
pari in all planes parallel to the plane depicted in Fig. Z.l.
One may visualize a streamtube of reciangular crol section,
of
which two apposite faces are the plane of the paper of Fig. 7.1, and
a parallel plane, unit distance arvay, the it ira fu." leing the
Fro. 2.1. Air flow about airfoil.
streamline ant and all similar streamlines in the inter'ening planes
and the fourth side of the streamtube being the stream'iine aat
and its corresponding counterparts.
This rectangular streamtube, owing to its two parallel sides, has
a constant width, but its other dimension varies. At section o-o
the streamlines on' and bbl are a certain distance apart, but at
section 1-1 this distance has decreased and at section 2-2 tie
distance has decreased more. since the same quantity of fluid
passes each section in unit time, at narrow sections the velocity
;;
greater than at broader sections. By Bernoulli,s equation, where
the velocity is greater, the pressure is less. It is to be noted that
this pressure is noi'mal to the wlll of the streamtube.
rf ihe pressure in the fluic at secticn o4 isetrncspheric pressrrre,
then at section 1-1 the pressuie will be less than atmospheric
pressure and.at section 2-2lhe pressure will be still less. ir tn"
streamline bbl lies on the surface of the wing and the streamline cai
is a very short distance &way, the prcssures on the rvall of the
streamtube will be the pressures on the surface of the wing.
 IIF I'I,I}\V IN TWO DIMENSIONS ABOITT A WING ' FORCES ON A WINO IN TWGDIMENSIONAL FLOW
87
*:ih, l r oN A \-,'ING IN TWO-DIIVIENSIONAL FLOW ponent in pounds, and D the drag
component in pounds,
r Er ;he1''. ,,1 t,he streanrlines depend on the shape of the airfoil

I rL,, 'l llrr,nngle of attack (or direction from which the rela- &: 1nitn, (7.4.t)
+rr,,l nlnltr,s the airfoil). With differently shaped streamlines,
t.,ts*,r r,,lrrrl,ribution over the wing varies.
i |,EEE,n. rrrrrltiplied by the are& over which it acts gives the L: Ct"itn, (7.4.2)
r. rl!'. ,,n t,he area. If the surface of a wing is subdivided into
. ,, , 4q, ,.nllr scction so small that the pressure may be asstrmed D: coitn,
i ,r,,,trurl, over the area, the action of a fluid florving over a (7.4.3)
. '= r,, l,rrxluce many small forces acting on the wing, as shown rvhere I ': wing area in square feet
I/ airspeed in feet per second
Cn := coefficient of the resultant
C t : lif.t coefficient
Co : drag coefficient..
It is common to use the symbol q for the dynamic pressuie,
q : (p/2) I/2; therefore the ablve .quutioo,
-ay be rvritten
E: CpSq (7.4.4)
7: CrSe (7.4.5)
D: CoSq (7.4.6)
The resultant force may also be resolved
Relative wind
into two other com_
ponents, a norrnal component force perperdicular
to the chordand
a clwrd component force in the direction
of the chord I#;;;
normal force and G is the chord force,
Frc. 7.2. Pressures and forces on airf6il.

N : cr trr, (7.4.7)
1!l tlr,. v:rrious forces on the rving produced by the air flow may
,l'1,,1 t,o produce a single iorce called the resultant. l'he mag-
,,,,1,, tlrc direction, and the line of action of the resultant all c: cctrr, (7.4.8)
' r'l ,rn l,he pressure distribution.
'..
tl,r. rcsrrltant force is usually rilsolved into trvo component It will be noted that, c being the angle of attack,
.,, llrt: lift component force, which is perpendicular to the Ct:Cycosd-Ccsinc! (7..4.s)
r,rrrr,ivrnd, and the drag componeui, force, ivhich is parallcl to
r.. rr lrrt,ive wind. It should be emphasized that the lift component Co:CNsincaCccosc (7.4.r0)
,,"t vcrtical except x'hen the relative wind is horizontal. If C,y points uprrard it is.positive; if Cg points backrvard it is
l lr. l.r'c€s on a wing depend on the air density, the wing area, positive.
,,,1 11,,, s(prare of the velocity (airspeed). Letting ,R be the symbol The point at which the rine oi action of the .esurtant
, tlr. rcsultant force in pounds,.L the symbol for the lift com- force
intersects the chord of the wing is cailed the center of
nressure.
 .III I"I,()\Y IN TWO DIMENSIONS ABOIIT A WING PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION WJT,E ID}:AL FLUID FLO\Y 89

,rr.rr ()f the center of pressure is customarily given as ttre The magnitude of the moment of the resultant force about the
,. r ,,1r. r:hord lenglh tact< of the leading edge (see Fig'
7'a) : leading edge (ML.s. or Ms) ir the prod,uct of.the resultant force
'l multiplied by the distar're of the line 9f acticn of the resultant
op
C.P.: from the leading edge. If the angle of attack is a and the chord
ob
length c, then
Mo : -L(C.P. X c X cos a) - D(C.p. X c-X sin a)
since a is usuilly s srnall anglc, <.rnly a slighc brror is i^trrducetl
Resulunt
if cos c' i:, assumed to be
unity. Also, since D is usrralll, small com_
pat'ed tvith L, D sin c rvill be slill smaller comparecl *.rt,h L, arrd
Normal component
chord comPonent
trnl-r' a slight additlona! error wrll be incurrcd if the tcrm c:on-
a
taining D sin * is dropped. Then a sufficiently closc .ppr.ximatio'
iV sin
for most rvork is
"D
Relative wind
'
trto:-LX(C.P.Xc) (7.+.11)
Ccosa
(o)
The coefficient of rnomcnt about the leading edgc, C.11u, is

.''1l. v^Mo
ltlo : (7.+. i ?)
component
,2 sv?
2

rl cos a
Resuitant
7.5. IITESSURE DISTRIBUTION OVER A \\IING \\'ITH
iDEAL FLUID F'LOW
Ccos a ln I'ig. ?,f., let ds be a distance 4.fgng !,he surfaee of the rving ui
Relative wind Csino such smbll inagr,itude that the pibssui.e p alcing it may be con-
> sidered uniform; end consider.a sma]l strip of ping surfacc bjhveen
Nsin a Chord component
bwo,planesr:&,unit distance rapart 4long the span. The force acfing
o)
I
on the area ds X will be (po p) ds,, if.,it, is ,assumed that
-
tr'ro. 7.3. Normal and chord components' atmospheric pressure pe is,acting in..tbe,interior of:the rvirg. This
force will act.normal to the.surface,'of the wing.,,If p
- psz-O,
the vector is plotted outward from the surfacel rt p - po > 0, the
C.P. xc x cos a vector is plottd inward ,tgward: the-surface. : , ,

a
, If,dsi is inclined at,angle 0 to, the,,plang of the,chord, the force
C.P.x c :(po -, p)'ds,,is inclined frtim,the pelpendicular torthe chord by the
Direiiion of relative - angle 0. The'lorma! conpone:rt.cf,,tho force fuerpendicular io the
"vinC
chord).tillbe.(porp)ioos0-ds....'.''jj;li;..',:.'l,
Fro. ?'4. Center of pressure on airfoil' ,.,The prgjection of tbe,area ds on,the plone of,,the chord u.ill be
dr,.and dr :.ds.cos0. ,,i'i',rl ij.,
tl', r'sulLant force .R produces a moment about the le;Cing For a unit span, ps - p ma/.be plotted peilinolly as in Fig. 7,5b.
i,,, llris trIoment is termed negative if it tends to raise the Each ordinate then represents the pSesgure.difierence on the surface
,,1'r1,..rrlS€ (diving moment), and positive if it teuds to depress of the wing at the corresponding point along the chord. The area
t'rrling edge (stalling moment). (po - p) dc in Fig. 7.5b represenis l[s force on the small'area;
 l*
ArR FLow rN Two orubwsroNs ABour A wrNc
I PRESSUR1D DISTR,IRTINON IN A REAI, FLTIID 91

t, on the surface of the wing; it also represents the force CMs ean also be obtair,-i. The Iift cceffcien' L'1 fotrnj in this
,l,,.rrrlicular to the chord on the projected area, dt X I' The way agrees closely with the coefficient found bt' otht'r rneans, i.e.,
',,,,r:rt,ion of (po - p) dr from r': 0 to x
: c oD both upper and
, r srrrfaces is a measure of the total normal force on a unit span
r tlrr. rviDg.

\
(ns-ilds

Direction of chord
(a)
_T

I
(po'p)

Direction of chord
la' ft)

rlrc. 7.5. Pressure on element of chord.

.. ''IIESSURE
DISTRIBUTION IN A REAL FLUID
I lr: discussion in the preceding section dealt with the flow of rn
I

, t, ,,1 lluid. Since rvith an ideal fluid there is no boundary layer,

I
rt,' r. rlre no shear forces.
ltr r. rea'o fluid, there are shear forces acling in the boundary
t., 1r,1 'lhese shear forces resist the florv of the air over the wing. Fro. 7.6. Measuring pressures on wing.
_
tt,'. rihear forces cause negligible effect on the normal or lift
t,,r,r.:; l)ut do ndd appreciably to the drag or chord forces. winddunnels test, as does the moment coefficient C,vo. Ot-ing to
\,t,rral tests have been made on an NACA 4412 airfoil. Over the sb/ai .fori65,.there is not such a close agreenrent on the I'alue
,,l ,,ri{'rces lvere made in the upper and lolver surfaces a,nd tubing of C-o filind in'this way rvith the Cp found by rvintl-Lunnel tests.
L, 'nr t.hese orifices connected.rvith manometers as shown in Fig. 7.6. I

ttlr.ruirrrements were ma.de at various tr,ngles of attack. The dlffer" I

EXAI\,iPLE
,.r,,,' from atmospheric pressure at each orifice was measuredr and
rl',,r,r, readiDgs were divided bv b/2)V2. By integrating these Pressure measrlrements were mede on an airfoil at 16" angle of
,,rlrr.s ov€r the chord, a value of Cy rvas found. By a similar attack. Thbse pressures &re plotted in Fig. 7.7c. These s&me pressures
t,rf ,,'f 'ss, Cs ce\be found. By computation, C; and Cp can be found
are plottcd as ordinatee in Fig. 7.7b. To find the areo undcr these curves'
l'rrrr Cff and Cc and the angle of attack. The moment coefficient Simpson's rule is applied. I

: I

I
I
I la
t_
I

AIII FLOW IN TWO DIMENSIONS ABOUT A WING

t PRESSURD DISTRIBUTION IN A REAL FLTIID 91

I, ,n the surface of the wing; it also represents the force CMs can also be obtain-i. The lift cceffcien' Lr1. ftrr.lnJ. in this
1,,rr,lrr:ular to the chord on the projected erea, d.x X l' The way agrees closely with the coefficient found b1' oth('r rneans, i.e.,
,'r,rrrlirrn of (po
- p) dr from r': 0 to tr : c on both upper and
, .ulfaces is a measure of the total normal force on a unit span
'
rl,, u,irtg.

\
(n6-ilds

Direction ol chord
| (o)

-T
I

btP)

Direction of chord
t l*ar ft)
rrrc. 7.5. Pressure on element of chorcl.

,. ''ITESSURE
DISTRIBUTION IN A REAL FLUID
I lrr: discussion in the preceding section dealt with the flow of rn
, t,,,1 {luid. Since rvith an ideal fluid there is no boundary layer,
il,r rr' rrr€ nO Shear fOrCeS.
It u" real, fluid, there are shear forces acting in the Ssundar]
t,r,,r 'lhese shear forces resist the florv of the air over the wing. Fro. 7.6. Mea.quring pressures on wing.
I t,,. shear forces ca.use negligible effect on the normal or lift
.
r ,,r'r's but do add appreciably to the drag or chord forces. wind{,unnels tpst, as does the moment coefficient C,110. Orr'ing to
.\,rt,ual tests have been made on an NACL 4412 airfoil. Over
the s\{iy.fgrded,,there is not such a close agreement, on the value
',1 {)rifices lvere made in the upper and lorver surfaces and tubing
of C-o foundin'this way rvith the Co found by rvirrtl-tunnel tests.
tr,
'rrr
thes€ orifices connected rvith manometers as shorvn in Fig. 7.6.
\l,.rusurements were mede at va.rious angleo of attack. The drfrer.'
, rr.r' frorl atmospheric pressure at each orifice was measured, and
EXAI\,IPLE
rl,,.r;rr readings \vere divided by (p/2)V2. By integrating these Presiure measurements were made on an airfoil at 16" angle of
,,rlrrcs over the chord, a value of. Cn rvas found. By a similar attack. Thbse p.ressures &re plotted in Fig. 7.7c. Thesc s&me plessures
t,rr x:css, Cc can be found. By computation, Cr, and Cp can be found are plottcd as ordinatee in Fig. 7.7b. To find the area undcr these curves,
r'rrn Cry and Cs and the angle of attack. The moment coefrcient Simpson's rule is applied.
 t-- 1-t r--r
l-l
-1 ry(,-1
f-t l-*-t
i: ,i:!nl

I
FLOW II.i TWO DIMENSIONS AEOTIT A WING I S@ARATION OF BOI'NDARY II\YER 93
^IR I

B)' a similar procea{i, Cc is found to be -0.34 .

"::;"",,1._'iT*]",u,
: 1.58

This is a clos€ check on the value ol Czlor 16" angle of attack for this air-
foil from wind-tunnel tests.

7.7. VELOCITIES ABOUT AIRFOII.S|

In the example given in the preceding section, the pressure
clifferentials (divided by the dynamic pressure), as recorded in the
table, rvere found by actual measurements. It is to be noted, for
Fro. 7 .7. Chord-wise pressure distribution. example, that at one point on the wing surface,

I rr lIr,t.(. llpper Surflcc Lorver Surface p: P-Po : -6.23

lr,rrl q
t,,rrlrrrg P -Po Simpson I>_po paorr'rl
I , l1'.r' coefficicr q
= p-po: -6.n;vo2
,
o. l0c but by Bernouiii's equation, if the air is as;umed to be incom-
pressible,
0 -6.23 % -3.65 % -0.91
I +0.93 +0.93
po: yr)
0
t) 50
?,lt -4.00
-3.r7 % -l +0.98
1
% +0.49
p - f,fvf -
o75 -2.7L 1 -2.7r +0.89 1 +0.8e
then
l(n -2.44 % -3.01 +0.82 % +1.22
'.r 0 - 1.84 4 -7 +0.63 4 +2.52 -6.BVo2:Io'-V'
:t0 -1.44 2 +0.55 2 +l.lQ V2 :7.BVoz
.1 0 - l.r0 4 -4. +0.48 4 +r.92
l'.o -0.79 2 -l +0.43 2 +0.86 V :2.69Vo
Ii.0 -0.5d 4 -2. +0.39 4 +r.56
7.0 -0.32 2 +0.35 o +0.70 This means that if lro is 100 ft per sec, &t some point on the wing
+0.29 4 +1.16 'When
ri.0 -0.15 4
surface the local velocity is 269 ft per sec. the wing is moving
1r.0
-0.04 1 -0. +-0.23 I +0.23
ft if air
Omitted through the air at 200 per sec, the were non-compressible,
l{).0 +0.0r Omitted +0.0r
: :12.67 tbe local velocity at some point on the wing would be 538 ft per sec.
On upper.surface E&y -32.561 On lower surface Zkv this point will show that the wing may be moving
Consideration of
through the air at a spued below.the speed of sound and yel there
on upper surface :| ttr,uul = t.* may be points on the surface of the wing past which the air is
iZr, traveling at supersonic speed.
onlowersurfac"iDtu: $ ttr.utl -- o.a
:J- " cr:l5l 7.8. SEPAKATIO].' OF BO'-TNDARY LAYER

Note: By a nioie accurate integra'uion, i.e., by taki-ng Simpson stations at The decrease of pressure over the upper surface of the -.-ing,
rrrutller intervals or by mechanical integrator, Cy is round to be f .55. as describedin this chapter, irresupposes that the air flows smoothly
 !I AIR FLOW IN TWO DIMDNSIONS ABOUT A WINC
, I t,he surfacc. It will jo this rvhen the angle of attack is small.
attack is increased, the air florv will still be smooth
r , t,lrc angle of
',rrtrl some angle of attack is reached rvhere the air flow begins to
r,r,'rrli aw&y from the upper surface et some point near the trailing
',ly,r', as shown in Fig.7.8o. The angle of attack at which this
,r, tron st&rts varies for verious airfoil shapes but is usually at 18o
r',ll0" for most airfoils.
Fla. 7.8. Separation of boundary layer,
Ag the angle of attack ic increased still more, the poin^, of sepa-
rrrtion i,toveB faflher forlard,'a,s Bhown in Fig. Z.8b.
llctween the aeparation point and the trailing edge, the eir iormts
,,l,lies and burbles. In this area, there ere no pressures tending to
',,r,,t,nin the wing in flight; all the lift must come from forces acting
l,,rrvord of the:cparation point on the upper Burface and from
l,'r'r:cs on the lower Burface of the wing. Since cnergy ie coneumed
r:r'eating eddies, more work is requircd to movo the wing forward
"r
''lurn burbling is taking place.
o
0.
Wings with Aspect Rario
of Six at Subsonic Speeds
8.1. INTRODUCTORY
In eu'lier chapters it rvas stated that at lorv speeds air coulci
|e l,reated as an incompressible fluid. At speeds of :round a couple
,,i'ir',:Ldred miles per hour, a small error is introduced by neglecting
-.-'mpressibility. At higher sFoeds this error is increased greatly.
In this chapter the forces on rvings rvili be discussed, the effects'of
compressibility being neglected, and in a jater chapter these
effects will be treated.
The aspect ratio of the wing has a pronounced effect on its
performance. Although it is common practice norv to present data
for rvings with infinite ratio, for many years it r.,,as customary to
give rhe data from wind-tunnel tests on wing models rvith aspect
ratio of 6. In thie chapter consideration will be given to the'forces
on wings with an a;pect ratio of O, and in Chapter l0 the proceduro
will be givon for. correcting from one aspcct ratio to another.
8,2. FORCES ON AN AIRFOIL
Air flowing r-round an airfoil exerts a pressure on each little
portion of the airfoil eurface. This pressure is coneidered positive
if it is greater than atmospheric, negative if it is less than atmoe-
pberic.
At amall positive angles of attack the air flows smoothiy over
the upper sudace. Each particle of air sweeping along a eurface
contributeg to giving a emall.negative pressure as long as its
nction is parallal to ^,!:e Eurfac6. If its nrotion is not parailol but
toward the rurfaoe, it will contribute its component of positive
impaot pressurt. The direotion of flow is shown in Fig. 8,1o, and
the presruiee, to scale, are ehown in Fig. 8.1b.
At larger aoglee of attaok'the shape of the gtroamlinee and the
magnitude of tbe preseures change. This is shown in trig, g.2.
96
 j!
06 wrNGS A.R. OF 6 AT SUBSONIC SPEEDS
FORUES oAI AN AIRFoIL 97
As t,he ansio of attack is increased still niore, the air cannot of the wrng may be added vectorially.
l'ollorv the upper surface of the rving as that rvould entai! too great i.e., taking into account both
magnitude and directiou, and this.u**uii*r
rL change in direction. The streamlines no longer conform to the is cailed the rcsultant
force.
r:ontour of the airfoil (Fig. 8.3). Burbling starts at i;he trailing
-the
r.dge.lIf ,the apsf e o{;attpck ir mpde greater, buihiing rvill extenj
-[:Lrther forward.
- -.j ; j ....
: ,-;_>.--
;':. ".,i.ll, ls;::
-----=*$-_ -ir
(a) -->

Fre. 9.3. Flow at high cngle of attack.

(b)
l'rc. 8.1. Flow at lorv angle of attack. For most rvings, :rb small .angles of
attack this resultant acts
near the trailing edge. As the angte
iesultant moves fo.vard; see Fig."A.+.or uiiu.t i, irrr;^.;J, ;l;
\Vherever burbling takes place, that porlion of +.he rving has Wh"" the ang)e of attack
its rveight-sustaining pr'perty to a large extent. Burbling also
l,rst, is close to the maximum angle used
in level flight, the resultant
urcroases the resistance of the rving to fonvard motion. is in its farthest forrvard poriltiorr.

->,

trtc. 8.4. Resultant force at low, medium, a1d

Frc. 8.2. Flow at medium angle of attack, hlCh angle of attack.

It wiil be noted,irr Fig. 8.2b that the,forces on the upper side of

_.At some angle of :attack, the,resultant acts direcrly backtvard.
This angle:is called the angle of *.o
tlrc airfoil are.predominantly, upward, and the,magnitude of thesc titt. rior symmetrical wings,
the angle of zero rift is at o; augre
l,rrces is greater than thst cf the upr.,'ard fcrccs on the underside
:"g., ihe-engle of.ze.1o titilis'ai "f "l;;;kr for rhe nrore ccrrmon
,"-"l"g"ive
,,f bhe airfoil. Tests have sho-wnithat, for, typical wings at 0o angle At the angle of zero lift, tn. augle of attabk.
,,l attack, 100 ,per cent of the tohl upward force.on a wing is magnitude tb the sr,g "u- Jtn" ,o?".a forces is equel in
,|,'r'ived from the upper surface; at 5" angle of attack, 24 per cent
action of the upward f<ir'ce9f the downwaJfor""r.. As the line of
is n,.t in [;;;;
r, rlue to forces on the upper surfacel and a.t 10o, 68 per cent. the downward forcer.,o cguple i, pr"aurai. the line ;;r;i;; ;;
All:the Bmall pressure forces on, both upper and lower surfaces the couple are shown in Fig.
-g.b, ' -- The resultant and
.-,,
 WINGS WITH A.R. OF 6 AT SUBSONIC SPEEDS
LITT AND DRAG COMPONENTS
\\'lrcn the angle of attacl - is more negative than the angle of
Th.u lift and drag components
, r,, lifb, the resultant force acts downward and backrvard. For , are in the plaue of symmetrv
of
r,,rnrt:trical rvings, the resultant at any negative angle of attack airplane;;;;;ft;ffiffi:r"Jl
the airplanel therefore, if the
rf the individual wings rropu
,,,,',.sponds to the same positive engle in that the magnitude is upi"""Jf;;l. fuserage to the tips
(dihedrat), the rwo tidrg.:j
rtrr.:;irrn€ but its direction of action is dorvnward and backrvard
the resuttant of these ]tft, J;p; L .no*o in Fig. 8.7;
r, i I lr{) same angle that the resultant for the positive angle of attack
metry.
two lifts ir, ho;;;;;in .,he
pf"".^"i."-j
, irl,rvtrd and backrvard. Non-symmetrical wings at greater nega,-
tive angles than iho arrgle
(*'o''-----*+ F*, _ of zerJ lift do not gi-ve
"''|'r'!' wrg+ )-J- smooth air florv along their
c1-- lorver surface. Orving-to the
- burbling' although there is
r r,r r1.5. Force and couple at angle
of zero lift. some dorvnrvard force (neg-
ative lift), the magnitude
t rlr,. r'crtical force is not so great as at the same angle above the
',,p'1,..f ze:c lift. The backrvard force (drag) is much greder ut trto. 8.7. Effect, of dihedral in atraight
flight.
, , r,,rl r\'c angles of attack than at similar positive angles as shorvn in
i,r, ti {;. The resultant force on- a rving varies
directly rvith the air densitv.
the area of the wing, anc i'he.q-u*r
R.3ult.nl R6ultanl on the angle of attack. The lifi ,"a
oiiil".i.riv. ilffi
J#l',i;
ar"g ."rrrponents also vary in
I .,llv6 An8lc f Fotca 1 Fotca the same way. These relations.oulc;;'.;essed
r ,tt.,,1 ZcrO Llft statins that the component was a faetor in a formula b..
ll.hllv. Wlnd ii_ee density timce
wing area times velocity squa.red, Urt "i. is to.use
rl.t.llw Anth g.r_r"f practice a
difrerent form of the.io.mula ;";di;''"ne-half
inst€&d of tho density iteelf. The;;;;;;?"".uras the density
are
Flo, 8,8. Re.sultant force ai negetive angle of attack.
Lift - cr,f,sv'
, I l,llfT AND DRAG COMPONENTS (8.3.1)

r'esultant can, of course, be described by giving its magni-

I 1,,, Drag: Cof,SVz
r,r, [, rrnd direction. It can aleo be determined if its two components (8.3.2)
-,,, pivcn about known &xes, It is customary and most useful to where lift and drag are in pounds
g,',, rr resultant in terms of lift and drag components. p is in eluge per cubic foot
Lrlt, is the component of the resultant, on'a wing which is per- I is in squaro feet
1', rllit:ular to the relativo wind. 7 ic in foet per second.
lrrlg is the component cf tho resultant which is parallel to ihe
,,l,,t.vo rvind. Ct, fhe liit coefrrio''t t a2d,Cyt th9 dras ooefrciint,
lute" or dimensionleee co€ftcien;; are ,,abgo-
lf relative wind is horizontal, as in normal level flight,lift is
t,he tuli*ore can be us€d with.
any ooneistent rrnits., Th.rt is, f;;l*
"na
.,'r ticolly up, drag ie horizontally back, Wben the relativo wind is
perfectlv valid if air denaity is given
f* ltil;; ffig ;;
',,,t lrorizontal but inclined to the horizonta!, as in olimbing or 't" io;;. Brug',
are& in seuare
.ltr irrg, lift is not vertical nor drag horizontal, meters,lnd verocity in metersler."oood,-Lift
and drag wiuihen
be in kilograme.

I
 \VINCS \\'ITH A.R. OF 6 AT SUBSONIC SPEEDS
CHARAC"TERISTIC CURVES

',tuirtions may be \\'riften in the form

Lift: Cr,qS (8.3.3)

Drag: CoQS' (8'3'4) i

(p/zV'). As statecl in Section 7.4, q is the dynamic

,,',,
rt,\ tiACTDRISTI9 CURVES
lrlt <;oefficierit C;, the drag coefficient C p, and the center-
,rr,' location, all for differenb angles of attack, are considered 1
t, ,r:rr:t,r:ristics of an airfoil. This information may be given in
*,rft ;
l,rrl, il is more usual to plot these rlata in the form of a
llr,r characteristic curves for the Clark Y airfoil, for an t1l l
, r rtro of 6, are given in Fig. ti.8. Since lift coefhcients are, at
"l
I
,
,',1,1,'s of aitack, much larger than drag cocfficients, the drag
,' rrt; irlc plotted on a largel scale in order to lrc legible. ^,1 .|
.5
,' t,rl stucly should be given t<-r Fig. 8.8. It should be noted
,t,, lilt coefficient (C;) cun'e crosses the zero ordinate at 40{
.f .1
c(
,,,1,,1c of 'attack. This .loes not mean that there &re z€ro .3

,r 'nrg or th.e rving at this angle of attack, but that the zum rf 04
.2
' rr;rrvirrd or positive lift forces equals the sum of the dorvn- ,L 02
t , rrr,gative lift forces.
,[ ; I
lift, the curve of lift coefficient is prs.cti-
,,, llrr: angle of. zero
,, , I,r'aight line for a considerable distance. The slope is
o21 6 8lo
',,,t 'l'he lift coefficienf Qr) is proportional to the airgle of Anglc ot Andt
t rl lh:rt angle of at^uack is mea-sured from the angle of zero Fro. g.g. Che.rcteristics.of Clark y airfoil, aspect ratio 6.
' t1,,. lrLrger angles of attack, the lift-coefficient curve begins to ''.
coefficient iras a minimum value.
,r, lr{)rn a straighl line. The lift increase is no longer propor- Whether the angie of attack is
iocreased or decreased f,;; ;-;
t t,, l,he increase in angle of attack. At some anglerof attack,
increases. For a few rlegrees
**irli'_,",*um drag, rhe dras
I', t 'lrrlk Y airfoil, ii is I8/2" ; the lift coefficient is a maximum. i b"i"* trr"
"uou" ,"g[^"r"1i",,^rri
*:ig' llr* is ver,v ritue"cnanee"#;;il"
',,'r',lrr of rnaximum lift is also called the critical angle, the of the drag coefficient.
t ',,,irr1,, or the stelling angle. inqreases in the-angle of ,li".t,
.Y:llllt*:t
rncreasqsgreatly.,.:.
the drag coeftcient
, ,'r,1',Lrs above the angle of maximum lift, the lift coefficient
With a sy,mmetrical airfoil, th" uogl" of minimum drag is at 0o
', ,',, 'vith increasing angle of attack till lift coefficient becomes
angle of attack u',d'tLe .u*u i, .y-ir.ti.ur
,r ,,,ure angle slightly greater than g0o. uuout a verticai axis
thi'ough this point. With the
',' ,lrrLg-coefficient cun'e resembles a parabola in part. At more camber on the upDer than "r";. ;;;;; airfoiis, rvhich have
,,,'rrll angle of attack, for the Clark Y, itis the lower side, the
-B|ti; the drag n-.rm drag is a small negative irngle
of .;t;;k;;iffiil'ffi;
"rgf. "i*,i_
ro2 wrNGS WrTIr A'R. OF 6 AT SUBSONIC SPEIIDS IJFT EQUATION 103

(.lrrve for more negative angles of attack has a steeper slope than where 17 is in pounds
t,he other side or the curve. S is in square feet
fhe center-^f-pressrire curve usually shows that at the angle of 7 is in feet per second.
zr:ro lift the ceni;er of pressure is at the trailing edge' With a The above equaticin may be used in other forms:
..lrght increase in angle of attack, the center of pressure moves
l,,ivard. has its most forward pcsition wl;en the angle of attack
It
rs t ferv degrees below the angle of maximum lift' For
sy-mmetrical
. cr,- w
rrirfoils, there is practically no movement of the center of pressure; !2 sv,
r()r this reason symmetrical airfoils are referled to as stable
airfoils'
nw
c,f,v,
ms
' lc,l
':t- (8.5.2)

Direction offlight
! "2
Substitutirrg o : p/po, Eq. (8.5.2) becomes

Frc. 8.9.' Forces i:r horizontal flight'

iw
l=
v- / D

rr r'. LIFT ! ?UATION I c,"2P

ln horizontal flight, thc forces are as shorvn in Fig' 8'9' For the ! -2
,,n plane to stay level, all the vertical forces must be in equilibrium' Since ps : 0.002378 slug per cu ft,
ll rrpward forces are called positive and do\l'nward forces negative,
tlu.following should be true. tT
Lift + thrust X sin$ - weight * tail load : 0 v : zsoJ +
'l'he tail load may be either positive or negative, depending on rvhere 7 is in feet per second;
tlrr: stabilizer setting or other me&ns of achieving balance'
W
ln comparison with the weight, both the vertical compone'nt
,,1 t,lrrust and the tail load are small, and except for very precise
,,rrk:ulations they are neglected. For all preliminary work, at lea,st,
v- 79.77
s
tCt
tlrr,weight of the airplane is considered to be equal to the lift of where 7 is in miler per hour;
tl',' win!. If the lift is greater than the weight, the airplane-will
r,,n'; if tle weight is.geate{, the airplene will lose altitude' Then, w
l,,r horizontal night,
- / I
V:17.77
,C,
w : c"tsf (8.5.1)
where I/ is in knots.

.3},
 .III{IS WITH .A.R. OF 6 AT SUBSONIC SPEEDS MINIMUM SPEED IO5

8.5.3. A monoplane weighing 4,500 lb has a rectangular Clark y

le ,' ,rf to0al rveight to the area of the wing (lll/S) is the
wing 3.10 sq ft in area; at an airspeed of 120 rnph, rvhat should be the
l, .,ltrrt{,, cxpressed in pounds per square foot. From the
i I,,lrrrhut it will be seen that, for a given angle of atta&. "'5:.;:ilTil engle of ettack should trhq a,irplane in prcblem 8.b.3
Far,r r rrrl(x)i0y depends on the square root of the wing loading.
,
ffY when oirspeed is Cl mph?
8.5.5. \Yith a wing loading df 15 lb per sq fbr at rvhat angle of attack
I'XAI\{PLE should an airplane with a Clerk Y rving fly if airspeed is 85 mph?
-lt *'t1lrt ern an airnlnne have to fly level with a Clark Y wing 8.5.6. ll/ha! should be the area of a Clark 1f rving to support a total
ri ll ll rnn, ut 4" angle of attack and airspeed of 100 rnph et ser rveight of 8,000 lb when the ailplane is flying 9t S' augie of athck and
:lr a velocity of 85 ft per sec?
*rllu lrloru Fig. 8.8, Ce at 4o angle of cttack : 0.649; 100 mph : 8.5.7. \\'hat rveiglrt will lrc suplrorterl by a Clark Y wing 52i sq ft
rrfi1ntrrrr,. C-r in area at 5o angle of attack anti an airspeed of 120 ft per sec at sea ler-ol ?
8:5.8. Nhat rveiglrt rvill be supported lly i,he s'irrg irr Pr.oblenr S.i, Z
lf - 0.0-{9 x
0'qq237
x 250 x Tffi :4,120 tb i, '- ' at the salne angle of attack and same airspeed, lyiren the lirplone is fl.r.irrg
2
at 10,000 ft altitude? (Air dcnsity at 10,000 19 altiturlc is 0.00170 slug
EXAMPLD per cu ft; see Table {.1.)
g.5.9. ..Lt rvhrrt l.r.sllecrl shoultl a 6,000_lb 11r.Plane Lrc flown, if it has
It ;ft nnglc of attack should an oir'lrlane rveighing 3,00C lb be a Cl.rrk f s'irig i'dO sq lt irr rving rrrca, :rt 109 rnijle of lttack?
",I lh
u'ing is 300 sq fi in arca, Clark Y section, airspeecl 90 mph? 8.5.10. At whlt :rir'. lrcerl should thc airllhrtc tlcsclibcd in Prolrlcnr
8.5.9 fl1' lr, an altitude of 10,000 ft?
3,000
: 8.5.11. An airplane naving a Clark Y rving ct 0" engle of atiar:k is
An - 0.10'18 X 300 X (90 X 1.47)2
0.483
to be {lon'n at 150 mph. What shoulcl be the rvin8 kxrding?
(from Fig. 8.8) :- 8.5.''1. \l'hat should be the rving loadilg of an airplane -l-iih a
11.7' Clark Y rting, if it is ciesired to fly at O" angle ef atfirck and 1b0 nrph at
an oltiturle of 10,fi)0 ft?
EXAMPLE
'9
has a rving loading of lb pei Sq'ft;'th;iringie irf Cttack' 8.6. MINI]TUM SPEED
Y rving is 6o. Wbat should be the airspeed?
Examination of the formula

.6J;--f"----
Y:{e{-nttot ,:l#F
: 97.9 ft per sec ',..
: 66.9 mph shows that, with a fixed weight and a fixed wing area (fixed rving
: 58.0 tnois ' : ': loading), the lift coefficient must vary inversely as the square of
the velocity. It iS axiomatic that small angles irf attack mean
PROBLEMS""'' : u't ' r'ii:' r'i^' :" ii high speed; la.rge ang.es of a;ttack mean slolv speed. The smallest
(Standard air densitf unless otherwise specified.)n}<''' velocity ivilt bb whbn the lilt coefficientr ;s dexirirum. This slowest
is the lift on ri Clirk Y wing 400 sq ft in e:eg at 8o augle
t ' velocity is th.e stalling speed. Some air.plapes (lorv-wing mono-
planqs), rvhen gliding down to land, pocket under their n'ing air
oirspeqC of 70 mp,h?.
is thelift on a Claik Y wing 450 sq ft in area at 6" augle >- rvhich has a cushioning or buoyan! efrect, helping to support
drepeed 80 ft per sec? the airplane slightly. This added sppport enables the airplane

1.,,: a (
 tttllt
:'li'
IIilI WINGS WITH A'TT' OT 6 AT SUBSONIC SPDEDS I POWER STALL 107

,,, tly lL slightly lqss speed than it could if the ground effect rvere 8.6.5. An airplane has a Clark Y rving 465 sq t't in area. What is the
greatest weight this airplane can have with a landing speed not more than
,,',r i,r,,rerrtlThis efiect is ordindrily negligible, and the minimum
spced' 55 mph?
,,,,'1,,'cd is considerecl to be the landing speed or take-off
8.6.6. An airplane'with a Clark Y r"ing has e rving loading of 14 lb
iw I per sq ft. lYhat is the minimum speed at 10,000 ft altitude?
Y-t". : (8.6.I )
{F c
8.6.7. It is desired that a pursuit airplane be able to fly ai 50 mph at
an altitude of 10,000 ft. What should be the rving loading of its Clark Y
"-*.x f, rving?
,lrr.r'c y' is
in feet Per second. 8.6.8. An airplir.ne rveighing 5,000 lb has a Clark Y rving ti25 sq ft i;r
\Vhen I/ is in miles Per hout', for standard air density this alca. \Vhat is its minimum speed (o) at sea level, (b) at 10,000 ft
altitude?
l,,ililul& becomes
8.7. POWER STALL

I/,.in.: 19.77 (8.6.2) In the preceding section, minimum speed u'as calculatecl on the
C r-o*. assun:.ption that, for level flight, lift et;'.rals u'eight. 'lhis i:' sub-
stantially correcL, and rvhenever minimurn speed or stalling speed
\\'lr.n / is in knots, for standard ail density
is mentioned it is tlie speed as calculated in ihe mannel dcscribed
in Seciion 8.6.
Actually, in level flight, the forces acting cn an nirplane are as
V -in. : 17 '17 (8.6.3)
shorvn in Fig. 8.9. The rving is set at a small positive angle rvith
respect +,o the iongitudinal aris. 'Ihis angle is callecl bhe angle of
EXA\,IPLE inciden,'e or angle of wing l;tting. It is usually the angle of maxi-
ailplane rveighing 2,500 lb and having
mvm LfD described in Section 8.13. The vertical force on the
\! hat is the landing speed of an
holizontal tail surface is called the tail load; it is uprvard oi dorvn-
,r ( ll1s1[ Y wing 300 sq ft in area?
rvard depending on the r:tting of the stabilizer.
Soluti,on.
The vertical forces acting on an airplane in level flight are,
bherefore,
Y-to. :
l;56 X 0.00118
V:Thsinf 'W+L+T:0
rvhere :
?h thrust force of the propeller
:
d angle that this force makes rvith the horizontal
=tr,;ildi:-' ?: the tail force.
PROBLEMS
Th.e pbsitive sign indicates uprvard force;the negative sign indicates
"What is the landing speed of an airplane, weighing 4'600 lb'
11.6.1. dorvnrvard force.
a Clark Y wing 37C sq ft in glea? i'Iormaily thrusl, is small in compatison with hft cr lrcight.
'vilh a Clark Y wing
1J.6.2. What is the landing apeed of en airplane with
lb per sq ft? At high or moderate speeds, d is small and sin d is small. The term
r,rul a wing loading of 14'5
?h sin d is eo small in comparison rvith lift or rveight as to be
fl.O.g. frnat, area ehould a Clark Y wing have so thag
an airplane
s'cighing f.800 lb shall not'land faster then J8 knots? negligible. The tail load ? is ahvays emall relative to lift or weight;
&"s'+.-w},"tiethegreate.stwingloadingihatanairplanewitha Llerefore it can be neglected' Omitting these two terms reduces
( lnrk Y wing may have so that landing epeed does not exceed S6 knots? the equatic:: lo L - W : 0, the usual form.
 il lrl WINGS WITH OF 6 AT SUBSONIC SPI'EDS POWnR REQUTRED BY WING 109

\Vl,r:n lhe airplanc is flying at minimum spcecl, ihe angle tii firrthcr deceleration, and rhe airplane rvrrr continue to fly at the
.,r;rcl, is large; i.e., it is the engle of maxinrum lift coefficient. lessened speed.
llr,. rr.ngle { is equal to the angle of a+"tacli minus the anglc of
,,,rr1', :;r:L'"ing. For exampk:, for a Olark Y rving, the ugie of maxi- PCWER REQUIRED BY WING
,rrrrrr lift coefficient is J1)"; the angle of rving setting uould prob- l.he drag multiplied by the velociiy (in feet_per_seccnd units)
,,l,ly lrc lrl; lhen the trngle { rvould lrc l7tfo. With "pou'er ofT," givcs the power., in foot-pounds per second, required to
,, , rvith tlie tlrrottle open just suflicicntly for thc drag to l>e move the
*'ing for*'ard. one horseporver is 5b0 ft-rb p". r"". Hence the drag
,,\' r'o(,nre, tire tlrrust would be small so that rr'lren it is muitipiied l,irnes the veloiity, divided by 550, gives the horsepowe'equirei
t't :tn 17%(: 0.30), the prudtrct rvould be ncgligiblc. to rnove the rving forward.
ln a "power stall," ryhr:rc tlte airplrr,ne rving is iri; tlrt':ulglc ()f
',, ,rirnllnl lift cocfficicnt lrut thc engine is furnislring l l:rrgc lrmorirrt hp..q. : DxV (8.e.1)
',1 prrVor, the tirrust is much grcater. When multilllictl l>y sin 4, 550
,r r; sLill small; horvever, this thrust componen+, dos*c llxrrg 5sn1s rvhcre D is in pounds
1, rrt in suslaining rveighl,. Jts efTcct is to pelniit thc lir'plrirrc bo fl-r' 7 is in feet ;;er second. But
r r'rrrrJ)lc of miles pel'lr')trr slorvcrr than tlre rtrinirirrilil sllccd lis
',,r,rprrtcd on the ba.sis ol l;ft ctlualing u'eigirt. D:CnfSV2
-2
', t)u.AG Thcrefr.re
l)r':;g is the force, in pounds, rvith rvhich a u'ing lcsi:ls fclu'irrul cof,sv'
,,,,,1.ron thlough the air. The rlrag force acts buckriiir', l.'l'lx'1;r't,-
1,, lltr furnisir,.s thrust, a icrrvard-acting {orcc, ptlt r,l s'lriolr
hp."q. : (8.e.2)
l,,rlrrrrccs the i''ing dl'a; force and the remainder bulancr:., llrr: <lr:rg -fu-
If the drag is knorvn in pounds
,,' rcsistance of the rest of the airplane. and the velocity in miles per
Il the airplane is traveling level at a constant speerl, l,irc: hlri- hour, since t hp is equal to B7b mile-lb per hr,
.',,rrl,rrl forces are in equilibrium; i.e., the fonvard thrusi r:r1rr:rls
hPr"o. : DXV
rlr,.t,ot,al backrvard drag. When the throttle is opened r;o tlrrtl. (8.e.3)
375
tlr.rr: is greaier thrust than there is drag, the cxcess tlrrust c&u:rcs
where I) is in pou::ds
',,,:roceleration or increase in the velocity of the airplane. Drag
tr/ is in rniles per hour.
,.('r'(iiLses as the squa.re of the velocity; therefore, as the a.irplane
rrroases in speed, a nelv velocity is reached rvhere the t<ltal drag If the drag is known ir: pounds and the velocity in knots, since
,,1ruLls the thrust. At that speed, there is no unbalanced folce; I hp is equal to 325.6 knotlb,
,,,rrsctlucntly there is no further accelera,tion and the airplane .hP,.q. : DxV
r.rrrains flying at that speed. (8.e.4)
A25^6
( )onversely, while the airplane is flying level at some constant
where I) is in po'lnds
,1,r,ed (i.e., the horizontal forces ale baiarrced), if the throttle
7 is in knots.
<lcised slightly so thaf, the ihrusi is less than the total drag,
':,
tlrc unbalanced backward drag will cause a deceleration. At EXAMPIE
:r lcsser velocity the drag rvill be less, so that at scme lorver speed
A Clark Y wing 350 sq ft in area is moving th,^ugh the air at g0 ft
t.lrc d,ag will have ctecreasrd until it equals the decreased thrust. per sec at 6" angle of attack. TVhat is the drag? What horsepower is
'l'lrore is then an equilibrium of horizontal forcesl ihere will be no
required?
 ----t

.-!--..-:L.ji-.j
rltt ltr t-] r--! t--l
tl!l:l It .: -l I I l-

iio WINGS WITII A.R. OF 6 AT SUBSONIC SPEEDS DIFFERENCE IN AIRFOIIS 1I1

Sohrtion.Frorn Fig. 8.8, at a: 6o, Jo: 0'0{52. An airfoil having a symmetrical section, the upper and lorver
surfaces of equal co-ber, is streamlinc in appearance and conse-
Drag : 0.0452 x'# x B5o x (80)2
quently will have less minimum drag than a non-symmetrical
: 120 lb airfoil of the same'thickness. Syinmetrical airfoils have zero
lift at zero d,rgle of attack, and this is also the angle of minimum
.hpreq. : 120X80
b50

17.5 hP t.5

1.4
PROBLEMS
1.3
8.9.1. \\'hat is the drag of a Clark Y rving 410 sq ft' in area at 10'
rnglo of ettack and at 125 knots nirspeed? t.2
g.g.g. tt'ltut is the drag of a Clork Y rving 375 sq ft in area at 0o
t.t
rngle of attrck and at 130 knots oirspeed?
S.g.a. wttot is the lrorsepos'er lcquired to mnve a Clalk Y rving r.0.

'170 sq ft in aicJ at 11" anglc of attack &i,rl

lll nilspeerl of i55 knots?
8.9.4, \\'lrrt is the holscllorvcl' I'c<ltirerl to nrove n Clulk Y rlirrg
.9

25fl rq ft itr ot'ea ,rt 5o ungle of rrttuck und u,u uilspeed of 380 ft per sec? .8o
8.9.5. At an altitude of 10,000 ft, rvlrnl is the drag of o Clalk Y rving .7
4ii0 sq ft in orca, ongle of attack 3o, airspeetl 135 ft per sec? What
.6
horseporver is required?
!
8.10. DIFFERENCE IN AIRFOII.SI
.4
Many different Bh&pes have been proposed and tested, Airfoils
with cont,orrrs radically different from thosc in general use do not
.3

ordinalily prove to be satisfactory. This indicates that cerlain 2

generel rules must be followed in designing airfoils.
.l
The lencling edge shoulo be slightly rounded. It is usual to have
the comber of the upper surface such that the highest point or 0

rnaximum ordinabe is betrveen one-quarter and one-third the chord

Irrngth bsck from the leading edge. l'ro. 8.10. Cha.*ctorietics of Gdttingen'398 airfoil' arpect ratio 6.
Airfoil shapes with the maximum thickness ab 60 per cetrt of
the chord back of the leading edge have less drag than the more &ag. Non-symmetrical airfoils have zero lift at a slightly negative
conventional shapes. Theee airfoils ar€ termed "laminar-flow" or angle of attack.
"lorv-drag" airfoils. Concave lower camber increases the lift coefficient at any angle
Inueasing the camber increases the lift at any angle of at'tacla of attack but adds to the drag coefficient, especielly at smaller
but it also inueeees the drag. The maximum lift coefficient is angles of attack.
increased, but the 'lninimum drag coefficiont is incres€ed aleo' Figures 8.10to 8.16 give characteristics of airfoils in common
No wing should have an upper cemb€r $sator,thatr one-quarter use.Thick wing sectionB &re commonly called ''highJift" sectione
of the chord length. becauee the ma:cimum lift coefficients arc larse. With a prede-
 WINGS WITE A.R. OF 6 AT SUBSONIC SPBDDS DIFFENENCE ii.T AIRFOIIfI 113
"
,ilrilr.(l landing speed and rving area, more load can be carried PROBLEMS
' ,, llricli than a thin wing section- 8.10.1. (o) What is the lift on a Gotiingen-398 wing 460 sq it in arel
tlrr. i'r'cgoing statements about airfoil shapes apply to rvings at 4o angle of ettack and an airspeed of 130 ft per sec? (b) \Vhat is ttre
,',,t,l,r,tes attaining speeds up to 4C0 or 500 mph' For higher drog?
' ',,t,, 8.10.2. What is the iift on an M-6 wing 540 sq ft in erea st 4" angle
, iL is quite probable that radically different shapes rvill
of ettack and an sirspeed oi ll0 knots'r
i '., Io be used. As the airplane spced approachcs the speed of

t-l 1.3

1.0
t2

?2 1.1

m LO

l8
.5 l6
.5 l{
.il t2

.3
+l0
-2 I
6

2
6al01214
Anglc ol Attack
0
810t2
Anrr. ol Attacl
l.'rc. 8.11. Characteristics of G80 airfoil, aspecb r;rtio 6'
Ftc. 8.12. Characteristics of I\{-6 airfoil, aspect i'atio 6.

,,,',,1, tho wing rvill have a sharp (knife-edge) lea<iing edge and
,, \\ nr[4 itself rvill be quite thin'
\l,xlcls, when tested in the rvind tunnel, sometimes show a
,rr rilrrs &ror[8ly at the stalling point. Trvo p<.rints are found for the
,.,,, \ nrrum lift coefficient, one for a smooth 3ow, the ci'her a turbu-
r,,,r llorv. This condition of double fiorv is indicated by the dott'ed
,,,r in lhe graph for the characteistics of the NACA-2412 air-
, ,,1 '1,'rg. 8.15).
8.10.3. What is the lift on an I{-6 v,ing 420 sq ft in area at 9" angle
of ettack an.-l an airspeed of 90 knots?
8.10.4. What is the landing speed of an airplane rveighing 7,5C0 lb,
with a Gttttingen-398 wing 530 sq ft in area, at an altitude of 4,000 ft?
8.10.5. \'/hat is the landing speed of an airplane rveighing 4,500 lb,
with an RAF-15 wing 360 sq ft in area?
E.10.6. What total weight can a Giittingen-338 rving 400 sq ft in
aree :ustein if landing speed must not exceed 45 mph?
 \\,INGS WITII A.R. OF 6 AT SUBSONIC SPEEDS DIFFERI]NCE IN AIRFOIIS 115

d t0
1,.'
J I r.e
E 20
l,u
d ln Prr0rnt ol Chord
I ct 30
C. P.
I
1.4

4o
1.3

.t:4 t.2
t.2
1-l t.t
1.0
?0r .2O
1.0
.lI

.9
,,L ,B
.9
tI
,,1- ,6
C1

t .8
tn
t.l- .r4 .7
ta .7
laL .t2
.6
.c,t'
I ll
roL .ro

l0 .l Volc' I
,5

(a I
'l-
cL
.0.

.ocl
I
,1

.3

(n J .L *l .2

2
:[ :l
t )rl .1

I o

JO
ll
r 4. 60 d tf 121 ll' 16' 2A -2 0 2 tl 6 8 lo t2 14 16 18 20 22 21
Anlh ol AttEl Anje ol Atbck ln Do3no
Fto. 8.14. Cbarachrietics of NACA-2212 airfoil, aapect ratio 6.
l;rrr. 8.13. Choracteriatics of RAF-16 airfoi!, aepect retio 6.
 .,
wliics WITH A.R. OF 6 AT SUBSC,NIC SPDEDS it VELOCITY VERSUS ANGLE OF ATI CK 11?
ro ,. \\'lrat total s'eight crln &n RAF-15 rving {00 sq ft in area 0.28
if landing speed Inust not exeeed 45 nrph?
r ,,r,
026
1.4'
t(tsi. (a) \\ihat is the lift of an NACA-2{1.2 rving 450 sq fi in area 1.3
0.24
, ,,nrll() of attack $ith an airspeed of 85 mph? (D) What is the dlag? 1.2
o.22
l.l
o20
1.0
t7 0.13
0.9
0.16
1.6 0.6
eD c.14
C. P. in PerCent ot CtBd t.5 o.1 aL
o.t2
0.6
t.4 0.10
0.5
0.08
1.3 c.4
0.06
0.3
0.04
0.2
c.02
0.1
0 l r r I r | ! r I l0
-4-2 0 2 4 6 8 101214t618202224
Angte of attack

Flc- 8.16. OlrrrLor.rjstics of a typic:rl hmiaar_flo*.

eirfoil.

8.II. VDLOCITY VERSUS ANGLE OF ATTACI{

.
An airplane, if it flies at a lorv engle of attack,
must fl;, faster
than if it flies at a high angle of athcf. For eaeh
,p""a tfrur" i. o,i"
angle of artack for rever flight to be maintain"a.
atteck is greater, the-airplane will gain altitucle;
ri th" "i
""s]" ;i
tf th; ;;i;
attack is less, the airplane rvill dcsccid.
Converseiy, for each angle of r.itrck there is
only one speed for
level flight. This depcnds on the relatjon

-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 lo 12 14 16 lE 20 22 21
Cr: W1
AnSte ol Attxl in D.gr6 s !u,
Frc. 8.15. Characteristics of NAC.4.-2412 airfoil, aspect ratio 6.
2'
rvhere I/ is in feet per second.
,t ll)l). What horsepower is required to fly an NACA-2412 wing If the wing loadinc w/s is changed, the reration betrveen
r,rt',rt ft, in area at 6" angle of attack at 160 mph? ygle attack and speed is changed. A partly loadeJ;;;ffi;
,r to 10. At what speed must an sirplane weighing E,600 lb fly if it
fly'g 9f
level, will have to increase if^, speed or it,
t'.,, rrrr l.lACA-24L2 wing 520 sq ft in area and io flying at s. 2" &ngle of attack if additional load is put on. "itt ". g.17 shorvs ;i
otl,r, L'/
Figtre tt ".'d"
,"lutio-,
between airspeed and angle of attack ior a Clark y "
airfoil.
 lt

"1 FLYING LEVEL AT ALTITUDE 119

- WINGS }VITTI A.R. OF 6 AT SUBSONIC SPEEDS
by the air density, as l'ell as n'ing area and the square of the
340
velocity, to give lift and drag, at the same angle of attack and at
320 the same airspeeC both lift and drag rvill be less at altitude. For
the airplane to fly level no matter rvhat the altitudc, the lift must
be equal to the weight.
280 As the wing area remains consta,nt, rvhen an airplane ascends
\ to higher altitudes either lift coefficient or velocity or both must
2&
be iucreased Uo make up for the decrease in density. l'he case ol'
- 240 \ flying at the sami: angle of attack as at the ground rvill be con- I

i' 220 \ sidered first.

The angle of attack being unchanged, C1 antl C n l'ill be the same
li zoo at all altitudes. Let ps and 7o be the air density and velocity al I
I

', 180
\\ zero altitude, and p, and V" the density and velocity at any alti-
tude, o feet.
r)
:i too
\\ \ \

140
\ ul : ct'ttru, (8.12. I )

120

100 10
lV:Cr.';tr,' (8.12.:)

80
i* IF I Then
d--
t-\
60
psVgz : prVr2 and AVoz:V"2
40 l8 Pr
-4 -2 4681012 14 16 20
Angle of attack
Drag at zero altitude : De : Cooi SVr'
Fra. 8.1?. Angle of attack versus velocity'

PROBLEMS
Drag at r feet altitud,e: Dr: CnZSV,'
rt I l. Plot airspeed versus ang.e of attack for a Gottingen-398 But
r',,1 rvith a rving loading of 12 lb per sq ft'
tl2.PlotairspeedversusangleofattackiorenRAF..ISwingrvith
,,,1, l,urding of 19 Ib Per sq ft.
Vrz:PJYoz
Pa
,, t t :t. For an M-6 airfoil, plot wing loading versus angle of attack
, ,,,' rrirspeed of 120 mPh- Therefore
', rt.t. ior a C-80 airfoil, plot rving loading versus eirspced,
ia feei
-, rr,r.ond, for an angle of attack of 5o. D":cplsfv;
r l il,YING LEVEL AT ALTITUDE
tr rrlLitudes :bove sea level the air density is less than its : cpqi svo" (8.12,3)
,reil,lrrltl value. Since both lift and drag coemcieDts are mult'iplied
 , WINGS 1VITH A.R. OF 6 AT SUBSONIC SPEI'DS
FLYING LEVEL A,f ALTITUDE
t2t
tlr,.rr:fore, whatever the altitude, the drag of the rving is the
When attempt is ^racle to fly a+ thu sar:
,,,,, if '"he angle of attack is the samc.'lhis may seem strange, speed ar irigh altitude
as at the ground, the angle of attack
,r rr slrould be borne in rnind that rvith increased altitude the must be in.."rr"ito;;;;;,
the greater lift coeficient to ofiset the decrease
, 1,,.,'rl must be greater, and this exactly counterbalances the larger angle of attack wilr mean an increased
in crensity. The
' r' ;rsc in density. aos
at sea level the airplane-rvere being flown
at lorv "o"ffi"[rt.'ii
l',,ri'r:r required is the product of drag and velocity. Let hpe
a moderate lnsrease in altitude *oJld *""r, ,f
' r lrr, holseporver at zero altitude and hp" the horsepoiver required a very"'"gf" "1r*i
small i,cr.lasl
in drag coefficient. It is quite possible tf,ui
, r lr,ct altitude, at the same angle of altack. tf,e d";;;;" ;;..i;
bc greater in prc'portior, th*n the increase
30u11 in drag cocffir:ie.t.
In t' ir
hpo : DoXVo the drag and consequently the pc,;..,'
"a-'sg,
less at altitude than at sea level. A pl l,*
req,riretr rr'rrrrl rre
550 .i..ing ..1611.1_1. tt t,he
ground (high nngle of attack) and rising
D,xv, tc., lodc.ate heighl,, or
hp" : a plane flyirg fur at the ground but riling tq extrcrne uititutrcs,
550 r''ill usually resulb in an
increase in the irag cocfficic't rris'ro-
portionate to the tlecrease of. density
so tha' rhc <rr*g a'rr hrr.se-
porver will be grcrtcr at thc l,igher
Do: D" a.l[iLude.

T Irx.{1iPLE
,.: Vr4o; An air;ilanc rveighirrg 2,0Lr0 llr lras a Clark y ning
and is flying:'t sco lt:vcr at r00 nr'lr. \tr'irat
iJ50 srl ft irr rr|r):r
are,rt: rrirru rr'rtg:rrrri
horsepower required forthe rving? If ih" airprane
r lil.rofofe is flvirrg:rt a':rltittrrrr.r
of
.10,000
ft, at t00 m;t', rvhat are the rving clrag ancl horserron,er
re_
.nP' : DoXtr/o E, quired?
At
sso !; sea lcvel :

C,, : 2.000

: nprafi (8.12.4)
0.002378
2 x350x(t00x1.47),
'l'he density bccomes less as ascent is made in the atmosphere; : 0.223
ilr:rt, is, p, is less than ps, so that po/ p"is greater titan 1. With the Therefore,
,,,,rc angle of attack, the horseporver required to move a wing Q,: -li'
t,rr rvirrd through the air rvill alrvays be grealer at altitude than
and
,l r;ca level.
\\/hen Lhe angle of attask is changed and the airplane keeps the
Co : 0.014

,,rrrc airspeed, a lightly loaded plane is affected differently from a

l,,.,rvily loaCed plane. At ordina.ry flying angles, the lift coef6cient
D: o.or+ . ryrc x Bbo x (loo x r.+7;z
v:rlies approximately as angle of attack. The drag coefficient
, lr:Lnges very little rvith angle of attacl< at small angres of attack
: 126 li,
,,,r'responding to high speeds. At slorv speeds, corresponding to
hD_126X147
'
lngh angles, there is a big change of drag coefficient with angle of 550
rrl.lack chenges. : 33.8 hp
 1",,', WINGS WITH A.R. OF 6 AT SUBSONIC SPEEDS FLYING LEVEL AT AITITUDE

At 10,00G.ft altitude: At 10.000 ft altitude:

2,000 4,000
Ct: Ct:
qootlsj x aso x (1oo x l.4z),
ryrux3box(r.4zx1oo),
: 0.302 rr.
: 0.604
l'lrrrrcfore,
Therefore,
d 30

,t tt,I
eL
- 1
o:31"
Cp : 0.016 and

: 0.00]756 Cn : 0.0308
D 0.0r0 x
2
x 350 x (r00 x !.42),

: 106 lb
D : o.oao8 x 0'00-1756
x B5o x 147"
2
,lll) :
106 x 147
20{ llr
550
: -- hp lrp : 201 X 147
28.{
550
Nolc: Power lcquired is less at 10,000 ft altitude.
-- 5{.6 hp
]'XA\,{PLE
Nole: Power recruired is greater at 10,000 ft altitude.
An airplane rveighing 4,000 Ib has a Clark Y rving 350 sq ft in area
,',1 is flying at sea level at 100 mph. \\rhat are the rving drag and horse-
PROBLEMS
1,,,urrr lequired for the rving? If the airplane is flying at an altitude of
l(t,(n0 ft at 100 mph, what are the rving drag and horseporver required? 8.12.1. An airplane weighing 4,200 lb has a Clark Y wing 280 sq ft
At sea level: in area and is flying at sea level at 160 mph. (o) What are the wing drag
4,000 and horoepower required for the wing? (b) What are the wing drag and
Ct:
qlTCx3box(r.4zxroo), horsepower required if the airplane is flying at 160 mph at 15,000 ft
altitude? (c) What are the wing drag and horseporver required if the
: 0.445 airplane is flying at 160 mph at 30,000 ft altitude?
'l lrrrrefore, 8.12.2. An airplane weighing 7,800 lb has a Clark Y wing 295 sq ft
a : 1rr" in aree. It is flying at 115 mph. What arc the wing drag and horsepower
,, tttl required by the wing (o) at see level, (b) at 15,000 ft altitude, (c) at
Cp : 0.0217 2C,000 ft altitude?
8.12.3. An airplane weighing 5,600 Ib has a Clark Y wing 315 eq ft
D : o.o2L7, glTry x 350 x t-4tt-ldo-' io area. It ie flying at 40 angle oI attack. V,rhat are ',he wing tirag and
horsepower required (o) at sea level, (b) at 15,000 ft?
: 195 lb 8,12.4. An airplane weighing 4,000 lb has a Clark Y wing 350 sq ft in
sre&. It is flyirg et 150 mph. What is the horeoporver required (o) at
-hD-- 195 X 147
eea level, (b) st 20,000 ft altitude?
l
' 550
I
8.12.5. An airplane whoee wing Ioeding ie 12lb per sq ft hag a Clerk Y
I
_ 52.2 hp wiag and is flying at 200 ft per sec at eea level, (o) lVhet ie the angle of
 I"I,I IVINGS WITII A.R. OF 6 AT SUBSONIC SPEEDS
,tl;rt:k? (b) What is the angle of at[ack if it is flying at 20,000
rrl. t,lrc same speed?
Ii I:I. LIFT-DRAG RATIO
Air florving around a wing causes frlrc:es to come into action, and
tlrc lesultant of these force:, is llstuall.,,' expressd in terms of its lift
,, In levcl flignf | lrc relat!r,e u'ind is hcrizcntal,
rr,l tlrag components.
,.,r t,hat the lift component is vertir.al and the drag component
l',,r'izontal. The l:ft component sustains lhe n'eight of the airplane.
llrr: tlrag componenl is the resisl:lnct' to fonvard motion of the
airplarre thcrc url other parts, such as the
"rrrg. In a complete
lrr:r'lirge, landing gear, and struts, rr-hir:h offer resistence to forrvard
,,r,ri,io:r through thc air. The resist.rrnr:r'of tltese other parts of the
,rrplrrne to forrvard motion is callt:ri tlrr'para-sile drag. The sum of
,'rrrg tlrag and parasite drag constiiutcs lhe total drag of the air-
-lhis
1,l,,rrr:. total drag is the ba<:kivat'd fr:rccr thaL musl be balanced
l,r' llrc fors'ard thrust of lhe propellcr in order to susfain fonvard
rr .r,r'rrolt of ihe airplane.
'l'lrc sole purpose of a rving is to provide a suslaining forcc for
tl', :rirplane. It is to be expc'.:tcd that a rving rvill offer resistanee
t,, nrov€rr€Db through the air. Thc iving that offers the leasi,
rr':;r:;t,itnce and at the same time furnishes the most lift lvould be
llrr. rnost desirable from this stanrtpoint.
Wings must be capable of being made structurally strong. A
r',.r'y thin wing may have merits from an aerodynamic stand-
but it may be so shallorv that the spars usable in such a
1,,,irrt,
will be too light to have sufficient strength. The amount
",,rrg
,,1 rnovement of the center of pressure on ;t l'ing is also important
:;r'crlring longitudinal balance. These rr.rrtters'a,ffect the selection
'rr
',1 l,lx: rving section to be used, so thai big lift rvith little drag is
r'rl, t,hc sole consideratiotr.
'l'lrc term eft.ciency as used in engineeling has a very exact
r,'r,:rning, namely, the power output divided by +"he power input.
lrr cngineering, efficiency is always less than unity. The term
t llrdutcy cannot be correctly applied to ratio of the lift force to the
,lr:r,g force of a wing, since it is a ratio of forces, not of powcrs.
l lr. t:xpression e.fir.acy of th,e wing rvhich has been rs
"uggeste<i
,,t.lurr cumbersome, and it is practically universal to employ the
,..1rlcssion lift4raa ratio or L over D.
'11
LIFT-DI{AG RATIO 125
ft altitude
The liftdrag ratio is the same as the ratio of lift coefficient to
drag coefficient,
Lift c''f,sv'
cr.
I:)ra.s C, C o
f,svt
and is the tangent of the angle rvhich the resultant force on thc
wing makes with the horizontal plane.
At small angles of attack, drag coefficicnt is smell but lilt, <ro-
efficient is also small. At large angles of aitacl<, lift cocfficient is
large but drag coefficient is also large. At thc angle of attack of
minimum drag coefficient, it will be found that an jn. lease of a
couple of degrees in the angle of attack l'ill cause onl,r' a sliolrt
increase in drag coefficient but it l'ill ceuse a consirkrlabkr incrc:Lsi.'
in the lift coefficient. It ii'ill ttrcrefore be ar :rn anglo ol' lttacli
',rf er 2o greater than the angle of minimum drag coefficicnt thnt
L/D w|Ll have its greatest value.
The values of. L/D o" C r,/Co for various angles of abtack of the
Clark Y airfoil are sli:-rwn in Fig. 8.8. It will be noted that the
angle of minimum drag coefficient ts -3/a", l'herea^s tne angle of
maximum L/D is siightly greater, i.e., *31o.
In i,he conplete airplane, the drag is ihe sum of wing drag plus
parasite drag. A plot of'lift-over-total<lrag ratio t'ersus angle of
attack would resemble only in a generai \Yay a plot of lift-over-
wingdrag versus angle of attack. The curve of lift-over-total-
drag versus angle of attack would have e lower maximum value,
and this maximum would be at a higher angle of attack than the
angle of L/D^o,. for the wing alone.
In comparing airfoils, a wing rvith a greater value of L/D will
need less thrust than a wing having a lesser L/D at the same angle
of attack. Granting that the panrsite drag is the same in both
ca"ses, &n airpiane wit\ the forruer wiug rvill require less thrusi
than one with the latter.
E)L{}IPLE
In level flight, what is the least ,irag of the Clark Y rving of an air-
plang weighing 5,000 lb?
I?II WINGS WITH A.R. OF 6 AT SUBSONIC SPEEDS POi,AR CURVES t27

tLlion' From Fig' 8'8, (L/D)^"'' for Clark Y is 2l'5' maximum L/D. By reading the coordinates of the point of tan-
"i,l gency, the maximum value of L/D may be quickly found.
L
D DD In comparing one airfoil with another, the actual angles of
attack are of little consequence. The important factors are C1,
1):5'ooo:2331b
2t.5

PROBLU}IS
s lll.1. (a) Plot L/D velsus angle of attack for the Gottingen-398
,,rrloil. (b) What is the least drog of a Gtittingen-398 rving for in air-
1,1,, rrr: rveighing 5,000 lb?
(c) What is the drag for this airplane rvhen the
',,,r1i is at 6o angle of
attack? (d) What is the drag rvhen the wing is
rrt '3" angle of attack?
s.13.2. (d) Plot L/D versus angle of attack for the \'I-6 airioil.
r/,r \\rhat is the. least drag of an I'I-6 rving for an airplane rveighing
t,r,(X) lb? (c) \\rhat is the angle of &ttack for least drag?
! t:1.3. (o) Plot L/D versus angle of attack for the RAF-15 airfoil.
,/,r \\/hat is the least drag of an RAF-I5 rving for an &irplsne rveighing
:',ri00 lb? (c) \Vhat is the angle of attack for least drag? (d) Whot is
tlrr,rlrag at 0o angle of attack?

II. POLAR CURI,'ES

Ir',r,ead of plotting lift and drag coemcients ageinst angle of
rrtl,rrck, the infor.,ration may be gircn in other rvays. Quite fre-
,lucntly ihe lift coemcient is plotted sgainst drag coefficient, as in
l,'ig.8.18 and Fig.8.19. Thc curve rspresents the changee in Cp
rvith changes in C;, or vico versa. Tho angle of attack is deaignated
,,rr the curve itself. This form of plotting is called epolor curve.
Since Cp is emall in comparison with C L, il is cuBtomsry to uee
n much larger scale for plotting Cp than for Cr,. If the eame scale
\r,r)re used for ploiting both Cr, and Cp,'a line drawn from the
,,rigin to any point on the curve would represent the regultant
Fto. 8.18. Polar ourvs for Cllrk Y airfoil, aspoct, ratio 0,
,.oefficient, in both direction and magnitude. Its length could b€
noaled off in the Ba,me units aB tho Ca and Ca ecale, Multiplied Cp, and I,/D. Theee are all given by one polar curvel tho
lty (p/2)5V2, it rvould represont tho force acting on the wing. information would havo to be obtainod from three seDarate curves
If different scales ere uBed for Cr ud Cp,t'he length ecd direo- otherlviso.
tion of a line from tho origin to a point on the polar curve are
rneaningleee. However, irrespecti,vo of roaler, the line which makes EXAMPLE
tho largest angle $dth the horizontal bage line having the greateat An airplane weigbing 3,000 lb hag n Clark Y wing 350 eq ft in area.
t,angent, will havo the highest C t/C o ratio. Therefore, a line drawn What horaepower is requirtd for the wing when tho oirplano ia flying
from the origin tangent to the polar curve will looate the angle of at 90 ft per soo?
 WINGS WITH A.R. OF 6 AT SUBSONIC SPEEDS POLAR CUBVES tm
EXAMPI.E
t.2 Ccmporc maximum L/D of a Clark Y airfoil with that of a USA-35
airfoil.
!.1
Solul:ton, In Fig. 8.18, the line from origin tangent to curve is tangent
1.0
at point where Cr, : 0.43 end Co : 0.020. For Cla'k Y,
M"*';: ffi :zt'l
In Fig.8.l9, the line from origin tengent to curve is tangent at point
where Cr, : 0.55 and Co : 0.03. For USA-35,
Ir{r*.L o'55: 18.3
.5 D- 0.03

.4 or, directly from Fig. 8.18, for Clark Y,

,3
tut"*. !- : 21.0
D
.2

.t EXAI\{PLE
An airplane weighing 2,000 lb has a USA-35A rving 180 sq ft in area.
0 .o2 .o4 .06 .G .10 .12 .14 .16 .18 .n .22 .24
What hor"sepower is required for the wing when the airspeed is 120 mpt i'
Cp
Soh*i.cn.
Frc. 8.19. Polar curve for USA-35A ailfoil, aspect rstio 6.

'iil
^w
vL:
ulion. 2 sv,
-2
^ly
vL:
t sv2
2,000
-
2 0.001189 x 180 x Qn x r.47)2
3,(X)0 : 0.301

ry!4xB5ox(eo), From Fig. 8.19, rvhen Cr,:0.301, Cp:0.019; then LiD: 15.8.
For horizontal flight,
: 0.891

l,'nrn Fig. 8.18, s'hen Cr, : 0.891, Cp : 0.0561.

w: L
2,000 _ 15.8
cof,sv, D
hp: D: 126lb.
550

X 0.001189 X 350 X (90)t 126 X 120

0.0561 hp: 375
550
: 31.0 hp : 40.6 hp
 WINGS WITH A.R. OT 6 AT SUBSONIC SPEEDS POWER IN TERMS OF CD/CLet r3B

Frorr, Fig. E.2\r, it may be seen that, for a Clark Y tving, the anglc
rt2 lV of (C r/C o)-^-. is 1", rvhile the angle of attacl< for maximum

c
"f,s
I
"'y'o
V:E
tlt'3t c?/c,
l4
\
hp:#c,f,s+ lw t2

C L;S l'+
: r-,0rllw tr s
Co
-n-)i
VL
(8.16.1)

Ttr
,, ,,r.pl,rne with a giverr rveight and n'ing area rvill require the
r I'r\\,ci to move'uhe rving forward at the parricular angle of
' ,,1' rtl,
":nich Cn/Cr,t{ is the least. In other words, the angi,, of
. ,, L rrl, rvhich C;t,/Co is the maximum is the angle of attack at
-?oz4E8rorzi4161820
,. lr llrr: least pol'er is required. AnSh d Atbd( in Dcgrr.s
i,lrrrrl,ion (8.16.1) also shorvs that, at any one angle of -ttack, y
Frc. 8.20. C t/Cp snd C ]t/Cp curves for Clark airfoil.
1,,,n,r:r required varies directly N W15, inversely as the square
i ,,1 l,lrc rving area S, and inversely as the square root of the air Ct'o/Co is 4ft. For an airplane weighing 4,000 lb rvith a rving
,,,rl.y p. ft, flying at 1",
area of 200 sq
rl,'. )rngle of attack vhere C rf Cp is maximum, is the angle at t-
r.,, I llrc Leasi thrust force is required for the rving; i.e., it is the rlr 1s.77 ^l 4'ffi0
,,1' rvhere the rving drag is least. The angle of attack rvhere - 'r'" !0.+g x 2oo
" ('r, is maximum is the angle at tvhich lhe lcost power is : l3b mph
,,,,,,.,1 to move the wing. Power involves the product of force
t r,,locity. Since the angle of attack for ma,ximum Cy/Cp is D: r, (tm,.
,,,11,'r l,h&n the angle of attack for maximum artt/Cn, the air
,,',1 rnust be greater for the former than for the latt"er. Even
o.o2o

186 lb
"ryx zoo
#)'
i,,,r1lr the thrust force is less at the angle of maximum Ct/Co,
,,ui;o of the greater velocity the polver required tvill be greater Power requircd : i86 x 135
, rrt, bhe angle fr.rr maximum Ctlt/Cp..This can be illustrated 375
t lr,. follolvinq example. 67.0 hp
 L_{ -.l.. i --l '-t L .r<r .- l-
tlll II LJ I l_ L i,
-l
,-1 L__ L-i t--j L.-l Lj \
.lri ir tl rltll I ! I i r i I i i i i r lr I r, i r I I

\VIN(;S WITH A.IT. OF 6 AT SUBSOI\iIC SPI'IJDS l- CHORD AND BEAM COMPONENTS 135

, rrrc rrirplatte flying aL {ft": SoIulion.

t-
hp, /w'\)'
v:re.77-/ n'000 hp, \wr/
Y 0.68 X 200 100 _ /5,000\e,
: hp, - \5"500/
107 ml,rir
hPz : 115.4
: o.o3' x (roz
D

:
"ryx 2oo
" ffi)'
PROBI,I'MS
8.i6.1. An ailplane rving requires 150 hp to be flown at a cer.tain
206 lb angle of attack. If the rving tips are clipped so as. to rcduce the wing
alea flom 470 sq ft to 390 sq ft, and the total rreight is the same as before,
, r lr', tllfC(l
206 x 107
rvhat holsepos'er is neetlcd to fly at the ssn're angle of attack ts bcforc?
' 375 8.16.2. An airplane requires 85 hp to fly at an angle of attack at rvhich
: Cr, : 1.00 and Cp:0.009. \\rhat porver is required fol the s-ing rvhen
58.8 hp
flying at an angle of attack s'lterc Cr. : 0.59 and Cp : 0.031?
8.16.3. An airplane s'eiglrs 7,000 lll, tlie rving rrea is 460 st1 ft, the
r',1, tlrt'tllag is less nt the angle of maximum C1,/C11 (1"),
Cr. of the rving is 0.85 anrl the Cr i-* 0.053. \Vhat pos'cr is rcquired by
i,',\,r lc(luil'e(l is greater than ab the angle of maximu;n the rving at sea level?
, ,, (lfn\.
8.16.4. An tilplane seighing 5,00C lb lequires 30 hp fcr the rving to
fly at one angle of ottach. What horseporver is needed for tlre rving at.
EXAMPLII that same angle of attack but rvith 800 lb less load?
8.16.5. Plot a curve of. Ct/Cp versus anble of attack for the RAF-15
', ,rrplune rveighs {,000 lb; the rving area is 300 sq ft. ihe rving is airfoil, aspect ratio of 0.
r .,t.:rr) angle for l'hich Cr,: 1.2 and Co :0.1. What horseporver
I'r rr ,', I fs1 the rving? 8.17. CHORD AND BEAi\,I COMPONENTS
In analyzing the stresses in rving spars, it is necessary to know
w the force produced by the air florving around the rving. Whereas
t'p:$xw s "tF for performance calculations components are used r:'hich are per-
pendicrriar and parallel to the relative wind (lift and drag com-
550
\i; ponents), for stress calculations uomponents are irequently

:#x4,oootr.#
rou{
desired rvhich are perpendicular and parallel to the wing chord.
If the liit and drag components ate known, the components
about diflerent axes may be found by resolution. Since the result-
, arrt at liigh angles cf attack is only a small angle back of the
vertical, the chord component a+" high angles of attack actually
: 58,6 acts in the direction of the leading edge.
EXAT,IPLE If forces upward &nd rearward are positive, the chord com-
ponent coefficient C c ar.d i;he beam or uormal coefficient Cry maf
\rr tirplane weighing 5,000 lb requires 100 hp to move the wing at a be expressed in terms of lift q,nd drag coefficients:
,trrirr angle of attack. If 500 lb ie added to the weight of the airplane,
r,,,t, lrorsepower is required for the wing if flown at the ;ame anlle of Cc: Co cosd - Crsinc (8 17.1)
rtirr,k &S before? Cy: Cp sinc * CLcoea (8.17.2)
 U.t.' 6 Ar. SUBSONIC SPEBDS
I I,'III.]CT OT:I ICI.) FORII.A,TION
i, ,r,lur:rry tcmperaturcs, clouds consir;U <lf tiny rvatcr drr4tlcts.
' 1,,,..:;ilrle for the clouds lo bc coolcd.to vcry lorv Lempcratrrres,
' ,, lnv as -00"F, rvithout the rvater droplcts changing t,o icc
t ,1,. Water ln liquid form at tcmperahrrcs l;elorv 32"F is in an
r ,l,h'skrte, and if it is disturbcd it u'ill changc almosi irrstantll'
J, r'
tr,r';i through clouds folrr.ed
I ice cryslals is usually not, a
t-rf
' ,r, nr:rtter, as the ice crysfals do not readily adhere to the srrr-
,,1 llrc u'ings. Flying t,hrough clouds (romposcrj of sulrt:r-
1..
|rc. ii.ll. Ir:c fonnation on rvirrg.
' I rr;rlt'r droplets is rlrritc dangcrous, as the impa.;t of thc, u'ing
'1,, r :rillllane parts is sufficrient disturbant:c to causc thc <lr.op-
r', lr,,r.zc) instantly and, in freezing, to adhcrc to the tlist.urbing
: ,f-pressure location bears a close resemblance. At angles close to
l,,r rrr,rLiorr on rvings o(:('rrrs in t,'.vo forms as shorvn in Fig. 8.21.
,' r,,. is opaque, rvhiiish, and grarrular in structure. Because
, r"r'lihness, it carrses a rnarkerl increasi in rlrag; but, since it
., trr :r fairlv uniform thicl<:ir:ss ovcr the n'ing, the airfoil
, ' r . irl)[)roximately preserved. Clear icc, or glaze formation,
,t,,
r
'rntrary, mushrooms out on the leading edge, destroying
,'rrl,rrl shape and causing burbling and loss of lift over the
, i .rrfrrce. This formation occurs al tcmperatures j,rst belorv
rr* ;urg point, 29o to 32oF.
, IIIIIV{IINT COEFFICIENT AND CENTER OF PRBSSURE
!., rrr,l.ying the problem of longitu,Jinal balance and stability,
,,, ,. :ri:rry to knorv not only the magnitude and direction of the
'ri.rrrt of the forces on the wing but also the position of this
,ir,rrrt l,ift and drag forces are perpendicular to each other and
' ,r1'r'ncrlts of the rcsulbant fqrce. The lifr squared plus the
" ',,1,rrr,ed equals the resultant sqr:ared. Like its two compo-
i' tlr. result&nt varies as the air density, the rving area, and the
," ,,t (,he velocity; therefore, a resultanb coefficient may be
IIOIUENT COEFFICIENT AND CENTDR- OF PRESSI.'RI' 137
used in:r sin,ilar manl)cl to t,hc lilI and dlag cocfficicnls.
: Il: \/E-+T
Resultant
: c n
f,st'''
',vhere S is area in square feet
I/ is velocir.f in feet per second
Cn : x"d.z--a g7.
Thc dilcctiorr in rvhich the resultant loree acts is t,he a.ngle
l), backu'arcl from the direclion in rvhich the lift, com-
cttL-l Lf
ponent ac:ts.
The poinl on tLe chold thlr_u'gh rvhich t,he line of lction ol thc
lesultanf force pas-res is t,r,rnrcd t.he center of plr:sstrle ((i.i). ).
Ils locaiio'r in percentagc of chold length is givcli bJ',n.r.,t,'"
l.hich is customal'ily inclrrdcd among the characlcristic <:rrr.r'cs of
an .iirfoil.
For all uns)'rnmelricai lii'foils, that is, those har.iug grcater
camber on thc upper than .the lorvei surface, the curvc:s or center-
the ongle o! zero lift, the c€ntur of pressure is ncar thc trailing
edge of the rving, As the angle becomes more positivc, the center
of pressure moves forlard. At some angle, usually a ferv degrees
belorv the angle of maximum lift, the center of pressure is at its
most forw&rd positior', The maximum forn'ard position of the
ccnter of pressure is about 28 per cent of the chord lcngth back
from the leading edge.
As the angle of attauk is decreased belorv that for maximum
folward position, the center of pressure moves backrvard, The
rcsult&nt is an uplard and backl';ard force. At the exact anglc
c;l zero lift, the reeultant, instead of being o single forcc, becomes a
couple tending to depress the leading edge and raiee the trailing
edge, plus the drag component. If tho angle of attack becomes
more negative then the angle of zero lift, the resultant qppeers
aB e Eingie force again but acting dorvnward end rearward, rvith
the center of presEure near the trailing edge. Depressing the
leading edge still more, the resultant, as a largor dolnrvard and
backrvard forco, moves forrvard,
Tiro al.rove-described movement is termed unslable cent€r-of-
r
r-l r: f-t r-t
rl
r- i
l.t.
r-t f--f
ItrIir
l--t i-
1l n-,
I I'I WI}]3S WITH A.R. OF 6 AT SUBSONIC SPEEDS MOMENT COEFFICIT]NT AND CENTER OF PRESSURE I39

I,r,.:;rrre movement,. Wnen the wing is balanced at one angl(r of 1'lris lruy also be rvri ,ten
,1rtrrr:k, if this angle of attack is momentarily increased by il gusl
,,t rvind or otherwise, the forrvard movemen[ of the uplarrl Moment about leading edge : Mo: Cr*f,5V,
,, ,rrll,ant force tends to tip the leading edge of thc rving uprvard
',trll rnore. This increase of attack angle moves the center of pres- Cuo: - (C.P.)(Cr, cos d + Co sin a) (8.19.2)
,,rr,: still further forward, tending to increase the nosing-up slill
since a is alrval's o sr^i&ll argle, cosine a is very close to unity,
"rr{:, so.that a stall will eventually result. Conversely, a decrease *nd only a slight crror is introtluced if the term cr, is usecl instea,i
,,r tlrr: angle of attack from a previously balanccd condition rvill of Cy, cos a. Also, sirrce Cp is usually small compaled u,ith C7,,
. & backrvard movemenf of the center of pressure rvhich, b-y co sin a rvill be still srnaller compared rvith cr, ancl o.ly a sligtrt
^urjo
----t lifting on the trailing edge, additional error rvill be incurred if the term co sin ., is droppecl.
tends to decreasc t,hc :rngle of 'I'hen a sufficientlv close rrpproximation for most rvorl<
is to lct
s/ atback more.
:
{/;
/Caxc\sna With symmetrical airfoils, cyo - (c.P.)(cr) (8. re.3)
that is, those having both minus signs being used to design.lte diving moment.
surfaces convex and of the 'ihc equation
same camber, there is pract,i-
I t';. 8.22. Diagram of moments about cally no center-of-pressure Mo : cttoc
movement. These airioils are f,sv2
le:jing edge.
termed stabk airfoils. On may be transformed to reud
tlrr: more common non-symmetrical airfoils, & reverse curvature, Mo
tlrrt is, hnv:.,g the trailing edge curve upward, gives an airfoil CMo: (8.19.{ )
rvith little or no center-of pressuqe movement
'lhe mommt of the resultant force on the wing is the product 'f,sv,
,rf the force and the distance from the line of action of the force to where I/ ie in feet per second.
1,oint about which the moment is taken. Moments tvhich act in a
n&nner tending to increase thl angle of attack are called stalling EXAMPLE
rnoments and are designated by a positive sign. i\{oments which Find moment about leadihg edge of an RAF-rb airfoil of 42-ft span
r,rnd to decrease the angle of attack ore called diving moments and and 7-ft chord at a 2o angle cf attack with an airspeed of r20 ft pu, ,u..
rrre negative in sign. Solution.
When the moment is taken about the leading edge, the sum of tr'rom Fig, 8.13, rvhen a : 2o,
t.he moments of the trvo components may be used; see Fig.8.22. CL:0.29c
:: -C.P. X i X cosa X L ' Cp : 0.0156
N{oment about leading edge Mo
C.P. : 36 per cent
C.P.XcXsinaXD (8.le.1)
Then
where Moment is in foot-pounds Moment about leading edge :
C.P. is in percentage of chord length
c is chord length in feet -0.36 X (0.295 cos 2'+ 0.0156 sin 2") X ? Xry X 42 Xf20z
L and D are in pounds
- -3,740 ft-lb
r
WINGS \\'ITH A.IT. OF 6 AT SUI]SONIC SI'III'DS
l' CI'NTI'R oF PIIDSSURII I4I
I'ilr\rlLl.).. ls
l)ivitling lry ]/ p^SI'rc givcs
, t1r.l. I'lr.rt ,,11" r'ersus ongle of attlck for an RAF-15 ailfoil'
, ttt.2. \\-hrt is the moment about the leading etlge of a Clark Y rving
r , ll. chor.d lnd {5-ft span at a 6o anglc of attack rvith lrn airspced
_v-:C.P.XCn.-pCt
r .t) rrrltlt'.)
2
2
sv'"
i l1),3- \\'lrtt is the mon'rertt rll:out the learling e(lge of 'rn NACA-2{12
,,,1, 0f 70-ft spln lrnrl 8-ft chold at u 3o lngle of rthrck l|itlr an lil' Lctting fI/Ib/z)SVzc): Cn, moinent coefficient about point 2,
,,, , ,1 of I30 ntph?
'; l1)..1. \\'hlt is tltc tnoment lrbout the lerding cdge of rn RAI''-15 -Cu:dnxCt.-pCr (8.20.3)

,,,1" ()f .1o-ft sllrn antl 6-ft chord at a 5" Ingle of lttlck wiih tn uirslleetl
i 'rl) rlPh'l
I I1).5. \\'hut r-er.t,ic:rl for.cc rnust bc rrl'lrlierl 5 fl l-rilck ftont tltc lcrrtling
Ir.,,.lo pr.er.ent rotation of an ltAF-15 *ing of 5{-ft sl)trn rnd !)-fl
l,,,rrl tt an angle of attack of 1" at &n airspeed of 118 Inph?
'lhat is, for any angle of attack, the moment coefficient about
.rny point along the chord is the lift coefficient fol t,hlt angle
rnuiliplied by the diffcrence betrveen thc position ol'tlrc center of

Sina C (c. r.- p)

Fro. 8.23, iliomente &bou! poin! not ai' louding odgc'

I"]0. CENTER OF PRESSURE

Instead of finding the moments ebout the leading edge of the
ru'ing, the moment mey bc found abo":t a point located back of the .4 .5 .6

1,,,,<ilng edge. Leu pcfeet be the distance from the leading edge
to C.P lrom t- €.

rlris p<iint, $'hcre p is in perccntage of chord length; see tr'ig' 8'23' FIc. 8.2{. l/Cr, versus C.P. for Clark Y airfoil.
t'lrcn tlic momen+. about this point rvill be
pressure and the position of the point measured in perccntage of
-\I = (C1,cosa*Cnain4f,Sy'zt(F. Xc) -pc]1 (s'20'1) chord.
Fcl rncsl airfcils, if, frcrn cxpedmertal Cata, 1,/C; is plc+"ted
against C.P., a curye resembling that in Fig. 8.24 results. Ib
r,he minus sign being uscd bccausc the force Bhown in Fig. 8.23 will
closely approximates a straight line up to values of Cz close to
.nuso & diviig or negative moment, An approximate form of the
ll,e burble point. Any deviations froin the straight line may h^
rbove is
considered as due to experimental error. If it is assumed fo be a
a ersV' straight line, it represents a,n equation of the form n : aA + b.
-11[ C t, \ffi. X c - pc) (8.20.2)
The intersection of the straight line rvith the horizontal axis is
r WINGS 1VITH A.It. OF 6 AT SUBSONIC SPIIDDS CENTER OF PRESSURE 143

,lt'lrr'oxirnately 0.25 for praclically every ailfoil invcst,igated. TAIJLE 3.I

I lrrtL is, ivhen l/C1 equals zero, C.P. equals 0.25, and, since the Annooyxelrrc Cnrnecrrerstrcs or. Solrs CoyrroN ArRr.orrs
,trrright line has a constant slope, from the expcrimental data
rt rrrrry be stated that C r.^*. C v.n M
Nlorncnt Aerodynarnic dCt
C.P. : 0.25 +- (;) Airfoil Nilaximum
lifr coefficieni center in d-
aboub rl percentage of for
coefficieui
<:hord poirrt chord A.R.6
k: cL(Ct. - 0.25) Clark

ln Eq. (8.20.3), C,rr is the momenl coefficient about apoint,

Y 1 .56 -r"- | 21 .2 0 0716

tlrrrt is p per cent of the chord baclt from the lcacling edgc; theu
Ytr{-15 1 .68 -0.068 t 24.1 0.0722

tlrr. mom€nt coefficient about a point that is a quarter-chol'tl

YI,I-18 I .49 -0.065 23.6 0 0716
Curtiss I

l, gth i-rack from the leading edge is G.72 t.62 -o .084 23 .8 0 .07:3
Gottingen
- 0 .01-r
I

-CYo'": CL(C'P' - 0'25) 387 1 .56 I 23 .9 0.0715

'l'hc constrnt. -"lopr: /c of thc gurph of C.l'. r'eisus 1/C1, is there-
398 r .57 .083
-_ 0
i 24.4 0 .0734

l,rrc erlu&l to the r)ronrcrlt coeJficicnt, about the qttart,cr-chorcl

N-22 1 .00 -0.074 I 25 .0 0 0743
NACA
1,,,irrt, C,r16.26. Since tlre momenL cocfficicnt, and consequcntly 0006 0.88
<t
0 21 ,3 0 .0748
tlrc momcrli, about the quarLcr-ohord point ale constant, tl'^;s 0012 0 21 | 0 07{3
,o 1D .60 21 .6
-0.029 0.0753
1,,,irrt is callod 1.he aerodynamic center of the airfoii. The m^ment 2109 .51 24.7
,',,c{icrcnt about the quali,.r-chord point for variotrs airfoils is -0.044 0 .0753
,62 -0.044 24.6 0.0743
,,rlrrrlated in Teble 8,1. '2415 .55 -0.040
oAt
0.0743
Since 2418 I .43 -0.037 24.0 0.0726
44r2 1,65 -0.089 24.5 0.0736
-Cuo''o: Cr(C'P' - 0'25) CYH L.47- -0.027 24.5 0 ,0740
M-6 I .40 0 .002 2:,.0 0.0744
c.P. : 0.25 -cyo'"
Cn
M-12
]tAF
t.25 -0.022 25.0 0.0705

15 r ,2t 020 0.07r0

-0.052
r;rrbstituting this valuc for C.P. in thc equation for moment USA
,'oclllcient ol>out any point p per cent of thc chord back from the 27 I .5{J -0.077 2:t.7 0.0718
l.oding cdgc givcs 354 1.48 -0,11t 23.4 0.0730
35ll I .09 oA
-0 .070
q4"\ = 0 .07 l{)

-cst : -pc r, + c t (o.zs-

r Cr) From teeta in tho variable-donsity tunnol of the Nnlionul r\dvieor-v Com-
mittee for Aoronautice.
: -PC r* 0.25C r, - Cuo.rt
(,r coefficient ollout thc qllarter point. Thereforrr ut, the nlglc of zr:rc
: lift the moment coefficient about the lcading edge is equal to the
C.v Cuo.zt - (0.25 - P)C r, (8.20.4)
moment coefficient about the quarter point, rvhich is approxi-
An inspection of this relation shorvs that, when Cr, equals zero, ma,tely const&nt for all angles.
the mornent coefficient about any point is equal to the moment Cwo.zt: CMsrcLal
 I

I ,l,l I\'INCS N:ITtrI A.R. CF 6 AT SUBSO\IC SI'IjI'DS CENTBII OF PRI}SSURE t45

EXr\]II'L11 +0.27
An rir'pl:rne rrlrose rving lonrling is 8llr per sr1 ft is flf irrg lcvcl ni. ln 0,336 + 0.006
,rrjllce(l oi 100 ntlllr. If :it angle oI zero lilt, C:vs: -0.06;, illr:,i, is t,ltc
r r.ntcr of plcsstr rc'.)
:0.321
liolution- I' : 100 mph : l-16.7 ft per sec
PIIOI}I.E}1S
C7: W 8.20.1. An airplane rvith u'ilg lortlirrg of ll lb pcr sc1 f.r is fiying at an
P,SI" tirspeed of 115 mph -{.t angle of zeLo lift (:.,r0
-- -0.00. I}y:rnuloxinraie
-o nrethod, rvliEe is the center of pr.cs-:urb?
8.20.2. A rtrtrtr,rplane rveiglrirrg 2,7 12 lb s'itlr rving slxrrr of 30 ft arxl
rving chord of 6 ft is flying at:r spce<l of I l7 rnph. I[ thc ccnter of pl.es-
0.002378 s"rt is 35 l)er (:crrr ,ri clrr i.rl lcrrgtlr blck cf tlrc lr:urling crlqc, (a) 11.11g1
x l{6.7"
is tire nromerlt alrrrrlt thc lcading crlgc, (b) s'hlt is the nrorlcnt cocllir:ient
2
-_-, about' the lenrling e'lge. (c) *'lrnt i-r the nro'.rcnt cocflicierrt cllout the
: 0.:llij learlirrg grlge:rt rrrrglr: r.rf zcrr, lift?
ti.20.3. Arr:ri:f,,il :rt 5" rtnglc rrf rrtirrrk hus Cr.:0.7-1, Cl:0.08g,
C'P' : g'o"
-(t'"u'"' rrt:'l C.rr,,: -().2.\. I"irrrl ltx rtion ,rl tlic cetrtr:r' of lir.essule (rr) lly
C1
lpllroxirrrirte rlretirrrrl; (b) b)- cxrrct r;retlrrrd. (c) Fin,l C'.rru nt angle r,f
: -0'067 zei, lift.
o.2l-r - 0.3I 3 .9.20.4. At
0o atrglc of attlr:k ti ct:r'L.,irr-nilfoil lrls Cr, = 0.18 cnrl thc

: center ofpressulc is 3l pcr cent trf the ci,or{l lcngt,h ltrck from tlrc
0.25 + 0.21{
leltling edge. \\that is the nrornent cocfficieut lbout thc leading edge
: 0.46 rvhen lift is zcru?
8.20.5. For a certain airfoil, tvhen lift is zero, the moment coeffi:.ient
or 46 per cent chord length back of lea<ling edge. about the leading edgc is 0.062. \\:hat is Ce rvhen the center of pressure
is 41 pcr cbnt of chord length bqck of leading edge?
EXAtr,IPLE
8.20.6. \Yhat, value of momcnt coefficient about the lecding edge st
At 6" angle of attuck, an ailfoil has Cl : 0.8J, Cn : 0.06, unrl angle of zero lift rvill give a center of pressure of 0.b3 at a speed of
Cnn: -0.27. tr'ind position of center of pressure by both apploxinr:rte 1{7 rrph for an airplane weighing 7,800 lb and having a rving a,rea, of
and ^x:rct methods. 736 sq ft?
Solulion.

- o
- --
Apllloxirnnte C.P.: -CNn

/ -o.zz\
\ o.s+ /
: 0.322
_C ao
Exact C.P.
Crcosd*Cpsina
- (-0.27)
0.84 x 0.995 + 0.06 x 0.105
 GIfteItLAR MOTION uz

0. rd0 X dr X l, and if p is ils density its mass is prd|dr. As forcc

equals mass times acceleration, the radial force causing the motion
to be circular is (V12fr)(pr drd0). There being no otlrer r:rclial

Vortex Motion

, I VOITTICES
\ rnolc rn:rthcntatical attuclt un rvhut occtlrs l'hen air florvs .{.
,,,,,,'rrl.& rving iavoh'es the study of vorticcs. Arr exact cxplunalion I

, l,r'\'onrl thc scopc of this texf, brrl, $orne gcncrcl s[atcmcnts mlry
I', nriL(l(-r :tbout the r'elocities anrl pttssurcs in I vot'tcx.
\
vortcx is the sterdv, trvo-tlimcnsiontl, ^ircular motion of o
Il,rlrl;1[,y111 u t:cntlnl uxis.'l'his cctttr':rl itxis cunttoL entl insirlt: of
rt,, {lrricl. It nrust oii:rcl c\tcn(l to irrlinity, c\tcl,J to a surfacc of
'1,,. lrrirl, or form a closcd cttnre.
f

r .' (iIRCIILAIt )IOTIOI*

ll, is desircrl lo examine flui.i u'ith a circular motion. Let the
ll,rrrl bc rnclving so that the strcamlines &re concenlric circles as
,r, l"ig.9.1.
Fro. 9.1. Circul.rr flow.
( lonsider u snall quanh-ly of fluid, ABCD, one unit thicl<, forces, for equilibrium these ttvo forceb must be of equal magnitucie.
l,,r'rrtc(l rrta distance r ft'om the center of rotation. The rvidth of
rl,('outer face BC is slightly greatcr than the rvidth of the inncr r iti dP : Vt2p dr di
lrrlc,4D, but the difference is an infinitesimal of higher order, or
,,,, l,liut the lengLlr BC may be considcretl crlual to the lengbh.4/) , : pv?.6',
cIP
,,rrrl both cqual to the rvidth rt l;lrc nrirl-point, r dd.
'l'lrcurcu.of thc jnncrfu<rcr..1 ,/)istlrenrdtX I (sincc ABCDis -
,,rrc unit [hiel<), antl if & l)r'(]ssllr'(-i p utrls on this face t]rc totul
If Bernoulli's cquation is true along a streamline,
,'rrl,rvurd force on thc fluid muss is pri?. On the outcr fucc /lC'
tlrr:rt is u slightly diffcrent pre$!{ul'c, p * dp,lnd the tottl inrvard
p-+=no+e$
I rlr:e is (p * dp)r d.0.'lhe different'c lrct'u'trett these t\\'o forces is
r tl| tlp, oc[ing ltdialll'.
Differentiating, pe end 76 being constant,
Since this smnll part,icle of fluid is moving in o circular path, it
rrrrrsf be subjcr:l to an in,s'nrrl nccclcmtion ol V12fr, rvhcre I/1 is
ar+'# =o
l,lrc tangentiol velocity. The volurne of the particle AI)CD is or
146 flp: -pV1dy1
-T
II'{ VORTEX I\{OTION
LIFT DUE TO CIITCiJLATION I49

consequently a sirnilal nr'ossure.'lherc is no lilt,ing fol'ce on this

r ,trr:Lting the t*'o cxpressions for dp gives
cylinder'.
r.2
o" dr: -pv1dv1 If the c;4inder rolaies and in rotating causcs the air arljacent
r to the cylindcl to rotate, tlre strcamlines rvill lppecr as shown
in Fig. 9.2o. Aciuil photogr:rphs havo bccn talien of smolic arounri
dr dll t stationary atrct rotating c,14in<lcrs, a.ntl *.h.se photogra,phs shorv thc
r 'Vt same action as ttrc figule does. Becausr) on top of the cylinder the

Irrlr.grtting tlie alrole gives

iog r: log (constant) - log l/1

constant
l't =
'l iris is iln inrportcnt lesult: in a circular flol', tlrc vekrcil.)'r':tries
,,'r,.r'.t'lf as thc rarlius il tlrc lltdirrl forrr,s alc in cqrrililrriurrl. --\l- (a) (b)
rlrrrrrgii ll()t plovc(l in llris text,, it cirtt lre provc(l l,hlt. fol cilcrtlar'
tr\c. tt.2. Florv ubout circular cylirrdel rvilh circulaLiotr.
r','rr lotiltional" flo,v of fltritls, rnY coll(lition, rt,hcre the vclor:it)'
, rrot inverseil- ploportiorlal to the t'adius, is not in ecluilibrium, air has a velocity rvhich is the sum of the velocily duc to its
'rr,l lhcrefole the lelocities rvill vary unt,il etltrilibrium exists. strai;ht flou' and the velocity due to rotation, this velocity is
ll, is intcr,'sting r,o n<ite tlrat, u'l.en a solid body rotltes, the
grenter than the velocity belol' the cylinder, rvhere the to'r,al
, , l, rcit' of a particle in the body varies directly as its distancc from
velocity ie the velocity of l1orv minus the velocity due to rotation.
tlr,. r'cntcr of rotation.
Because of the greater velocity on top of the cylindcr, thc pressurc
,,\s it is customary for the constant in the above equation to be
on the Eurface is less than on the bottom of the cylinder.
rr r l,ten I f 2r, the final f ornr is
In Section 2.15, it wss Bhown that for a, non-rot&ting cylinder
r

f the tangential velocity et any point on thc eurface is

Vt: (e.2.1)
2_, l' : 2U $n0 (2.15.7)
I' in this equation is the arcirlotion. For a parlicle in a circular If the cylinder is rotating or if the fluid florv has a circulat,ion,
111,rlion,it is the product cf the'r'elocity times the dist.ance around there is an additional tangential vclocity o[ T /%ra, so thet the total
rlr,' closcd patir, the circle. tangential velocity is
T : 2rrVt (e.2.2)
V=2(taine+fi (9,3,1)
,, LIFT DUE TO CIRCULATION
When a stationary c1'linder of infinite length is placed cross'dse By Bernoulli': lalv, tho preesure on bhe eurfaco of this c1'lirrcier is
rrr :r uniform florv of air, the airflon'is symmetrical arrJ the stream-
lrrrcs appear &s shown in Fig.2. 13. Because of this symmetr)', for P = Po *+ -;(rr,i"d + *)' (s.3.2)
,'r'tr1y pnilt on the upper half of the cylinder there is & corre-
r,lronding point on the lorrer half rvhich has a similar velocity and Considgilng o cirsular cylinder whose length is unity, the forcc
r
BIOT-SAVART'S LAW lsr
, , r ormar to rhe J::::i"il) (see Fig e %) is ijxAlvltlp
4P : pad? (9.3.3) A cylinder i ft in diameter and lf ft long is rotating at r0o rprn ,r *n
sir stream of 40 mph. Wlrat is the lifting force?
Irrrti the positive sign to indicate uprvard force, the veltical Solulion.
r,ltt r'()rnponent of this force is Vt:4rX}'.,!
dL : _?a dt sin 0 (e.3.4) : 20.9 ft per scc
I l,r. lrorizontal (drag) componcnt of this force is . f :4rX20.9
dD : pad0 cos? (e.3.5)
: 263.2 sr1 ft pcr sec
tr : 0.002378 x263.2 X 40 (33)
llr. t,oLal vertical (lift) force is obtained by' intcgnrfi nS il,
,,,1'l.l,cly around the circle.
: 36.7 lb per ft
Toial lift = 12 X 36.7
L: -f',pasinod,o : {40.6 lb
,t, trlrr(,ing from Bq. (9.3.2), PROtsLEMS

t, - J_'.1:, -'+ - ;(rrsin o * ;r)'] asino do

9.3.1. A cylinder 3 ft in diameter and 8 ft long is rotatinq at li;() p;1111
in nn air streum of 50 mph. Whai, is the total lift?
9.3.2. A rotor ship has a rotor8 ft in di:rrneter and 3i ft high, rotrtirrg
I 1,r., r'cducesl to at 120 rprn. What is thc force at right angles to a l0-mph rvind?
9.3.3. A rotor ship has a rotor 7 ft in dismeter and 30 ft high, roteting
_ _ ft _ t(4Uar sin2 0\ at 175 rpm. Whbt is the force at right angles to a 15-mph *ind?
t1 ou
J-, 2\ 2ra / 9.3.a. (a) What is the force of a 2Gmph rvind blorving perpendicul{rrly
'uo * flat plate 6 ft rvide and 30 ft high? (b) What is the force at right

: +I:.le - cos%) da
ongles io a 2Gmph wind of o cylinder 6 ft in diameter., 30 ft high, anrl
rototing at 200 rpm?
9.3.5. A cylinder 30 in. in diameter rotetes in an air stream of 70 mph.
l, - sin2zll'
put
- 2"1 It .levelops 40 lb of lift per foot :f length. What is its rotrtional speed?
l_^ This lifting action is the reason for the curve of a baseball or. [he
: p(Jt (9.3.6) path of a sliced golf ball. The principle has been tested in tlur ;rro-
pulsion of a mari--e vessel. A vertical cylinder was.inslalle(l <.rn Lhe
lrr o similar m&nner, the total horizontal (drag) force is found
deck, and wher^ rotated it caused a force perpendicukrr lo the
t,, lrr. ZefO.
direclion of the wind.
r,iirrce 0, any term in the integral
f' .ino dt - - lcosali, - con- 9.4. BIOT-SAVANTIS LAW
J_,
'",rrrrrg sirr I dd becomes zero, and, since In Sectiorl 9.2, the discussion applied to the trvcrdimeusiirrnal
u* cos2t sin0ds) - motion of the fluiC-. This motion can exist only as a I .,thematir:11
/".*i,,3
=
I:,Gin, -
dn
l.*, - +L, - o conception since, itr :.r mass of fluid, there cannot lro ., singlr: ilrl-
,,,, \ tr,rm containing sinl 0 d, ben^mes zero.
lated plane in which rotation is taking place rvhilc all the parlicles
 VORTDX I\{OTION BIOT-SAVART'S LAW r53
I

',j ,,,rlsirlc tlris llllrrrc:u'c:.1.t l'cst. .\t'tualll' l..r',' nrtrst l,': an at P. This expression must be such that rvhen integrated for every
,,, :('r'ir)s of sttclr pltrncs in l.lrit:lr flrritl is totrLtittg, n'itir thc element of a vortex line e::tcnding from plus infinit.y tc minus
,, ,,l rotirl,ir)n clistributed along a lirrc. This line is called the infinity, it will give V2: t/Zzrr for the velocity at P. Such an
, I I)lO_ expression is Biot-Savart's larv,
i,, ;,1:rt,cxncni t.hlL I' : 2trrl't ('lltl. thcrL'forc. litve L)nl]' a
ldn
t,,: :rctrlemic melninq as apl)li()(l to trteclimensional motion. dI/1: ffisine
r, rrrlirig the applit:ution to threc climctrsiotts, f is dcfined as
,r, rrl:ition or st,l'c:rgth of t,he vort.e:i pcr r:nit lcngth'.li th'.'core. ',:.i;ere d.y'-r is the small part of thc vcl<-,city at P ihat is associatcd
" I')r' r col'e lcngth of dr, tlte strertglh of tlre r''tt'tcx is I r1:c. rvirh the lengrh *r crlu*rion ror dv 1,

*"l"i}l:
rl--
ffi,his
4zr A-

In orcler to integrate the atrovt-', tle and o at'c cltangcrl t,o polar
coordinut,c-"; the follori'ilg rclutiorrs lrre userl.
Sint:e
A------4--
- : cttt' 0
l' --r 'l r
Fro. 0.3. Irrduccd flol'. dr : d(r cot?)
i' lrl,,. {).3, the lirre.,l;1 is a \,ortcx core of in<icfinite length. In . rd|
sinz
,,. ,,
lr:r'[)crn(li(jlllar to ,4.21 , thcre rvill lle voltex moti<.rn or rotBtion o

,r tlrr: point in euclt planc intclsccted bi' the vortex line lz1.
,,, rrl uny point /) in sptrcc, t}:cre rvill bc a linenr velocity, o: -r'-
sin d
t'/'2rr).In l,'ig. i,.J, thc velocity at P is pcrpcndiculor to the
." ,,[ t]rc p&pcr. A[ an.y otlrcr point, t]rerc rvill be a velocity Also, as do moves from * co to - oo, d changes from 0 to - r:
,,1' rrill rlcpcnd only on its radius, I'bcing constrnt throughout
f tN-rdo- rz-sin2d
I 'lr r'{'' V,:L
" 4oJ-*sin2o " 12 /Xsing
'irlrrrrrgh thcsc vclosiLics rrrc termcd iulu.ced velocities, thcl'arc
, ,r,,lrrccd or cellscd by thc core.'Ihey &re merely thc vclocities F/|()

.r .r, conrJigtcnt rvith a fundament,al rule of vortex moticn;

' I (-rinodai
- 4rrJ
'
',',lr', t,lrot circulation, the product of velocity multiplicd by the
6t lr ,[ the closed circul&r peth, is everytvhere conEtant through- : I;t a]1,
4ir lcos
, r1,,, vorLex fieltl.
:lr,' ,,clocitf 7r at point P is no+' mercly asaociateC rvith '"ho
I
...,rlntion in tho plane through P perpendicular to the core, but
, ie llllcted by all the elomcnts of tho core in both directions, It 2trr
, t,rllrl.y dosirablc to havo an cxprcssion shorving the effect of a If it is merely desired bo find the velocity at poirri. P as-qociatcrl
.,,,alt rk'rncnt of vorbex corc, such os d, in Fig, 0,3, on the velocity i,;th the part of the vortex core between ts'o points, stich as.4 1
T-r_
r:I VORTEX MOTION HONSESHOE VORTICES 155

t I .. rrr Fig. 9.4, the equation for I/1 becomes a hairpin with two right angles as shown in Fig. 9.5o. The induced
T velocity of a point in this vortex field may be found by adding the
Vt : (cos d1
- cos d2) (e.4.1) contribution of each of the three segments. This can best be
4rr
rilustrated by an example.
t! 'rlr rlr :rnd d2 a:e m€asuiud from the same positive ciirection.

EXAMPLE
1,, line,4r:ir is parr of a vortex cor.e u.hich has a strength of
l,rg. 9.4,
'rr ,,; ff, per sec. PB is2 tt, BAl is 3 ft. Wh.rt is the velocity at point p
i.,' t,r t,lre part of the vortex line betrveen Ar and B?
SoIution.
dr : tan-l 3 -rr_____
vA
(o) (b)
0,:T
-2
Ftc, 9.5, Horseghoe vortex.

v,:-:',-(*-, EXAI\{PLE
A vortex line of ;nfinite length is bent as shurvrr in Fig. 9.Sb. The
i ,,, 11.,1. Velocity induced by vortex. : 16.6 ft per sec vortex strength is 250 sq ft per sec. What is the velocity at P?
Solution.
PROBLEMS
(o) Velocity du. ',o leg .r{B:
rr 'l l. In Fig. 9.4, PB is 3 It, BAt is B ft, BAzis 4 f.,. What is the
'
l,',.ityat ? due to the part of the vortex betrveen :{r and .41 if the 0r:0
' rrr'rrlotion is 300 sq ft per sec?
.l.2. What is the velocity at P due to the part of the vortex between
rt o1 : f,sa-t (- ;) = co8-,(- *)
l1 rrnd .r{.2 if PB ie 2.5 ft, BAL is 10 ft, and ./.rr{.r ia B ft, BA2 being laid
,'tl in the ssme direction as 8,4.r from B?. The circulation is 3S0 eq ft
|
,r.t sec. ,u:#orn['-(-*)]
1r.4.3. Whet is the velocity at P due to the part of s vort€x core from
I, t, I if dr is at infinity, PB is 4 ft, and the circulation is 200 sq ft - 8.9 ft per sec
gec?
| ','r
(b) Velocity due to leg BC:
115 HOIISESHOE VORTICES
As stated earlier in this chapter, a fundamental rule of vortex d1 -r,ga-r(:) =*-'(*)
'rrtion is that the vortex line must either extend to infinity, extend
;,, u fluid uurface, or form a closed curve. An exceiient examplo of or tun-r(-;) :
= cos-, (- *)
tlre latter is the smoke ring blown by the cigar smoker.
In the preceding section, a straight vortex line rvas <iiscuBsed.
'l'here is no va,lid re&son why zbof 4 / 6\l
t',,=ffiLla-
the vortex core may not be curved
,,r bent. A sbope of importance in &erona,utics is the so-calld horse. \-alJ
,rhoe vort€x, This is a, vortex of infinite length bent in the foryp of
- 5.5 ft per Bec
 r- VORTEX MOTION
SUP.BRIN{POStrD VO]TTICES 757

\ , l,,r.itv due to leg CD:

9.7. SUPERIMPOSED VORTICtrS
d1:1xn-i(:): .*-'(*) Circulations may be adcled. In Fig. 9.(ia, trvo horseshoe vortices
ale placed so that the toes are sttpel'impcsed. If vortcx -IBCD
dr : 180" lias a circulation of T and A'B'C'I)'h"s a circulation tlf l/, along
lirre BC, from B to B', and again fi'om C' to C, the circulation is l;
v,': 250 [S
tf
+n
..1
x6Lm - (-t)J
flom B' to C/ the strength is f * l'. 'lhis is shorvn in thc graph
in Fig. 9.6o.
:-<taa
o.{ il, per sec
Vt:I"ulI/4{V6
: l9.S ft per sec
PROBLEMS

I
rl
, l. \\'lrlt rvoultl bc tlie vclocity ut P, in Fig. 9.5b, if it rvere iocaterl
l'rrrr .-l 8, l ft fr'orn 1lC, and 7 ft florn CD,lhe vortex strength lreilrg
,1 l'L scc?
@
licr
'l , :1. \\-lret s,ould lte the v.elocity at P, in Fig. 9.5b, if it *'ere located Iri.,. 9.6.,5upcrilttposr:tl cilcul:rliorls.
itlr,'rrr -{.B, 5 ft from BC, and 8 ft from CD, the vortex sirength
,,, ,. :t;0 ,.q ft per sec?
Ilcgarding only the voriiccs cxtcnding to infinity in onc dilcr:-
'r :' ll. \\-hat \vould be the velocity at P, in Fig. 9.5b, if it rvere located
tion only, namel)' BA, I)'A' , C'D' , and CD, the indrrr:ccl lclocity
lr ':rrrrr 11B, 5 ft from BC, ar l9 ft from CD, the vortex strength being
at point P, in Fig. 9.6o, u'ould be
,r) .,r1 ft per sec?
't , , I .
\\'hat rvould be the velocity at rt, in Fig. 9.5b, if it were loca'"cd | * r' * tt + |
v,: 4oyr
,, rr llom ..l 6, 5 ft frorn BC, and 9.5 ft from CD, the vortex strength 4oA, 4oAs 4oAo
r.. ,r,l', 250 sq ft per sec?
't :, 5. \Vhat rvould be the velocity at P, in Fig. 9.5b, if it were located \\rith more vortices added, as in Fig. 9.6b, the circulation along
tt lrrrrrr ,48, 5 ft frorn BC, and 5 ft from CD, the vortex strength being linc BO has morc variiation and the induced velocity at any point P
,1 ,,1 ft pcr sec? along lJC drre to the vortex cores extending to infinity in one
direction is still adclitive.
r, \'OllJllY TO INFII\ITY IN ONE DIRECTIOI.f
,,v - f, , l?-- lt -. "'
r
11
It, irr Fig. 9.50, the point P were located on the line BC, at a ': 4rw-t 4"ar- 4"w- 4"a,
rr t;rrrr.o r irom B, the velocity induced at P by the line .B.4, since
,rr {) and 0z : 90", would be \\rit,h more and more vol'tices addccl, each of small strength,
the plot ol circulation along the line .BC approaches a smooth
Lf_
I crrrvc tncl the induced velocity at any point P along the linc BC
)t--:- (e.6.1)
brcornes

ll'r , is tellnt',t the incluco velocity for a vortex core extending to

, ,1 rrrlr- irr otrr,l rlirection only. ,,:[:""'# (e.7.1 )

I
r
,,,,,. , is the distan"";:;":"rTtto*
ys and Uc a"re the values of. y at B and C, respectively.
10.
llrr, infinite number of tirry vortices extending from BC to
,,,lrrrrl,.y is termed a vortex sheet.

Correction for Aspeci Ratio

10.1. INTRODUCTION
For many years tests rvere made on wind-tunnel model wings
ha'ing an aspect ratio of 6, and the data on the wing characteristics
rvere given for this aspect ratio. It is now customary to furnish
data on airfoils har-ing infinite aspect ratio. Whethcr the data are
for aspect ratio of 0 or for infinite aspect rario, thcy may be cor-
recled to be applicable to rvings of any aspect ratio.

10.2. VARIATION OF LIFT ACROSS SPAN

The motion of the air in flowing around a rving is very complex.
Air flows backward over the top side and under the lorver side.
This motior is complicated because of other incidental conditione.
The air preBsure on tho upper side of a rving in motion is slightly
leee than atmnspheric pregsure; that on the underside is slightly
greater than ai,mospheric pressure. Fluids will'always go from
a region of high pressure to ono of low pressuro, Tberefore, in flight,
air is spilling out from below the wing tip and up into the region of
low preasure rrn top of the wing. Consequently, on the upp'er side
of the wing near the rving tips, the pressure is not quite so low as
over the reet of the rving because of the excess coming up from
belorv partly filling this low-pressure area. On the underside of the
wing near tho tip, becaus€ of the air passing out and up, the
positive pressure ie npt so groat as under tho inner portions of the
wing.
Lift, being due to the difrerence in air pressuro between the lower
and upper gides of tl.e wrng, is not uniform over the tpan of even
a rectangular wing. Tests have been repoatedly run which cheok
with these deductions. PresEure me&surements, made at various
points &croBs tbe rpan, show that difreronce in pressure is maximum
169
l
CORR]ICTION I.'OR ASPI'CT RATIO TWO-DII{ENSIONAL VS. THNEE-DIMENSIONAL FI,OW J6I

rl,, { ('ntor of t,hc sprn, rlc<'rcitsiug lr1'smnll amoitttts ttlrvar<l thr:
,r' rl)s. 'fhis is sltorvn in lrig. 10. la.
\ r, rrrriginar'.y rving of infinitc aspct:t rtttio, having no air spilling
r llrc rvinq tips, rvotrld have unifonn lift arrross the spin.
l-lrr,, Iift dist.ribution is shorvn in Fig. 10. l,i.
than near the tip. On the upper side of the rving, on'ing to irir coln-
ing up and inrvard.over the tips, there is an inrvarcl component
rvhich is strongest at the iips. This motion is shorvn, gleatly
exaggerated, in Fig' 1C.2.
The theoretical rving of infinite aspect ratio u'ould have no
inl'ard or outward florv. The florv u'ould be dircctly bac,kt'ard an<l
uprvard or downward, i:e., trvo-dimensional.

10.4. 1.'WO-DIN,IENSIONAL VDRSUS THRI'E-DI]IIiNSIONAI,

IILO\\'
Ii'rrr airpl:rnrt l'itrg llr.tl :ut inflnilr, slllrtr, llrc Il,rrr o\'or irn\'
1.u-rltion of tlx: spirtr n'oulrl llc irlclrti<:al u'it,lr lhc florr'or,t:r':rrr.\,
ol.hcr pollion of tlrc span. The lift per ttnit sprrn uoultl lrrr t:oustant,
along lirtr sprttr. ..\ strrriglrt'-linc \'(,!'to\ might lrc sttlr..littttetl l'or llrc
infinit,crp:in rving. 'l'lrc r:iri;ulirtion I- ol' stlerrgl.l' of tlris r.orl cx
0,)
linc tvoultl lrrr sitclt llrrr.L pI'll tvottlrl lrc ctlttrrl lo the lift, yrcl unit
rr. l(). l. Lift. rlistrilrtrtiort :Icross sl.lrln of (o) rr iring of firriLe :tspccb lcrrgllr of sltittt of tlrc rting.
rrrtio, (/,) :r rlittg trf ittfirtitc rtsplct rrtt.irt. ' In tlrc lt:lrl rving rvith iinit,c sprrn, Lhe lit't valics :rlong 1hr: sptn,
bcing maximum at t.ho centcr and decreasing torvarrl tlic ti1ts. 'lhc
t\\\ .\ItI) ANI) 0Lrif\\'.{Iti) l..Lo\\' real u,ing hirs l'oltir:es rvhich thc.rving of infinite spirn does nol,
i rru>(,. on tlrc trildersid,'of Lltc rttug,:tir Ircar tltc Lip is flo\ing lur.b. 'I'he.cflcct of .irese vortices is to give an added dorvnrvru'rl
rrrrl ttllu'artl, lir neat'cr ilrc ugnlgt' flou's otrt to replacc this air'. velocity to the air strerrm. 'Ihis dorvnrvard velocit)' is called iire
dou,nu'ash velocity and is usually represented by the s.ymbol tl.
t-eadint Edge
,',i the mid-span of a real rving, the irrduced dorvnu'arrl velocitics

'//lll I Trailing Edge

\ \ \\\
due to the vortices on eoch sidc of the mid-section ale of crlual
magnibudc. In this micl-scction, Jrecattse of symmctr',r', tlte flou' is
two-dimensional. The florv around tire mid-section of a lcal u'ing
(o) is t,he su,rnc as the flow around a section of tl wing of 'nfinite *p&n
except for direction, the increase in resuitanl vclocity being
LeadinS Edge negligible.
In Fig. 10.3a, for a rving of infinite span, l'ith a relative rvinC tr/
\\\\ \ i / i t/r, comirig in a horizontal direction to the rving and har-ing an angle
of attack c, the air-florv pattern is as shorvn. In Fig. 10.3b is shol'n
TrailinB EdSe
the pattern of air florv for a u'ing of finite span. Though Lhe tr,rc
(b)
relative nind is ho'izontal, because of the dorvurvash ia the resultar.t
Irrc. 10.2. Air motion (a) urrdersidc antl (ll) up1rcr side! of rving' velocity has a direction of I/n. The l'ing in Fig. 10.3b is set at the
same angle c to the resultant velocity I/p as the wing of infinite
rl,r':rir on Lhe underside of thc lving has theleforc not only a back- span is set to the true relative u-ind in Fig. 10.3o. The same florv
,r,l rnotion rt:lativc to the iving but also an oulward niotion as pattern'rvith respect to the rving results in each case.
, ll \crir tlte ccrrt.er of lhe span this outrvard component is n'eaker Because of th" dorvnrvard induced velocity, the same florv
I
CORREC?ION FOTT ASPI'CT RATIO ELLIPTIC LIFT DISTBIBUTION 163

,, , ulrj on both rvings if the geometrrc angle of attack of Fig. 10.4. 'fhe dis[nnce of any point P frou^ the mid-point of the
r,,, lrrrite rving is increased over the geometric angle of span is y. The semi-span is b/2. The values of I are plotted as
r..r tlrr: rving of infinite spah. This increase in the geomerric ordinates, Is being the value of the circulation at mid-span. The
t ,rrtrrr:k must be the angular change in the direstion of the equation for this semi-ellipse is
u2
.'o':
12
1

GtI
then
I

.:?JC";.
(a) (b)

l,'ro. 10.3. Effect of downwash on relativo wind. ar:fx (10.5.1)

(i)' -f
rrrrl due to dorvnrvash. It is termed the induced angle

o' = tan-^
.u (10.4.1)
|
- ,, rlru:r type of air flow occurs for c wing of inf.nite Bpan et
. ,,', tr i,r tngle of attack of ao, the same eir flow occur€ for a wing
,, ,,|)rn at e geometric angle of attack of ao * a;o. Having
=.,rrr lrrrtt€ilr of streamlines, th€ pressune distribution over the
, ",,lrr(:e rvill be the same. The resultant forces will bo tho snme
.,e,rrtrrrlo and in the same. direction and line of action with
lho. 10.d Elliptio rpan-wire lift dirtributiou.
r t,, tho wing. It ig to be noted, horvever, in Fig. 10,3 that,
rt,,. finite-span wing is tilted at a greater angle of attack, its The expreesion dI is tho change in ciroulation for a change of d3t
r,r,rt lorco will difrer in direction from that of +-he rcsultant in distance along the span.
., ,,1 ilro infinite-span wing by the angle a;.
In Bection 9.8, thero was given an expr€ssion for the induced
velocities caused by a sheet of vortices. From now on, this down-
III,tPTIC LIFT DISTRIBUTION ward induced velocity will be termed downwash velocity and the
,' r1,,, lift veries across the span in such & m&nner that when symbol u will be ussd inst€ad of 71. The downwash at a point
.,.,,r plotted ag absciBsa end lift per unit spen is plottnd as tbat ia locatod at a dietance y1 from the center of the Bp&n will be
,',,rt^ rnd the reaurlting curr'G is elliptic (eenri'elliptio) in shapo, termed u1. From Eq. (9.7.1), making this subetitution gives
-", rr noid to be elliptic lift digtribution, Since lift per unit spsn
.-tn 1,t'l/; the circulation I varies elliptically ecroBs the Bpan in ,, = I:::rt 4n(nilt (10,6.2)
,,,rr, [l m&nnef. - U)
i!," (li$[&nceg along the Bpan &re plottod along the Y axis in For elliptio dietribution of lift, substitution of the value oi dI
T
coRRlicTI()N I,'Olt .-\Sl'}licT ItATIO
INDUCED ANGLE OF ATTACK 165

rl,,,l. c:rse givcs most airylane Nings have a lift distribution lvhich it tta'nrlY elliptic,
either it may be assumed elliptic or a slight correction may be
I'o applied.
71)1 :
' 2ilt
- (y - trt) 10.6. INDUCED ANGLE O}- ATTACI(
In Section 10.4 it rvas pointed out that, lor a rving of infinitc
span (or infinite aspect ratio), for each angle of attack there is a
I', t definite air fiorv arld associaied rvi'uh ^,,hab r"ii' forv tliere is z'
't0 r (r 0.5.3)
2it definite pressure distribution and consequently a definite resultant
force. This angle for the rving of infinibe aspect ratio is termed thc
,, nr('rurs that if the circttlrttion (illt{l lift) r':rr.y lttrrtlss tltc splrn I

effective angle of attack and is givcn the symllol o6.

, ,'rrri-clliptic matlncr, tltc rlou i.srslt lclocitf is lltc s:tlttc ltt For a lving rvith a finite aspcct ratio, the same air flotv and
, r' l,oint of the span arrd is ctlttul l,r tlte t:itr'ttl:ttiott rtt' tltt'r't'tttt't'
resultant force occurs when there is an added anglc of attack.
,1,' :il)ln clividcd by trvict: thc silr:rt.
'Ihis added angle due to dorvnrvash, is termed the induced angle of
llr' :n'cil, of rt sr:mi-clli1.,sc har,irrg l'r, rltlrl L,/2:t-* rnlrrur st'ttti-lrrt'. attack, a;. The geometric angle of atlack fc:' a rvin! of finiie aspcct
1,,(bf 4); thercforc, t,hc rtvct'ristr , it.t'ttl:ttiott lt,ross tltc sprrtt is
ratio is composed of tu'o parts, the eflccbive angle of a.ttaok and the
, I Since the lift pcr ttrtit sp:rrt ,.,,I-l', l'ol iL rving o[ slrlrr 1, induced angle of attack.
lrl I is
d:cto+ai (10.6.1)
J, : pl'l'b
The induced angle of attack ai was given in Section 10.4 as
:^14-\,,,
''\ + tan-r (w/V). Tlii" ;ngle is ahvays small, and for small angles '-he
/'' magnitude in radians is equa! io the tangent-
rlrr vrtluc of circul:rtirln is ttscd, bttt, fronr prcvious \\'orli
! ,r \\'ing
;rVCr'&Se
s'ith on area uf S, a; (radians) : fi
r, : c r.f,sv' _T
CuSV

r trl r cf {)re,
V
o! vr, : c r.! svz
: CrS
(10.6.2)
ob'
n"
2(' , .\ l'
ro - - Since the aspect ratio (A.R.) of a u'ing is bz/S, see Section 6.7.
--, nLt
l lris valne of circulation at mid-span (lu) ma1' be subslituted
. Cr
a; (radtans) : (10.6.3)
,, tlrc vaiue of downrvash velocily: "AX-
57.296C n
: Cr,SI' a; (degrees) :
u ---:n- (10.5.4) zrA.R.
Tlr-

l,', elliptic lift distlibution, the don'n't 'ash velocity

rr n'ings having
78.24C r (10.6.4)
,rrrrstoDt, across the span and has a value of (CLSV)/(Lrb2). As AR
 CORRECTION FOR ASPEC'T IIATIO
INDUCED DRAG t67
III I' I NDUCED DRAG
rnd Co:Cta;1rCoo (10.7.1 )
l lrr: resultant force on a wing
of infinite ssp€ct ratio may be
', ,,tvtxl into lift and drag complnents. fo f:ig. 10.5o, or Cn: Coi t Coo (10.7.2)
rrtrr of these forces are plotted. As they
the coeffi_
',
where Cp; : CLai.
i rrrtiniteaspect ratio, tiey "im"i"rl";;;";;;
"." "^
a"-o-ot"iIy The drag coefrcient is composed of two parts. Onc lrul. rt'pre'
,,, rrnd Cp6. These component"." coefficients n osubscript, i.e.,
are respectively per_ sented by the coefficient Cpr, is caused by the induc.rl tlorttrl'trrrl
velocity of the wing-tip vortices and is called the itrrlrttt'rl dr:rlt
coeficient. The other part CDs is called the profile drrrg r',x'tlloitrttt'
In the seme rvay, the drag itself is divided into trvo crrt'trulrtrtttlittF
psrts: the induced drag equal to C pr(p/2)SVz and. tho ptrrllh' rl|rtg
trltrsl to C ps(p/2)Sl/2.
\Yhen the wing has an infinite aspect ratio, there irr tt,r ttttlttt""l
C4sin

F\\
a1
tlrrrg and all the drag is that due to the profile or ts'trtlirtrr'ttrrltrrrrlr
CpoCOS d1
florv. The drag is the. due only to the skin friction,rf lltrr tt{t rtl.trt
t,he surface of the airfoil. The amount of this drag rl.,1r'rr,lrr r'lrlr'llt
lrllltli
llelatrve wind
on t.he shape of the airfoil at angles below rvhere exc('sr,rvr' lrrrr
h)@ trrkes place. It is because of the profile of the &irfoil tl,'{.'rrrrrrrrrrti
Fro- 10.b. Induced drag coefficientr. its rnegnitude -that rs is called profile drag. Profih' rlrrrA irr lrr'r(.'
pcndent of angle of attack, up to near the burblc rrrrrl r:'
1tolrrl,
1'r'lrr:ular and parallel to the ielaiive independent of aspect ratio.
, ,.,, I,'or infi_nite
wind. The arrgre of attack Witn nnitc a^sp€..jo ratio, in addition to the profilc rllrtA, llrt't'',r"
aspect ratio, there is no induced (rtr rrttl
\ rving oj fini_te aspect ratio with the srme ""g-l; "f
;;;. the induced drag. The coefficieul of induced drag.l.1x,rr.lil
,rlr tn induced angle.of c;
effectivJangi";;;; lift, which depends on the angle of attack, and on l.ltrr lttrlttr't"t
isshown i" n;. rO.bb. As the air
florv angle of attack, which depeodt oo the effect of l,lrr' \\'lrrl
lll'
, rlr(l .same, the
magnitudp of- C 4 and Ci, *iff be the
'r,,rr rlirections will each be chafred by;hu same but vortices, which in turn depends on the aspect ratio.
angle a;. R*;i"il rltrt
In the preceCing section, it was shown that, for olllpl,l,'llll
'r" r' coefficients jnto components perpendicurar :
,t,,, rrrrdisturbed relative wind,
and parailel to tribution, a; C r,/(rA.R.); then, for elliptic lift diat,t'ilrrtllt'tt'
it i, founa il"t I Glauert has shown that, for-rcctangular wings, more nonrly rrrrlltrrrl lrrt'
Ct:Chcosc;-Coosinoi mulag. are

C o : C rasin a; * 'r -
Cr.
(t * ') and ,o, = I ,rl
Coo cos oi -A-R- #.(t
lt.c&us€ the induced angle
of attack a; is always wbsrc the correction factors r and 6 vary with aspect ra0io ru frtllrttr';
,,r r lrc taken as ur^ity. Cpo.ia sr.l8,il iL, coroparison small, cosa;
",,,,'i is a small fraction; therefore Cr;;;", is
,nithi;;;; a.n- t E A.R. t
,
' ','rp*rison with
very sma,ll in I 0.ll 0.uzi 7 0.n tl , txl'l
C6 and may be neglectJi. li irio ,"["*, 0 (17{
r"r ,,r'all angles 4 0. 14 0.03:| 8 0.22
the sine is equal to [" *tf" it"ogf. ",' (}tlll
I
;

ll,, r,qua,tions thus become Y

"ti;
i...,
";:;;] 6 0.16 0.044 I 0.28 {l
6 0.18 0.054
I
Ct: Ch Tho neglect of tbeoe oorr.ection factors never reeults in arr ntl,l tttttrxxllttl
6 por cont,.
I
T :l:lFl. s a a I f f-*-l r--i
't!r:{ ( t t l t t-
CORRECTION FOR ASPECT RATIO INDUCED DRAG 169

C n; -- C 7.o; for induced drag becomes

C
"'S
,6?.? (+)"
olf 'l); : (10.7.6)
oV2
C"' (10.7.3)
rvhere 7 is infeet per second;
rA.R- /w\2
it,, rrrrluccd drag coefficient lrcing Lnoln, the induced drag rnay n.
r21.b (ti
u. - (10.7.7)
oVz
' ',rr,l rtrs follorvs:
rrhr-'1s fz is in miles per horrr; ---
Di: CD,:SV2
t / tv\z
e3.83 |\t/
D;:------T
:(#) f,',' rvhcre l'is in knots.
(10.7.8 )

!]XAN,IPLE
_' "'(;)' "r' A rectangr:lar monoplane wing has s, opan of 39 ft and a cliord of 6 it.
n \\/hat alc the induied angle of attack and the induced tlrrg . uflicient,
f,t'vz rvhen the lifl coefficient is 0.8?
Solulion.
:L|b'v' (10.7.4)
.6
AR. : q9
n
2 : 6.5
lE 21 X o'8
', r, l' is in feet per second. a; (desrees) :
r''r lr"'el flight, the lift :s ahvays substantially equal to i,he
.,,1,t 'l'herefore, for level flight, : 2.22"
0.92
wD; -: -----.-l-j
,,-- X
i(v)' (10.7.5)
:
7r
0.03r
b.r)

,,,. :
,/ (e/z)Vr.
ttrr, rveight divided by the span is called the span loading. For
,l llrlihb, the induced drag varies directiy with the square of the
, -', LrrLrling and inversely as the dynamic pressure. For a given
,1,l,rrrc, rvith a.fixed gruss weight W, the induced drag varies
,,'.,.1r, as the square o; 15s ajrspeed.
r\1,, n o : p/po and p6 : 0.002378 are substituted, the formula
PROBLEMS
10.7.1. A rectangular monoplane wing has a 46-ft span and a 5-ft
chord. When C t : 0.41, what are (o) the induced angle of attack and
(b) the induced drag coefficient?
10.7.2. A. rectangular monoplane wing has a 39-ft span atrd a 7 It
chord. When C r: 0.67, what are (a) the induced angle of aitack and
(b) the induced drag coefficient?
 -:_t :t!.

I i0 CORRECTION FOII ASPECT ILATIO noRsEpowER REQUIRED FOR INDUCED DRAG l7l
10.7.3. At. rn airspeed of 95 mph rt sea level, rvhat is the ir,rlucetl drag EXAJ\,IPLE
,,1 :r nronoplane rveighing 4,700 lb and.having a rving span of 52 ft?
10.7.4. A Stinson Ileliant rveighs 3,875 lb; its rving sp:rn is 4l ft
A monoplane rveighing 2,000 lb has a span of 38 ft. \Vhat is the
induced drag at 10,000 ft altitude if the airspeed is E0 mph? lVhat
Ir))lin. At 10,000 ft altitude, rvhat is the inrluced <llag a[ 147 mph?
horsepower is required to overcome the induced drag?
10.7..5. A Fairchild monoplane rveighs 2,550 lb; its rving spun is 36 ft
.l in. At 5,000 ft altitude, rvhat is the induced drag at an airspeed of bolution.
122 rnph?
Span loading :
. f
10.s. HORSEPOWFR RIIQUIRDD FOR INI)UCIID DRAG
_ 2,000
'l'he horsepo\ier lc(luil'cd to ovcr<:orne induced clllg is
38

hPtli:
I),1; : 52.61b per ft
;;
,rr.o (Y\',
rr lrr:r'e I/ is in feet per second.
I rr lcvel lliuht, n'liert D;: lV2 / (trriD2) is substituted, this bccomcs v2

_ 121.5 (52.0):
(T)', 0.7384 x (S0)'
hpp, : (10.8. i )
2.051oV :73Ib
l'here V is in feet per second; 73x*8xSO
Lr-p D: :
5c0

(#)' : 16.6 hp
hPo, : (10.8.2)
3.0I3oV
PROBLEMS
rvhere I/ is in miles per hour;
10.8.1.. Thel{orthrop N-3PB rveighs 9,200 lb, and ik span.is 48 ft
ll
hpp, : ffr
3.47joV
(r0.8.3)
in. What horseporver is.required to overcome the induced drag rvhen
it is flying at sea level at 210 mph?
10.8.2. The Piper Cub weighs 1,450 lb, and its wing span is 37 ft
\Yz in. What horsepower is required at sea level to overcome induced
u'here I/ is in knots. wing drag alt an airspeed of 55 mph?
It l0 per cent decreases
is to be noted that increasing the span by 10.8.3. The Iockheed Lodestar weighs 17,500 lb; its l'ing span is
the horseporver requ;red for induced drag by nearly 20 per cent. 65 ft 6 in. At sea level, what horsepower is required to overcome induced
Horvever, a longer span means that the wing spars must be stiffer drag at 214 ncph?
10.8.4. A inonoplane weighe 3,100 lb. lVhen the plane is at sea level,
to rvithstand the greater bending moment. In design a compromise
flying et 140 ft per sec, what is the induced drag (a) if span is 32 ft;
is made.
(b) if epan is 28 ft; (c) if span ie 24 ft?
In level flight at sea level, the horsepower needed for induced 10.8.5. A monoplane weighs 2,700 Ib; ite span is 31 ft. \\'hat ie the
drag is practically one-third the span loading squared divided by induced drag tnl ses level, (o) at airspeed of 110 ft per sec; (b) at airspeed
the airspeed in miles per hour. of 220 It per sec?
II"I . CORREGTTON IOR ASPECT RATIO CORRECTIONS FOR ASPECT P.ATIO OF MONOPLANE I73
IIIl} CORRECTIONS FOR ASPECT RATIO OF MONOPLANE same for both rvings. Ther^,
'l'lrc geometric angle of attack is made up of two parts, the p@) : p;et) -
Cp<.tl - C C C o;G)
, llr.r:tive angle of attack and the induced angle of attack. Trvcr
rr",11s of the same area, same airfoil sention, and same airspeed cr' cr'
" have the same lift, if the effective angle of attack is the satrre
ill rA zrB

/r - r\
rrr lroth cases. If two wings have a different a,spect ratio, f.he
these.
,,rrc having the smaller aspect ratio rvill have a larger induced :c"'o\A Bi
(ro.e.z)
,rrrlik: of attack and wiil consequently need to have a greater
1,,.,,rrretric or total angle of attack. EXAMPLE
'l'hese trvo rvings, having the same effective angle of attack, rvill
l':rvr: the same profile drag, but, since the induced drag is greater An airfoil, rvith aspect ratio of 6, at an angle of attack of 3", has a
,,rr l,hc wing of smaller aspect ratio, the total drag rvill be greater Cr, : 0.381 and Cp : 0.0170. Find, for the sanle airfoil section, the
angle of attack and the Co that s'ill correspond rvith the Cr of 0.381 if
,,rr l,lrat s'ing.
the aspect ratio is 4.
I l' the total angle of attack is knorvn that gives a certain lifl Solution.Approxirnate
,,u,llicient s-ith a rving of one aspect ratio, the total or geometric :

d6 - c.4: 1E.21 X 0.381 (t - +)

'-l
,rrr1',lt: of attack that rvill be needed for a rving of a diflerent aspecb
r:rlio to give the same lift coefficient can be found as follou's. : - 0.579
llrr,rlifference betrveen the geometric angles u'ill be lhe difference
3' - (-0.579) : 3.579' : a.ngle oI attack fol A.R. 4
l,r'l,rvccn the induced angles. I.ef A and B be the two aspect
r;rl ios, a,1 being the total angle of attack for rving of aspect ratio d 0.3812 / t 1\
Co<ot_Co<q: * x\;_a/
tr'r'ir:h gives the same lift a: the total angll of at',ack cs gives for
tlrr: rving of aspecb ratio B. : -0.00385
'l'lren,
Cr for A.R. 4 : 0.0170 - (-0.00385)
dA-eB-
18.24C t 18.24C r,
: 0.0208
A - B
Exact (using Glauert corrections):
: r8.24c tti - ;l (10.e.1)
u6_d4:18.24 X0.381
/r.rs l.r4\
- _/
\,
'l'he difference in total drags will be the same &s the difference in : -0.611
,rrrluced drags. Then for the trvo rvings of the preceding para-
1,,r':Lph, .4 and B being the two aspect ratios and the wings being of
co<o _cpst:*(Y _
T)
Llrc same airfoil section and same &rea, the total drags for each
rvill be : -0.0038
' PROBLEMS
Co<;rr: Coo(t, * Co;<t>
10.9.1. Au airfoil, with aspect ratio of 6, at an angle of attack of 7",
Co<B>: Cnoz) * Cpi<n, has Cr, : 0.940 and Cp : 0.062. Find, for the same airfoil shape, the
angle of attack and cD corresponding to c t : 0.94 for aspect ratio of
'lhe profile drags, being independent of aspect ratio, are the 8.2.
 CORRI'CTION FOR ASPECT RATIO COEFFICIENTS FOR INFINITE ASPECT RATIO 175

t{)1).2. An a,irfc.l, \\'ith &spect r&tio of 6, at an angle of attack of go, angle of attack of zero lift (Cr, : 0), the Crr is the same for-any
r'.r'' (.'1. : 1.067 and C,o : 0.0780. Find, for the same airfoil shape, the
aspect ratio. For aspect ratios greater than 6, the slope of the Co
,"1,1t of attack and CD corresponding to Ct: 1.06i for aspect ratio
.t'rl. versus a is less than for aspect ratio of 6. The value of C;-.,. is
tt).1).3. An airfoil, with espect retio of 6, at an angle of attack oI 712o,
the same for all aspect ratios but occurs at a smaller angle of
attack for bigger &spect ratios.
-t,tt r. : 0.851 end Ct : 0.053. Find, for the same airfoil shape, the
(l
,rrr1'lr: of attack and CD corresponding to Cr,:0.851 for aspect ratio
..t !{.7. PROBLEMS
r0.9.4. An airfoil, with aspect ratio ol 7, at an angle of attack of b", a
10.9.6. Using data from Fig.8.10, plot curves 6f Cr, versus &nd
t,r't (l 1. : 0.73 and Co : 0.042. Find, for the same iirfoil shape, the
Cp versus a for a Gottingen-3g8 rving with aspect ratio of 9)1.
,,r'1,1r: of attack and CD corresponding to Ct:0.73 for aspect ratio of
10.9.7. Using data from Fig.8.l1, plot curves of Cr, \'el'sus a &nd
lr .,.
Cp v€rsus a fdr a C-SO rving rvith aspect ralio of. 83/.
0.9.5. A glider rving has an aspect r&tio of 14. For the airfoil s'ith an d and
10.9.8. Using Cato from Fig.8.l2, plot curves of C, versus
1

ratio of 6, at an angle of attock of 6o, C t : 0.725 and Co : 0.089.

Co vorsus a ior an NI-6 rving rvith aspect tatio ol 4r/
,, ,1'r.r:t
l rrrrl the angle of attack and Ca for the glider rving rvhen Cr, :0,725.

IO.10, COEFFICII.]NTS FOR INFINITE ASPECT RATIC

\\'it.h infinitc aspe<:b nrtio, tllerc is neither indttcetl rrngle of
attacl< nor induced tlrag. I'" is no*'crrstomary l,o givc the char-
acteristics of an airfoil as if tltc ailfoillvure of infinite aspect ratio.
When they are so given, the angle of attack is identical rvith the
effective angle of ,att*ck and the drag coefficient is the profile
drag coefficient. To find the characteristics for a finite aspect ratio,
to the effective angle of attack is added the induced angle of
atlack for that aspect ratio to give the geometric angle of atback,
and to the profile tilrrg coefficient is added the induced drag
coefficicnt for that &specb ratio to give the total drag coefficient.
Characteristics of rvings rvith infinite aspect ratio are shorvn in
Fro. 10.6. Efrect of.spect, ratio
Figs. 10.7 and 10,8.
on Clark Y characterietics.
While it is true that no airplane has a rving of infinite aspect
Ily the use of this method, if characteristic curves ere available ratio, it is equally true that airplanes with rvings having an aspect
t,rr on airfoil of one mpect ratio, characteristic curves ma,y be raLio of exactly 6 are extremely rare. Correcticns must be applied
rvhether data are presented for aspec'r, ratio of 6 or infinity, and the
'lrrrrvn for the airfoil for any other aspect ratio. This has been
!
,[rne ir Fig. 10.6. The curve of Cr, venus a,ngle of attack and of latter appeam to be more eensible.
I

1'r, v€rsus angle of attack, both for aspect ratio of 6, rvere used to Note that variation in the aspect ratio has no effect on the arr-gle
of zero lift.
:
liivc values from which points cculd be fcunC to eneble tbe plotting
'[ curves for the same airfoil for an aspect rstio of 8. It rvill be noted
! ,

Llrnt C; = 0 is at the aame angle of attack regsrdless of aspect EXAMPLE

I

I rrtt,io. Regarding +,he Cr, versus a curve, comp&red with the curve tr'or a cer0ain airfoil of infinite aspecb ratio, the Cl ia 1.03 at go anglo
l,r'&Bp€ct ratio of 6 the slope is steeper if the aspect ratio is greater of ottack and the corresponding Co ig 0.087. Find the angle of attack
t,lurn 6 and the slope is IeBs if the aepect ;atio is less than O. At the and Cp for an aspect ratio of 8, when C! i8 1.03'
I
T
I

CORRECTION FOR ASPI'CT RATIO COEFFICIENTS FOR INFINITE ASPECT RATIO L77

Wing of aspect ratio 8 at angle of attack of 11.3' will have lift coefficient
lb of 1.03 and drag coemcient of 0.109.

t4
Cgo Profih Dtrg Calticict{ - ) --) 40
0.09 ll
lr
t2 0.08 36
a
lo o o.o7 32 go
g coo
/t -. o
I 24:o
I fi -And. ol Aftxro
:E 0.06
o
\.., 6
o
so 0.c5 20to
o
:4
IE Ib=

'' 2
7 o
d
o.oq

0.03
4 t2'=
o
c
E

d(
o o.o2 8f
€o
-.2 4*
'o
o
c^ Uc
^-d
a
o
o
-.6 c
o
E
o
-.8

-16
o
-12 -8
.01
-4 04812
Dc86
.o2 .03 .04
t6
=
';I . -0.4 -?2-

Fro.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 r.4 r.6
Lift ioeflicient Cr

10.8. Chp'acteristics of NACA-2412 airfoil,

1.8

h infinite aspect ratio.

F rc. 10.7. Characteristics of Ciarl: Y airfoil, infinite aspect rstio.
PROBLEMS
,\oIulion. 10.10.1. An airfoil of infinite aspc:t ratio has a Co of 0.015 'vhen
d.: ds I a; Cr, is 1.1. (o) What is the Cp for a similar airfoil with aspect ratio of E'J,
when Cr, is l.l? (b) What is the L/D taLio?
_ oo r 16.24 x 1.03
10.10.2. For the airfoil section of Problem 10.10.1, but rvith an
'8 &spect r&tio of 7.1, (o) what is the Cr, 'vhen Cr, is 1.1; (b) rvhat is the
: 9" + 2.3o L/D ralio?
10.i0.3. For the airfoil section of Problem 10.10.1, but with an aspect
:11.3o ratio of 6, (o) what is the Cp rvhen C r. is I .1 ; (b) what is lhe L/ D raLio?
Co: Coo* Coi 10.iC.4. An airioil with aspect ratio of 6 at 4" angle of attack hes
Ca : 0.65 and Cp : 0.034. (o) At what angle of attack will tnis air-
: l'G]t foil have the same Cz if the aspect ratio is infinite? (b) Whnt wili be the
0.067 +'rX8
Cp under these conditions?
10.10.5. An airfoil with aspect ratio of 6 at 9' angle of attack has
: 0.067 + : 0.072. (o) With aspect ratio of 8'7, at rvhat angle
C r. : t.OZ and Cp
0.042
: 0.109 of ettsck will Cr, : l.O2? (b) What will be Co? @) What will be L/D?
 CONRACTION FOR ASPDCT RATIO COEFFICIENTS FOR INFINITE ASPECT RATIO 179

,rr, Ar1 ailfoil rvith aspect ratio of 6 at 7" angle of atttck hrrs wing will be
tt:,ti ;rnd Co : 0.053. (c) \Yith aspect rat,ro of 8.2, at rvhat angle
,' ,, [ *ill Cr, : 0.86? (b) What rvill be Co? Ct (10.10.3)
aau
-
,r ltt,. An airfoilrvith aspect raiio of 6 at lo angle of attack has duZ.L.
{r il :!nd co :0.021. (o) with asisct ratio of 9.6, at rvhat an6!e
.rri,, lr rvill Cz : 0.41? (b) Whet will be Co? :- Ct
,'r t{ts An airfoil with aspect ratio of 6 at 12o angle of attack has Q a t8.24C t
r li2 and Cp : 0.098. (o) With aspect ratio of 8.8, at whet angle . (tr- .'
-!- A.R
rr,,, I' rvill Qn:1.22? (b) What will be Co?
I tr) 11. An airfoil of infinite aspect ratio at 12o angle of attack has :_- Q,e
(10.10.4)
I il2 nnd Co : u.023. (o) With aspect ratio of 3.6, at what angle 18,24a^*
l-L
'i,,1, *ill Cr: L.32? (b) Whet rvill be Cp? AR.
,r trt l(). From Fig. 10.7 obtain the data and plot the Ce versus d
: tl,r ('o versus a curvc; for an aspecb ratio of 8.5. To find lhe C t for any angle of attack, mcasu'red trom the angln
of zero lrf, when the slope ae of the lift curve of infinite a,spect ra,tio
,, rll lrc noticed that, rvhen Cr, is plotr.ed against angle of attack, is known,
,',r l
is a straight linc from the angle of zero lift up to neai C 7, : a.a7.1.
l',rrl,lt,point. For this portion oI tlie curve the follotving is
a-dz.t,.
:_ (10.10.5)
18.24a^
1
r -r-I -----------:
t":*Xoz.r. A.R.

,,. ,\(l t /Aa: slope of lift curve EXAMPLE

:
ctz.L. angle of attack mea,sured from angle of zcro lift. Tho slope of the lift corfrcient curve fo^'infinitc aspect rntio is 0.09
per degree. What ie tho Cr, for a wing with an aepect rotio of 6 at an
!, ning o- be the slope of the liii, curve for infinite aspect ratio
angle of attack of 9o measured from the angle of zero lift?
C 7 : a*aro.". (10.10.1) sotutiott^
Cn
c, =t + t#f'ga.ao
saZ-L-
- a6
(10.1u,2) ----o -
i ,,r' rLl'ing rvith a finite aspect ratio, the Ba,me C1 is obtained at = 0.64

'1,,1r,'1 snglg a, so that the slope of the lift curve for the real rving
PROBLEMS
'rll be less than the slope for the wing of infinite aspect ratio.
10.10.11. The anglo of zero lift of a celtain airfoil is -6o. With
duz.L.: doz.r,, *# iirirnite aepect rat.io, at georne',ric aagle of attack of 7", Cr is 0'94.
(a) What ir the slope of the lift-coefficient ourve? (b) For an aapect
ratio of 8, what is the Cr, for a geometric angle of attack of 4o?
*.
Cn l8.24Ct 10.10.12. For the airfoil of Problem 10.10,11, nhat is'"he Cr. for a
-; A-R- geometric angle of attack of ?o if aspect ratio is 9.2?
10.10.13. For symmetrical wings, the angle of attack for zero lift
I lr,r alope for the straight portion of the lift curve for the r€a^l b 0'. for o certain oymmetrical wing of infinits aepect ratio, the slope
 ' CORRECTION FOR ASPECT RATIO BIPLANE M{ITUAL INTERFERT]IICE 181

,r,, lrll coefficient curve is 0.078 pc: degree. For a wing rvith tispeet Area COH :19.82 x2xi :19.82
., ,,t r', rvhat is the Cr, at 4" angle of attack? 168.2
,,r trt l.l. For
Area GHO :.360 xzrx2z 5.87
a certain symmetrical rving of infinite aspect ralio, the
. "l llrc lift-coefficient curve is 5.93 per radian. What is the Cr, at Area half wing : 136.7
.-,,1 1,. o[ attack for a wing rvith aspect
ratio of 4.5?
Areaof wing: S:2 X L36.7: 27y.4sqft
rI INI)UCED DRAG OF TAPERED WINGS l2
Aspect ratio : O.*. :
:\ lr.rr ir rving is ta,pered in plan.forrn, ttre roct sgct;cn is largcr ;
,,, tlrl tip section, and the \ving spars may be deepest where the _ (46)'
,',lrrr1'. nromeDt is greatest. To find the induced drag coeffrcient 273.4
I 'rr,lrrt.o(i angle of attack r_rf a tapered rving, it is necessary to : 7.74
tlr: lspect latio. To do this, thc rving area must be found. It is to be noted that a rectangular rving having &D are& of 278.4 sq ft
,,,r,r,n l)r&cLice is to assume elliptic lift distribution over a I

and a span of 46 ft has an aspect ratio or- 7.74. The rectangular ,,ring
. ,, ,l * ing.
rvould have a uniforrn chord of b.g^1 ft and coulcl not be built es st'orrgl1,
as the tapered rving. After the aspect r-atio is fourrd tl,e intluced rlilg
coefficient rnd i.rduced angle of attack can be fou'tl in thc ordi.ar.j,
manner.

PROBLEMS
10.11.1. A Douglas Transport has a span of g6 ft. The center section
is 30 ft wide. The chord ;rt the .oot is lb ft,. The trailing edge is straight,
the leeding edge is s.,rrpt back. Both leading and trailing edges,rr,,
tangent to circular tips of 4-ft radius. (o) What is the aspect ratio?
(b) TVhat is the Co; when C; : 0.8?
Frc. 10.9. Finding aspect ratio of tapered wing. 10.i1.2. A certain transport has a span of 57 lt 0 in. The fuselage is
I ft wide. The wing chord at the root is 14 ft 0 in. The leading edge is
EXAMPLE straight, and both leading and trailing edges are tangent to circular
r lrrpr,red wing is shown.in Fig. 10.9. The span is 46 ft. The width tips 2 ft 6 in. in radius. (a) lVhat is the espect ratio? (b) \l'hat is Co;
r' r'lrrge is 4 ft. The chord at the root is 8 ft. Both leading and trailing whenCt- L.2?
' rrrc Langent to a circle of Lft radius at the tip. What is the aspect 10.11.3. A transport has a 71-ft span. The fuselage is 6 ft rvide. The
wing chord at the root sectioriis 13 ft. The leading edge is'straight, and
both leading and trailing edges are tangent to circular tips 3 ft g in. in
Length ol CO: /(6), + (19f : 19.93 radius. (o) What is the aspbct ratio? (b) What is Cp; when Cr, is 0.9?
Length of CH: ./-1s.l'SB), 12Y : 19.82
10.12. BIPLANE MUTUAL INTERFERENCE
Angle EOC - t"n-t 9 : L7"321
'I'he air flowin; over and under a wing causes the pressure to be
19
2 less than atmospheric on the upper side of the rving and slightly
AngieCOH : cos-r : 84"14'
19.93 more than atmospheric on the underside of the wing. If another
A.ngle GOH :270" - (L7"32' + 84.14') : 16g"14, wing is placed over the first wing, the gap being relalively small,
lvreaABCD :2Xo :16.00 the lorv-pressule area on the upper side of the loiver rving rvill be
A.reaBGOC :19 X (2+8) X+:95.00 affected by the high-pres:ure area on the underside of the upper
r
CONITDCTION FOR ASPECT RATIO EQUIVALENT MONOPLANI' ASPI]CT RATIO I83

i. ,rr{l vice versa. O\\'ing to the proximity of the upper rving,
,,:,urc on the upper side of the los'er rving
rvill not be so low
1,,
t rlr.rr: rvere no upp€r wing. The pressure on the underside of
,r;,p.r rving rvill not be so high as if there were no lorver rving.
,r,Ilition, the vortices on each rvin; have interaction on each
:' r, ,,, th&t added drag is prociuced on each rving b-v the presence
i,,
'l,her rving. This has the same effect as reducing the aspect
o is callcd lhc Prandtl interference factor. Figure 10.10 gives
values of o plotted against ratio of gap to mean span for various
values of p tvhere p is the ratio of the shorter to the longer span.
Thc arlded dlag on the upper *'ing produced b1- the los.er n.ing
is the ssme as the added drag on the lorver rving proclucetl by tlrc
upper rving. The total added drag has trvice tlrc valuc of that
for a single rving. 'Ihen the total induced drag of a biplane is

i lr. r,:rSorS for not having an airplane designed as a monoplane n _ Lr' ,2oLtLz , Lr"
.vr,rirl. If the rveight is too great to be carried on a single "i - Tqbtz - - (10.r3.1)
"qbrb, ",,,b;
., llrc designel resorLs to a biplane. A biplane has greater The ratio of the lift of the rving n'ith the slror.t,:r s1)rn /,2 to fhe liil
,,, ,rvt:r'iibility than a monoplane. Probably some airplanes are of the s'ing r,'ilh the longer span 1,1 is called r. 'lhen Li - rLr
Ir rr:, biplanes merely because lhe dcsigner has a predilection and the rotal lift L : Lt * rL, : rr(l + r) : Lz * ez/r).
I N{aking fhese substitutions in Eq. (10.13.1) for inclr:ccd dr.ag of
'l'l;tttt's.
tl,, 11r'clLer the gap betrvccn the tvings, the less rvill be the a biplane gives
rl.rcnc€ betleen t,he rvings. The biplane having an infinite
,, l', 1\\een the rvings rvill havc no mutual rving inberference, and
![G+i "G;)(#) (#)"1
,,',lrrced drag rvill be solcly the induceci drag of each rving.
,' tr,'rLll\', of course, the gap must be finite. Each tving might be
D,: TqL
. D1-
+_l
(p0')' llr (pbr )
-J
lr irs s canrilever monopl&ne u'ing, but the internal bracing L2 f/ I \; 2or r2 I
:
',1,1 lrc excessive. Very simple struts bc'-,veen rvings tvill permit
, \ rrroderat€ '.vlng spans to be used. Struts act as colJmDS, &utl,
*;.,,L\t .,/ +
u1t;7 +;it;7j
,r,,'Htp is undu\y big, the struts are excessively long and the
,,r, lrrre is weak. It is us.al to make the gap a,pproximately equal
:;qb1L--nt;f--l
L2 fpz + 2opr + r21
(ro 13 2)

rl'' mean chord. If the gap-chord ratio is greater than l, the The coefficielt of iuduced drag for a bipla.ne may then be found.
.,rr trrre becomes weak; if the gap-chord ratio is less than l, the
,,trrrrl drag interference becomes excessive. Any departure from cpgs: Grys)'z
(P2
t2oP' +'\
.1' ,lrord ,atio of unity is ustrally for reasons of visibility. rQbr2 p21l + r)2
, il T,TQUMLENT MONOPLANE ASPECT RATIO (10.13.3)
I'rrrrr<ltl has proved that in a biplane the added induced drag on
,, ,,l Lhe rvings caused by the other rving is This bears a strong resemblance to the expression for induced drag
coefficient for a monoplane, viz.,
oLrLz
Ct'
rqbtb2 Cpi:
rA.R.
lr.rc L1 and b1 ere the lift and spen, respectively, of one wing
L2 and b2 are the lift and Bpen of the other rving Theexpressi""T|m]isthereforecalle.1.theequiva-
q is (p/2)V2
lent monoplane aspect ratio of a biplan6, abbreviated E.M.A.P.:
o is a dimensionless factor dependent on the ratio of gap to
avera.ge span and on the ratio of i,ire shorter to longer
8pan.
EMAR:+l#r] (10,13.4)
 CORTIECTION FOR ASPECT RATIO BEST LIFT DISTRIBUTION IN A BIPLANE I&5

EXAMPLE
Find the equivalent monopl&ne aspect r&tio of a biplane rvith rec-
tanguiar wings; upper apan 40 ft, upper chord 4 ft 10 ix., lorver span
32 ft, lower chord 3 ft 9 in., gap 4 ft 6 in.
Solution.

u:?:0.,
40

Gup
IlIean span
:1{
36
: u.rru

From Fig. 10.10, o : 0.56.

Area, upper rving : 40 X 4.83 : 193.2 sq ft
Area, lorver rving : 32 X 3.75 : 120.0 sq fb
Total area : 313.2 sq ft : S

l2o'o- 0.62r:r
193.3

(40)' (0.8), (1.621)'

E.]\{.A.R. :
313.2 (0.8), + (: X 0.56 X 0.8 X 0.621) + (0.62r):
: 5'43

PROtsLEivIS
10.13.1. Find the equivalent moni,plane aspect ratio of a biplane n'it!:
rectangular wings; upper span 43 ft 9 in., upper chord 6 ft 0 in., lorver
span 38 ft 3 in., lower chord 5 ft 3 in., and gap 5 ft 6 in.
10.13.2. Find E.M.A.R. of a biplane with rectangular s'ings; uplxr
span 28 ft 0 in., upper chord 4 ft 0 in., lorver span 25 ft 3 in., lorver chord
3 ft 0 in., and gap 50 in.
10.13.3. Find E.M.A.R. of a sesquiplane rvith rectangular rvings;
upper span 25 ft 0 in., upper chord 4 ft 6 in., lower span 15 ft 0 in.,
lower chord 3 ft 0 in., and gap 45 in.
i0.13.4. Find the E.M.A.R. of a biplane rvith rectangular wings;
upper spsn 27 tt 0 in., upper chord 4 ft 6 in., lower span 22 ft 0 in.,
lower chord 4 ft 6 in., gap 4 ft 6 in.
10.13.5. trrnd the E.M.A.R. of a biplane with rectangular rvings;
upper span 38 ft 0 in., upper chord 9 ft 0 in., lower span 38 ft 0 iD.,
lower chord I ft 0 in., gap I ft 0 in.

o.0r o.02 0.03 0, 10.i4. BEST LIFT DISTRIBUTION IN A BIPLAITE

Ratio of gap to mean span
The trvo wings uf a biplane ca,use mutual induced drag, and the
Fro. 10.10. Prandtl interference factor. smount of this drag depends on several factors. The best perform-

rii
 IIII; CORRECTION FOR ASPECT RATIO BEST'LIFT DISTAIBUTIONitrN.I.:,'BIPLANE 187

,r, c will ire secured lvhen these faciors are so selecte:l titat the positivel that is, the slope of D; plotted agaiust r is positive. If
r is less 16uo (- :!r
,,,,lrrced drag is the least.
'l'he simplest form of biplt"^re rvould be one having equal spans the expression r - +-y is negative
l-np
,,rr,l r:qual areas. It is sometimes thoughl, advisable to have rving and the slope of D.; plotted agains', r is negative. Therefore, when
I'rrrrr:ls interchangeable, so that an upper right rving, for example,
'r,,;ry be
used as a lower right, wing, etc. It is also desirable in some , : +-, the induced rlrag of a biplane isa minimum.
,1,:iigns to make the lorver rving smaller to improve the visibility
,', lrrnding. Sometimes the l;ings are made unequal in size to aid
If eqrul spans are decided upon for theliplaue, both wings
should have the s&me &reas (and the same chords). If unequal spans
t :r I rility.

'l'he expression ere decided upon, the areas should be divided so that there is least
ou
pz(t + i2 indtrced drag, that is, r is made'equal tou.'- : .url o
EM.AR.:T[; l-op (l/p)-o
Slrr2+2opr*r2 f-
I If the dimensions of the biplane have been so chosen as to give
I
minimum induced drag, r: (p2 - 6p)/(l - op) may be sub-
,,,rrl,rLins three factors, F, r, and o. To find the relation of these
,stituted in the expression for E.M.A.R. given in Eq. (10.13.a):
;rrilbles s'hich rvill give the minimttm induced drag, the expression
'
r,'r (llag may'be differentiated. If it is differentiated rvith rcspecl
l,r 1r, th€ ratio of spans, the solution for r, ratio of lift, is inapplica-
E.i\{.A R.(Mi n.Di) :+(t#;!) r,o rn ,l
1,1,, Differen'uiating rvith respeci to r gir.es
EXAMPLE
dD; L2 dfp'+2opr]-r21 A hiplane is to have a 3Gft Bpen on the upper wing and a 27-f.t span
dr - nqbr2 drl p2( + r)- J on the lower wing; the gap is to h. 4 fi, 6 in. What should be the ratio
of the a,ea of the lower wing to the aree of the upper wing? If rectangrt-

_l
7ztv , (l
2
-"i(,-=)1 lar wings are used, what should be the chords? What \vill be the E.M.A.R.
if total area is 4ff) sq ft?
oqbr2 | (l +r)3 I Solution.

l'lris differential of the induced dras @D;)/dr is equal to zero when h: 0.9 ! : t.tt
br
when (1 - op) : 0, rvhich is impossible, or rvhen
bz
, . infinity,
Gap
: 4'5 :
tt2 - op 0.1b8
Mean span 28.5
L-op
From Fig. 10.10,
l\lnthematically, rvhen r has this
-t
valug the induced drag may be o 0.538
.it,her a maximum or a minimum. It should be noted that p is the =
lrLtio of the smaller to rhe larger span, so thet ir is alwaye either 7'a-
0.9 - 0.638
rrnity or less than unity. Prandtl's interference factor c is allays 1.11 - 0.688
lose +.han unity. Then the product cp is always less than unity - 0.032
rrnd the quantity L - op is ahvays positive, If r is greater in value
Therefore, the arep of the lower wing rhould b€ 0,632 times the area of
. y|-ort tt?-ott ls po8luve ano,dD;, ls
tttanlQ, tne expre8slonr - L _ oF ?t
the upper wing. The arta of both winge will be 1.632 times the erea of
the upper wing, or the area of the upper wing will be l/L.632 or 0.613
r
r.,'l CoRRECTION FOB .T"gPECT RATIO EQUTVALENT MONOPLANE SPAN 189

I llrr. lotal aree. . t i'G +'Y

expressionlTffiis;aIledtheappbrentspanfactoror
Sr:0.613X400
Munk's Bpan factor and is usually represented by the symbol &:
- 245.2 sq lb
Br:400-245,2 , I p21L+r12
tc:
- 154.8 sq ft l17 + z*;E
245.2 p(l + r)
-30
Ct:-
{p2 +2orp*rz
(10.15.1)

= 8.17 ft
When this factor k is used, the'expression for E.M.A.R. of a
154.8
c": -n- biplane becomes

: 5.73 It E.M.A.R. : q+ (10.15.2)

E.'\{.A.R. : ry(Lis+rr) The expression for induced drag coef8cient becomes

(30)'?Il -2x0. 538 x 0.e + (0.e) ,] a

co,: Ct2S
(10 15.3)
:-t-
4oo L I - (0.53E), ffi
= 2.66 The expression for induced drag becomea

PROBLEMS n.- L' (10.15.4)

"'- oqXk2bf
10.14.1. A biplane rvith rectangular rvings is to have sn upper spen
,,1 :10 ft, a lower span of 24 ft, and a gap of 4 ft. What should be the Being used in these expressions exactly in the same manner as b,
rrrlio of lower chord length to upper chord length to secure minimum the span for a monoplane, the term (kb1) is called the apparent
,r',luced drag?
span or equivalent monoplane span.
10.14.2. Assuming wing arras have been ehosen for minirnum induced
,lrrrg, what is the E.M.A.R. for a biplane with a total wing erea of 350
EXAMPLE
ru1 ft, upper span of 30 ft, lower span of 25 ft, and a gep of 4 ft?
10.14.3. What is the E.M.A.R. of a biplane with equal spans of 24 ft, Find equivalent monoplane span of a biplane whose upper span ie
, rrr:h wing having &n area of 90 sq ft, gap being 3 ft? ft, ancl area
32 ft, lower span 23 ft, gap 4.63 ft, aree of upper wing 152 eq
10.14.4. What is the E.M.A.R.'of e biplane whose upper span is of lower wing 120 sq ft.
itl ft 7 in., lower span 29 ft 5 in., total area 298 sq ft, gap 75 in.? Assume Solulim.
l,lrlt areas have been chosen for minimum induced drag.
10.14.5. lVhet is the E.M.A.R. of a biplane, the span of both upper u:?:
'32 0.87e
rrnd lower wings ot which is 30 fi, the choid of cach wing is 5 ft 3 in.,
lnd the gap 4 ft 10 in.? Gap 4'53
:0.152
Meen ePan
- 30.5
rr.l5. EQUMLENT MONOPLANE SPAN
trYom Fig. 10.10, o : 0.54.
The aspect ratio for a monoplane beiug b2/S and the equivalent
rnonoplane 8sp€ct rstio of a biplane u"ios ,:t3: o.zg
Uffffir, t,n" 152
 't..
. '-:i i. .r : '1::' i "GRouND'bFFEcr :" "
coRREdrior.r' rPd' esPEcr RATIO 191

0.879 X 1.79 real rving, the gap of the fictitious biplane is 2z feet. If the lift
k: of the real wing is i, the lift of the "im&ge" wing is -L. The
spans of both wings are equal.
: 1.07
Early in this chapter, it rvas stated that the added induced drag
k\: 1.07X32 in a biplane due t'o the drag on one wing induced by the other
- 34.2|t wing is
cLtLz
PROBLE},{S
t"ut::noplane
10.15.1. Find the equiv&lent monopl&ne sp&n of an airplane: are& of
ut)per wing 134 sq ft, &rea of lower wing 126'8 sq ft, upper 6p&n 30 ft, fi,e aaaea induced ur", wing with lift .L and
l,rwer span 27.6 ft, gap 4 ft I in.
"r
span b due to &n "image" wing with lift -.L and span b is
10.15.2. Find',he equivslent monoplene spr.in of &n &irplane: &l'e& of oL(-L) oL2
ut)per wing 192 sq ft, &nea lower wing 120 sq ft, upper span 32 ft, lower
rlrrn 26 f.t, gap 4 fb7llin. -cT-: -@
10.15,3,Itind the equivalent monoplene span of a training plane: and the total induced drag of a monoplane wing, close to the
rrren of upper rving 164 sq ft, ere& of lower wing 130.2 eq ft, upper and ground, is
l,n'er spnne each 38 ft 6r/2in,, gap 4 ft 8 in.
10,15,4. Find the oquiv&lent monoplane spa:r of &n ol)riervation air'- -r). - L2 oLz

plane: ere& of upper wing 225 sq ft, '- no|' rqbz

are& of lower wing 165 aq ft, upper
span 4l ft, lorverapanS0 ft, grp 5.35 ft.
10,16,6. Find the equivalent mono-
planl rpan of a Fleet Trainer: aree of
eeah wing 06,85 eq ft, upper and lorvor
Bpenr.eech 27.9 ft, gap 4 ft 3 in.
rO.1S. GROUND EFFECT
- tD
-,ft(l -o)
Therefore, eE the result of being close to the ground, the induced
drag is lees by an amount Gf'\ /krqb2), whero a is Prandtl's inter'
ference faotor for the cas€ where p (ratio of spans) ie equal to unity.
The ooefficient of induced drag ie therefore

In Section 3.6, it waa etated that cpt=+ e - r)

in flying closa to the ground ther"
ie a slightly greaier lift. Close to the and the E,M,A.R, beoomee
ground, the etreamlines perallel the
l0,ll. ground surface Bo that the angle of E,M.A,R. = ,S(i
='-o'o).
l'rc, Monoplane imoge
wing' attack needed to give any particu-
-
lar CL ie less than in the absence The induoed angle of attack becomes
of the ground, and the phonomenon of added lift ig the reeult. It
may be explained by the induced drag theory uoing a conception of d,t'fiCrS (r
.-
- d) r&ol&n6
a "mirror" wing. 'When a plane ig flying a+, the Bame geometrio angle of attack,
A monoplane wing flying at low altitude aots if it
were one
&E
rving of an imaginary biplane, the other (hypothetical) wing being cloee to the ground the induced angle of attack ie leos and the
inverted and ag far below ground level as the real wingis abovo effeotive engle iB gcater: the lift is greater and the drag is lese.
ground level, as showD in Fig. 10.11. U a feet is the altitude of the Calculations made in tbis way agree closely with actual teets.
T
I1)2 CORRECTION FOR ASPECT RATIO GROUND EFFECT 193

EXAI,IPLE Drag:0.0614xTx216XmO
A monoplane rvith a Clark Y wing, 3&ft span, and &ft chord i: flying 2
lr,vel with the rving making a true engle of l0o rvith the horizontal rvith . 159 Ib
,,rr airspeed of 100 ft per sec. (o) What ere the lift and the wing drag ar,
,,,rt level, if ground effect is neglected? (b) What are the lift and the wing PROBLEMS
,lrng if the wing is 4 ft sbove the ground? 10.10.1. low-wing Lockheed monoplane has a span of bE ft and total
Solution. From Fig. 8.8, at c of L}o, C y : 1.07 and Cp : 0,077. wing a*e of
-4'
458.3 eq ft. rf the wing rvere rectangular and of clark y
soction, whet woulc be thc lift and the drag when the plane is ffying levei
r,,) Lift : 1.07 ,oi r 216 X 100' :2,7481b ot 6o angle of attack at an airspeea ot iAS mph (o) if rvhen
;;;";i
effect is neglected and (b) when ground efiect is taken into u..ount, ih"
: Pj : rving brring 5 ft above the ground?
Drag 0.077 X X ZrO X mOz 198 lb
2 ,t" 10.16.2. A monoplane with n Clark y rving, 40-ft span, sncl b_ft ch.rrl
is flying level at a 12" angle of attack, 5 ft above the ground at an air-
(/,) Srq : *.tu : o.rr, (From Fig. to.lo, a : 0.46.) epeed of 130 mph. What are the lift and the drag?
Dp&n
E.I\{.A.R.- 6 :1l.ll
1 - 0.46
lirrrce, for aspect ratio oI 6, Ct: 1.07 is at an angle of attack of 15"
rncosured from the angle of zero lift (-5o for Clark Y rving), the slope
,,f the straight part of the Cr, versus a curve is L.07/15.
For aspect ratio of 11.11, the engle of attacl: ncesured from t.he angle
,rf zero lift for Cl : 1.07 is

a : lbo - r8.24x r.o7 >< (* -

: "1n)
13.50"
'l'hen the slope of the lift curve for aspect ratio of 11.11 is 1.07/13.5, and
lt l0o angle of ottack (15" from angle of zero lift)

ct:tlti#:r.re
Lift : 1.19 x&x 216 x 100-2
2

:3050Ib
t,'rom Fig. 8.8, for ospect ratio of 6, when C r, : 1.19, Co : 0.096; then,
fur aspect ratio of 11.11,

: (l'ts)'/r
cp o'096 - - -1-\
" \6 LL.LL/
0.0614
T
_
\i
EFFECT OF MACH NUMBER ON CONTINUITY I95
ll. t1.2. EFFECT OF MACH NUMBER ON CONTIT rilTy
In Chapter 2, Lhe equr+,ion of continuity for the florv of gases
was developed:

Scale and dp,d'V.dA :0

;t v * A (2.5.5)
Compressihility Effects
1.4
1.3
, ,\l,li EFFECT t,2
,,rr r.rrlli€r chapter,it rvas stated that the forces due to air Ll
,,rr rL body depend on the size of the body, the air density, 1.0
', 0.9
rrr.rrr luru'e of the relltive velocity. This ie one way of statinll
,1,,.,,r'forces depend on the maus of 0.8
air per unit time meeting cL 0.7
lr'. 'l'hcse forces are inertia forces. Reynolds number is a
,', ,rl t.he ratio of inertia force to viscous force. A changc in
0.5 -t
0.5
, 'l'l:r nrrmber may affect the forces on a body. If t]:e lift und I
R.N..5.9 x l( )5
0.4
. ,,,,'llicients of a tving lre computed from rvind-tunnel tests 0,3
R,N,.3,3 x I )D
r' ,,t one ileynolds number, these coefficients may be differenl 0,2
R,N..l,l x106
', tlrc rving is subjected to air moving pasi it ll a different 0,1
,, ,l,ls number, 0 (a)

,,1r r'r ll.la ehon's the effect of differont Reynolds numbers on -50
t'tt, coeffici€Dt for a typical rving, At small anglee of attack, a 0.016
=,,y." in Reynolds number hac a negligibia effect on the lift 0,0t4
it' rrrnt. With large Reynolds numbers, the Cr,.o. is increaeed 0.012
,, tlrrr angl€ of maximum lift coefficient, This increase does not Co^
" 0,010
= ', irrrlefiniteiy. I.argo Roynoldn nu:rbers usually mean high o.@8
,,'1,y, and at high speeds tho effecte of oompression maek oub
0,006
, ll,.r:ts of Reynolds number.
0,6
it,,, r'ffeci of Reynoldc number on the prof;io drag coefficient, Ct
,, Blro\yn in Fig. I1.lb. Very little change ie caueed by a change
Flo. 11.1. Effoot of R,N. on lift and drag ooeffioientr.
'l',, lleynolde number, although, at lower Reynolds numbere
',r, llrose eholn in the figure, the profile drag coefficient is much
gl rrrl'.
Bernoulli'e equation for gases is
tlu' Ileynolde number of approximately 6,000,000 sholn as a
. in the figure represents an airplane rving of average size
r,,l line -dp - vdv (2.6.1)
.,.l,,ut etalling speed, In any calculations, data should be used P

, "r lcsts run at the highest Reynolds numirer obtainable, or

194 dp- -pv dv (11,2.1)
 r
SCALE AND COMPRESSIBILITY EFFI'C"TS
:' CRITICAL VEI,OCITY 197
ron for the velocity of sound is
M (:V/a) is zero. Equation (1I.2.4) reduces to Eq. (2.5.5a)
a2: 4 (3.5.3) rvhen M equals zero.
dp It rvill be seen that for a compressible flow, if the velocity of the
fluid is less than the velocity of sound, M 1 l, dA and d,V are of
dp : a2 ilp (1r.2.2) opposite sign; that is, an increasing a,rea means a decreasing
velocity, a decreasing area, means an increasing velocity. Il M > i,
-rrrry, the two expressions for dp, F,q. (11.2.1) and (11.2.2), dA and dV have the same sign; that is, an increasinj area means
increasing velocity, a decreasing area me&ns decreasing verocity.
: -pV d,V
o2 dp When M equals exactly l, Eq. (11.2.4) is meaningless.
d,p V dV It is to be noted that for a non-compressible fluicl a decrease of a
pa- D certain percentage in area means an increase of the same per-
centage in velocity; rvhereas for compressible fluicls *'ith rf ( I
v2 dv the per cent of change in velocity for a given per cent of change in
' azv
(11.2,3)
area decreases as Iy' increases.
Dividing Eq. (2.6.1) by - Z2 gives
l,,t (3.8.1), )Iach number 11 is the ratio oi velocity Iz to
r,,.,., I of sound o, or dV dp
v
ivl'^v2
Pv'
:
.r ,rrp1
E
this substitution in Eq. (11.2.3) gives
:w dp

tP/ p
:
4!
pV -x1tdv Substiluting a2 for ypf p and tr12 for. V)/a2 gives
lrlrrting this value for dp/p in the equation for continuity dV
r:1 5.5), gives -v:*P dp

-u'ff +ff _L--

dA
,A 0
Substituting this value f.or
dA /r
-d,V/V in Eq. (11.2.4) gives

A
-:I
1\4
/tp
(r1.2.5)
dA ^dv
,4: -(r - 1,1') v G1.2.4)
1, so that l\/M\ - \/Qil
"M2 if
As pressure can never be negative, II < l, iiM2 is greater than
on the right-hand side o1this equa_
It,,, slrould be compared rvith Eq. (2.5.5a), the equation of con- tion is positive. This means thut dA has the same sign as d.j; if
,,,rrr l,y for non-compressibie fiuids, ,4. is increasing, p is increasing. In terms of florv, if a Jream iube
dA dV is contracting in s-ze, the pressure is decreasing and vice versa.
(2.5.5a) If. M > l, the reverse is true.
AV
l"rrr-a truly non-compressible substance, dp : 0; then the veloc- 1I.3. CRITICAL VELOCITY
,r1 rrf sound tGl,tp/ap), is infinite and the Mach number, Whenever the velocity of the air flowing around a wing reaches
of sound at any point in its path, a sudden change
Che velocib5r

I
T
ri l!
L

t.-
ti'
SCALE AND CO}fPRESSIBILITY T]FFIJCTS CRITICAL VELOCITY 199

, ,;rlrLce in the characteristics of the rving. This change, called

velocity of sound rvill be less than rvhen under standard pressure.
',,r'r,'ssibility burble, is caused by the formation of a shock rvave. If the pressure is I per cent less than standard, the speed of sound
r, 1,r{'sence of a shock \.,'ave on a rving causes a great change in
rvill be roughly )( of I per cent less than under standard pressure;
I'r':;sure distribution over the tving.'fhere is also a tremendous if the pressure is 10 per cent less than standard, the speed of sound
,',.ic in the drag, chiefly becau'se the acfion of the shock rvavc n'ill be approximately lrh per cent less than under standard
, , :, l,lre florv to follorv the ccntour of the rving surface no longer;
pressure.
' r :uls€s burbling. In the flow of air about an airplane wing, a^ssociated with in-
t,, t llrapt€r 7, it rvas stated that, in florving over the top of a
creased velocity is decreased pressure and associated rvith de-
"r', rl,c streamlines are crowded together. As the stream tubes crea^sed pressure is a decrease in the speed of sound. It is important
',rrrr' sm&ll€r the velocity increases, and with greater velocity to knorv l'hen the critical condition of the air velocit_v equaling the
I'r'ssure is decreased. This velocity increase must not be such .peed of sound is re:rcired. From Rernoulli's lar,r', Iit1. (3.6.3),
,r ;rl, irny place it equals the velocity of sound at that place or a
r12
, L n'.,ve rvill forrn. Vu' 7 Po
'-I (3.6.3)
t t,, r'blocity of sound in air ar, sea level under sta.ndard condi- 2 't-r 2- t-L
, r:; 1,118.2 ft per sec (761 mph). Under other than standard
,, l t r()rrs, the speed of sound in air l'ill be different. By llq. (3.5.J),
r
Srrlrstit.trting a2 : lp/p and os2 : ^ypo/po
V' _ o' :Vo' _ do2 6j
O:\i;Frp 2 'z-l 2 't- l 6.-

, /v - |

;:" tl'f,*
Fi, (rr'3 r)
a-l-
\2 5.r):^'(+ Vo'
o42
-l_
I

')
Since M : V/a and Ms : Vo/ao,
l,,.rr: os is the speed of sound rvhen the pressure is ps and the
density is pe
o is the speed of sound with pressure p and density p. a- +Mo'+l
Q02
r,,,rrr the adiabatic relation that p varies as p7,
+M2+r
T: (h)''' The critical condition occurs rvhen M: 1; that is, rvhen V : a:
,l,,.lituting this in Eq. (11.3.1) gives V,,, 6- DMoz +2 (11.3.2)
a _ (P\('-r)t2'l ;F r+l
ae \po/ EXAMPLE ,
r.,r rtir, ?= L.4i then for air An airplane is flying at 480 mph at an altitude of 20,000 fi. Whet
is the critieal speed of air flow about the wing?

h= (k)" Solulion,
-
7o 480 mph
l'hie means that, if air is under less than gtandard preesure, the
- 704 lt per rec
 iIcAI,Ii AND COMPITIJSSIBILITY L|F!'!'CTS
cRrrrcAl, inSSSUnO mt
Lt,l,. l.l,
11.5. CRITICAL PRESSURE
: 13.75 in. Hg
ir)20,000 Critical pr€ssure p'is the local pressure at the point in the air
_
p2o,ooo : 0.001267 slug per cu ft florv rvhere M : 1.0 tr,nd the velocity is Vu. From bernoulli's larv,
Eo. (3.6.3),
,.n*tnt'txl3.zb
t2
ao=
0.001267 i:ej+| er,, - v,)
1,036.6 ft per sec Substituting tle a.diabatic relation p : po(p/po)rtr,

tr[o: 704
i,036.6 *(?)'''
:Pr ++ (voz _ vz)
0.6791 Multiplying by pe/pe gives

I'- :1,03(i.0ffi P)t:-trrr

- l +-2tpo (vo, - I,r)
Po/
: 988.9 ft pcr sec ;
= 074.3 mph Subslituting p", for p, V for I/, and ae2 for tpo/po,
",
PROBLE}1S
; I
An airplane is flying at 480 mph at an altiturle of 30,000 lt. 1"')t'-"" : r+| go' - v,,'\
, , tlrc cliticll vclocity?
?t / 2aa

r ' An ailplane is flying at 540 mlth ar an altitude of 30,000 ft.

r
From Eq. (u.s.2), v",2 : making
'. tlrc critical velocity?
t t An airplanc is flying at 600 mph at an altitude of 30,000 ft. this substitution,
^,I#]and,
r , critical velocity?
l.lrc
I An airplane is flying at 1,000 mph at sea level. \yhat is the
(q.)'-"" : r *
r
,t r,'locity?
tr, An airpllne is flying at 500 knots in rrr at -S0"F. Whut is
#{rr _ a, lg__D!t 'll
,,tr,:tl velocity? Substituting Ms2 f.or Vo?/oo'and reducing gives
, I'III'fICAI, }TACH NUI,IBER /p",\(-')t' 2*6-l)Mo'
, t,, r:r'itical N'Iash number is the lon'est free-stream N.{acl: \pol r* I
, r r.r rrL rvhich there is a critical velocity at any point on the or
t lt is the free-stream Macrh nrrmber at rvhich a local N{ach
,,,1,, 1sf unity is first reached at any point in the airflorv. ?cr:Pc\/2+h-l)Moz\r/tz-tr
?+l i
(11.5.1)
r', ilrr: example in the preceding section, at the free-stream
, I' rrrrmber of 0.679 the critical velocity rvas 674 nph. If, rvhen . In Chapter 7_, the pressure distributicn over & rving surfice was
, r. irl, an airspeed of 480 mph, the air florv about the'n,ing or given in terms of a nondimensional coeficient P [: (p pi/Co].
,l,t',c was such as to cause a local velocity of.674 mph,0,679
-
,l,l lre the critical Mach number. qo:-z
-
P2Vo'
f
SCALE AND COMPRESSIBILITY I'FFECTS LIF'T AT SI'BSONIC SPEEDS 203

-. t tt.l4.5
^lPcv o- M^:
- -----:-
- 2tpo l,079

9o
: 0.783

lPoMo2 : + o'r667(0'783;:r;r s - 1l
- 2 '- +#,{to'sare
-: :0.4ii6
,,,,',riluting this value of q and the value of p", from Eo. (ll.5.l)
' tlrr: cxpression for P gives
PROBLE}IS
f2+Q-l)I1o
eol +I ]?/(?-r)
-Ps 11.5.1. For an airplane flying at.{00 knots lt 25,000 ft 0ltitutle, fiDrl
I)
- " tPotr[ tlre clitical value of the plessure coefticient'
11.5.2. Fpr an airplone flying tt 450 knots in lril lt -;15"1', finri thc
o2

2 cliticnl value of the pressule coefficient.

I 1.5.3. For on airlllanc flying at 600 mplr :rt ''er.r leYel, rvlrrt is l).'?
: :_-l ( -r- +' - |
ltIn z)''t'-tr - r] (u.5 2) ll.r.J. For an airpl&ne flying at 600 mplt in air at -(l0"Ir' rvlrrtf is
vjlo2l\r*l'?+1"'" l) ,
ll.J.5. l'or.ilrr airpkrne flying l't 530 mph at all llltituclc of I0'0(x) ft,
f ,'r :rir, l : 1.4.
ivlrrt is P",?
D _ 1429 [(0.8333 + 0.1667i102)3'5 - 1]
P,,: (11.5.3)
W II.6. LI}"I AT SUBSONIC SPI]EDS
ll the pressure coefficienl P ever reachbs this value, shock Srtbson;c speeds are any speeds belo$'rtrl : l'0' At lo$-er speeds
'',tlr.s rvill occur. than half the speed of sound, compressibility has only & minol
ln Section 7.6, the pressure coefficients rvere given for an sir effect on the air flow. As the airspeed increases, the air florv abottt
tl,rrl about a rving at a 16o angle of aitack. At one point on ihe upper
a rving changes so that the pressure distribution is r-adically
,rrr l:rce, P equaled
-6.23.If the u'ing is flying uI 352 ft per sec at different.
:
','rr level, Mo 0.32 antl P.,
: -6.23. Then 0.32 is the critical In Fig. 11.2 are shown pressure distribution curves for a typical
l\lrrr:h number for that conciition of florv. To fly at that speed, the
airfoil. the ordinates a,re values of P : (p - pd/c'Ir rvill be
,rrnglvould have to be at a lesser angle of attack, rvhere the pres-
noted that there.is only a slight difierence between the curves for
,rrc coemcient rvould have a smaller value.
\Iach number of 0.19 and of 0.51. For a ivlach number of 0.7{
there is considerable difference, and it is probable that at some
EXANiILE
point on the upper surface 6onic speed has been reached'
What is the critical value of the pressure coefficient P for an airplane The change in pressure distribution over the chord is accom-
ll, ilg at 500 knots in air at 25'F?
penied by a change in the lift and drag coefficients. Figure 11.3
Solulion. ail
strows the changes in cr, and c o for different Mach numbers,
500 knots : 844.5 ft per sec the results being for the same angle of attack. It will be noted that,
Ity Eq. (3.5.7), at a Mach number between 0.6 and 0.7, the value of C; drops
sharply ivhile the value of Cp increases rapidly'
o : 48.02 \65 + 48
Up io the critical Mach number, Cr, ehows a sli;ht increase rvich
"4
: 1,079 ft per aec increasing r1l. Prandtl and Glauert proved that, if the airfoil is
 SCAI,E AND COMPRT]8f'IBILITY DFFI'CTS
LIFT AT SI]BSONIC SPEEDS n6
- 1.4
thin -and the angle of attack is small,
-1.2 .2-_-
\I Cu
vL- (11.6.1)
-0.8
/,/ \ VI - M,z

/,1 : \- where C4 is the lift coefficient for incompressible flow

-0.4
i/ Cz, is the lift coefficient for a compressible flow at a free-
0

0.4
r
1.. \
As Eq.
stream Mach number of M*
(ll.6.t) is true for small angle of attack,

At1 ,:
ach
0.8
M=A.D
M =C.51
-vL \/T -W
M=0.74
t.2 Dividing this equation by Aa gives
l0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 lo0
Chorct per cent AC ro

Frc. 11.2. Effect of Ntlach numbcr on chord-\\,ise AC r A.t

(11.0.2)
pressure distribution. L.a \./ j - XI
"2

0.9
rvhele ACy.o/Aa is lhe slope of Lhe C r vel'sus a curve for incom-
pressible flow
0.8 LCr/Aa is the slope for a ':ompressible flos' at a free-
I stream Mach number of lu[s.
cL 0.7

EXAMPLE
0.6

\ (o) An airfoil has zerolift at -4". From tests run dt M : 0.16, C t : 0.3
0.5
a : *1.5'.
at.solution. What is the Cr, et2.5" angle of attack when M : 0.65?
n,08
AtM:0.16,
0.07 ACn: 0.3
Aa 1.5 - (-4.0)
0.06
: 0.05455
cD
0.05
LL M :0,
0.04 ACz : 0.05455 v.1 - 1O.rqz
Aa
0.03

/ : 0.05384
o.a2
(b)
At M : 0.65,
0.01
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 AC r, 0.05384
M aa Vi - (osbF
tr\c. 11.3. Effect of Mach number on lift and drag coefficients. : 0.06985
 r--a t-] t-] l-1 t-r l-l l-1 l-l r-l t-] l-l l-l r-l f-l r-t r--.1
Hr t- H E- H H El EI
--
- -

"I}Ii SCALE AND COMPRESSIBII,ITY EFFECTS DRAC AT SUBSONIC SPEEDS N7

\t ,r - 2.5", of the entire airplane, rvings plus stmcture. It is based on a number
r-rf tests made by the Army Air Force.
CL: o *aCz It is assumed that the pressure distributions are knolvn for. thc
Aa
: u'ing being used on the airplane. At the angle of zero lift, the
12.5 - r-l)l x 0.06e85 maximum value of the pressure ooefficient P is read and the l\4ach
: 0.4t'13
1.3
PRO}]LNMS
ll.6.i. On a certain s'ing, tests run &t & t\,fach number of 0. 15 give
1.2
,1 /'7 \\'hat is the lift coefficicnt at the samc angle of nttur:k *.hen
rrf 0.21.
.H
.s
1/ 0 rt?
11.0.2. l'ol rncompressible llorv, thd slope of the lift cur.\'e is 2r d t.t
lter
r,i,,,rr. \\'hat is the slope ii II :0.7?
tt {j.3. Te-sts lr.ln rrt ii JInch nurnber'.of 0.2 give I Cr. of 0.2i, \\;lrtl is
rl,, ('. iirr tl,e sarne:rngle oi uttack rvhcn M :0.75? 1.0
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
I l.n.{. I:r'onr tests :.u. ,'' trI : 0.12, a y: 0.2i; at a ,:cr.tlin rrrrgle .f M,/M",
,rlrrr k \\'lrlt is tltr: (';_ $r thc srrmc anglc of nttuek n.l,en M : 0.(\?
Flo. I l.-1. Correction foctor for drag.
I l.{l.J A r'i'g lriin zer'o iifi nt
-2o angle of attrrck. Ilrrrr. tcsts r.un
,,t ,'ll : 0.08; Cr. :0.12 nt f l.5o [ngle of rr+tar:k, \\'lrut is the Cr. at
." rrrrgle of attnek rvlren M : 0.i-rli? number that makes this pressure coefficient critical is designated
.'11,.,, At any spced giving a free-stream l{ach number .t'\y'. the ratio
; I)R.{,G AT SUBSONIC SPET]DS ,1!,')[,, is lound. 'I'he r',rrrection to be applied to the total d:ag
ctrcfficicnt for incompressible florv Cp1no. to give the i,otal drag
.\ilfoils designed for use at fairly lo"'epeeds have blunt noses, cocfficicnt for the compressiblc florv is obtained by entenng the
l,r'r'^,sc the stagnati<.rn pres$ure is relatively low and the
gruph of Fig. 11.a and reading off. Cpf Cp6o..
,',,',,r permits rr smooth florv at moderately high angles of'ounrlecl
attack.
1",,r'lorv speeds, the shape of the airfoil at the trailing edge is of
t,nrr)ur)' importunce as it, determines the sizc of thc rvake. On
,,rrloils designed for higher spcede, the lending cdge is sharp in-
,t,.rrrl of blunt, the rring is as thin as possible, and, as probably
,1,'r'r,ioped, the shapc near the troiling edge in of minor imporlance.
'l'lie implication of the Prandtl-Glouert rclation described
in thc
that the florv of compresaible fluid at subsonic
1'r,'t'eding ser:tion is
u1,,'r'tlabout a thin rving is similar to the florv of an incompressible
llrrirl about a thicker rving, the trvo thicknesses having the ratio
',1
vj-.jfi. Thig hus the effnct of changing the profile drag of the
''rrrg alighily' After critical Bpoed iB reachcd, rvhen shocl( weves
,l,t)orr drag incrcasee sharply. Bslorv this criiica! speed, either the
'lrirnge in the profile drag coefficient may be neglected entirety or,
rt glcat accuracy is desired, the following procedure may bo used.
l lri' method gives a correction to be applied to the drag coefficient